MCAT Psych/Soc Class 3: Self-Identity and Social Interactions

Mary Ainsworth

-"Strange situation experiments" where mothers would leave their infants in an unfamiliar environment to see how they would react -Securely attached infants will happily explore while mom is present, cry when mom leaves, then are quickly consoled upon return -Insecurely attached infants will not explore when mom is present, cry when mom leaves OR be indifferent

Deviance

-A violation of society's standards of conduct or expectations -Deviant behavior often violates formal and informal social norms -Deviants reject the goals of a society

Personal identity

-All the personal attributes that you consider integral to the description of who you are -Traits like "funny" or "studious"

Social identity

-All the socially defined attributes defining who you are -Includes age, race, gender, religion, occupation, etc. -Traits like "female" or "student"

Self-concept

-Also known as self-identity, self-construction, self-perspective -Includes all your beliefs about who you are as an individual

Impression management

-Also known as self-presentation -Conscious or unconscious process where we attempt to manage our own image by influencing the perceptions of others

Iron Law of Oligarchy

-As organizational structure becomes more complex, it also becomes less flexible -Revolutionary orgs inevitably become less revolutionary as their structures develop and become entrenched

Looking glass self

-Charles Cooley -Idea that a person's sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perceptions of others -"I" = the self as the subject -"Me" = the self as the object

Identity formation/individuation

-Development of a distinct individual personality -Important elements: gender, moral, psychosexual, social development -Interactions with individuals and socialization into broader cultural groups also affect this

Three factors that determine whether we attribute behavior to internal or external causes

-Distinctiveness: extent to which an individual behaves in the same way in similar situations -Consensus: the extent to which the individual is behaving similarly to other individuals -Consistency: the extent to which the individual's behavior is similar every time this situation occurs

Social learning theory

-Emphasizes how learning takes place in social contexts -Learning can occur purely through observation even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement

Attribution theory

-Explains how we understand our own behavior and the behavior of others -Given a set of circumstances, we tend attribute behavior to internal or external causes

Social stigma

-Extreme disapproval of a person or group that distinguish them socially from the other members of a society -Can arise from deviant behavior -Can also arise from uncontrollable circumstances

Factors that influence conformity

-Group size (not too small, more than 1-2) -Unanimity -Cohesion -Status -Accountability -No prior commitment

Self-schema

-How we define ourselves based on beliefs and ideas we have about ourselves -We use them to guide and organize the processing of information that is relevant to ourselves

Ideal self vs. real self

-Ideal: Who you ought to be -Real: who you actually are -Incongruity = when the real self falls short of the ideal self

Reciprocal determinism

-Interaction between a person's behaviors, personal factors, and environment -People choose their environments which in turn shape them -Personality shapes how people interpret and respond to their environment -A person's personality influences the situation to which they then react

Role-taking

-Involves understanding the cognitive and affective aspects of another person's point of view -"Social perspective taking" -Occurs over development in different stages

Secondary groups

-Larger -More impersonal -Many interact for specific reasons for shorter periods of time -Serve instrumental functions (meeting pragmatic needs)

Three key elements to persuasion

-Message characteristics: the features of the message itself, like logic and key points, length of the argument, and its grammatical complexity -Source characteristics: characteristics of people delivering the message, like expertise, knowledge, trustworthiness -Target characteristics: characteristics of the person receiving the message, like self esteem, intelligence, or mood

Anomie

-Normlessness -Individuals are not provided with firm guidelines in relation to norms and values, and there is minimal moral guidance or social ethic

Collective behavior

-Occurs when social norms for the situation are absent or unclear -More short-lived -Less conventional values influence the group's behavior and guidelines for membership -Spontaneous situations in which individuals engage in actions that are otherwise unacceptable and violate social norms -Do not reflect the existing social structure

Self-efficacy

-Our belief in our abilities, competence, and effectiveness -High self-efficacy: we believe we can affect a situation or outcome -Low self-efficacy: we do not believe we can affect a situation or outcome -Varies from task to task

Locus of control

-Our belief in whether or not we can influence the events that impact us -Internal locus of control: we believe we have control over these events -External locus of control: we do not believe we have control

"Back stage"

-Part of dramaturgical perspective -Here, we can let our guard down and be ourselves

"Front stage"

-Part of dramaturgical perspective -We play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people

Mere presence

-People are simply in each other's presence -Minding their own business -Example: grocery shopping

Labeling theory

-Perspective that argues that deviance is the result of society's response to a behavior rather than the behavior itself -Can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies

Bystander effect

-Predicts that we are less likely to help a victim when other people are present -Everyone assumes that someone else will help, so no one ends up doing anything -Everyone feels a diffusion of responsibility -Social loafing

Elaboration-likelihood model

-Proposes that there are two cognitive routes of persuasion -Central route: people are persuaded by the content of the argument itself -Peripheral route: people focus on superficial or secondary characteristics of the speech of the orator

Primary groups

-Smaller -Include people we engage with in person, in long-term and emotional ways -Serve expressive functions (meeting emotional needs)

Harry and Margaret Harlow

-Social development and attachment -Experiments on monkeys showed that when isolated baby monkeys were separated from their blankets they became very distressed because they had formed an intense attachment to the object, infant monkeys raised in social isolation are unable to fully integrate with others after group reintroduction.

Dramaturgical perspective

-Stems from symbolic interactionism -We imagine ourselves playing certain roles when interacting with others -We base our presentations on cultural values, norms, and expectation -Ultimate goal of presenting an acceptable self to others

Solomon Asch's conformity experiment

-Subjects were first asked to determine which line was most similar to a comparison line -When subjects completed this task alone, they erred less than 1% of the time -Subjects were then placed in a room with several "confederates" -On the first few tests, all of the confederates responded correctly, but then began all choosing of the incorrect lines -More than one third of subjects conformed to the group by answering incorrectly

When is groupthink more likely to occur?

-The group is overly optimistic and strongly believes in its stance -The group justifies its own decisions while demonizing those of opponents -Mindguarding -Individuals feel pressures to conform in favor of consensus

Stanley Milgram's obedience experiment

-The subject believes that the roles of "learner" and "teacher" are determined randomly, but it's actually rigged -The experimenter order the "teacher" (the subject) to give electric shocks to a "learner" who is actually a confederate -The "teacher" believes that the "learner" is receiving a shock for each wrong answer -In reality, the confederate is playing pre-recorded sounds for each shock level -In Milgram's first set of experiments, 65% of subjects kept administering shocks up to the highest level (450V)

Halo effect

-The tendency for an impression created in one area to influence opinion in another area -Physical attractiveness stereotype is a specific type of halo effect (pretty people = good, ugly people = bad)

Social Cognitive Theory

-Theory of behavior change that emphasizes the interactions between people and their environment -Cognition is also important in determining our behavior -Focuses on how we interpret and respond to external events, and how our past experiences, memories, and expectations influence our behavior

Social perception

-Understanding the thoughts and motives of other people present in the social world -Allows us to recognize how people impact us and predict how they might behave in given situations

Social comparison theory

-We all have a drive to gain accurate self-evaluations by comparing ourselves to others -Our identity will be in some way shaped by the comparisons we make and the types of reference groups we have

Deindividuation

-We may lose our sense of restraint and our individual identity in exchange for identifying with a mob mentality -Chances increased by large group size, physical anonymity (low personal responsibility), and arousing activities

Group polarization

-When groups tend to intensify the preexisting views of their members -Average view of a member of the group is accentuated -Happens because of informational influence (most common ideas to emerge are the ones that favor the dominant viewpoint) and normative influence (wanting to be accepted)

Social facilitation effect

-When the presence of others improves our performance -Tends to only occur with simple, well-ingrained tasks -Happens because arousal activates our dominant responses

Fundamental attribution error

-When we attribute another person's behavior to their personality -We tend to assume that people are how they act -We tend to underestimate the influence of the situation

Just world belief

-When we believe that bad things happen to others because of their own actions or failure to act -The world is fair and people get what they deserve, good or bad

Conformity

-When you adjust your behavior/thinking based on the behavior/thinking of others -Solomon Asch's experiments

Obedience

-When you yield to explicit orders from an authority figure -Stanley Milgram's experiments

Intentions of crowds

1. Acting crowds gather for a specific cause or goal (protests or revolutionaries) 2. Casual crowds emerge spontaneously and include people who are not really interacting (people waiting in line) 3. Conventional crowds gather for a planned event (football fans, religious congregants) 4. Expressive crowds aggregate to express an emotion (funeral attendees, concert-goers)

Three ways that behavior may be motivated by social influence

1. Compliant behavior: motivated by the desire to seek reward or avoid punishment 2. Identification behavior: motivated by the desire to be like another person or group 3. Internalization behavior: motivated by values and beliefs that have been integrated into one's own value system

Weber's characteristics of an ideal bureaucracy

1. Covers a fixed area of activity 2. Hierarchically organized 3. Workers have expert specialized training 4. Organizational rank is impersonal and advancement depends only on technical qualification 5. Workers follow set procedures to increase predictability and efficiency

Agents of social change

1. Family 2. School 3. Peer groups 4. Workplace 5. Religion/government 6. Mass media/technology

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

1. Obedience and punishment orientation: focus on the direct consequences to themselves of their actions (children) 2. Self-interest orientation: focus on the behavior that will be in their best interest, limited interest in the needs of others (children) 3. Interpersonal accord and conformity: focus on the approval/disapproval of others, try to be "good" by living up to expectations (adolescents, adults) 4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation: beyond a need for individual approval, feel a duty to uphold laws, rules, and social conventions (adolescents, adults) 5. Social contract orientation: see laws as social contracts to be changed when they do not promote general welfare (many people never reach this) 6. Universal ethical principles: morality is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles, and laws are only valid if they are grounded in justice (many people never reach this)

Stereotype threat

A self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

Moral panic

A specific form of panic as a result of a perceived threat to social order

Which of the following best explains why any given individual is less likely to help in a situation where one person is in distress and there are many people around to potentially aid this person? A. The bystander effect B. The social facilitation effect C. Groupthink D. Social loafing

A. The bystander effect A. The bystander effect occurs when an individual is in need of help and many other people are around, but no one stops to help because everyone assumes that someone else will help (choice A is correct). The social facilitation effect occurs when an individual's performance on simple, well-practiced tasks is enhanced or improved when in the presence of others (choice B is wrong). Groupthink occurs when a group of individuals, in an effort to maintain group harmony, end up easily reaching a group consensus that may be irrational or otherwise faulty (choice C is wrong). Social loafing occurs when individuals exert less effort in a group setting than they would if their performance was based solely on their personal effort (choice D is wrong).

Social cognition

Ability of the brain to store and process info about social perception

Bureaucracy

An administrative body and the processes by which it accomplishes work tasks

Ascribed status

Assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts (gender, race)

Situational attribution

Attribute behavior to external causes

Dispositional attribution

Attribute behavior to internal causes

Which of the following best illustrates group polarization? A. A jury quickly finds a defendant guilty of murder after most jury members vehemently attack a juror who suggests that the defendant might be innocent. B. All the employees in a small office report a slight preference for Joe, one of the candidates they all interviewed, before attending a meeting to decide who to hire. At the end of this meeting, they all strongly agree that Joe is the only candidate suitable for the job. C. When a teacher asks her class, "Who picked B on this question?", two students quickly put their hands down after noticing that they are the only students in the entire class who raised their hands. D. An eighth grader stops using swear words while talking with her closest friends when one of her friend's parents enter the room.

B. All the employees in a small office report a slight preference for Joe, one of the candidates they all interviewed, before attending a meeting to decide who to hire. At the end of this meeting, they all strongly agree that Joe is the only candidate suitable for the job. B. Group polarization is the phenomenon where groups tend to intensify the preexisting views of their members until the average view is more extreme than it initially was; choice B demonstrates an intensification of beliefs (choice B is correct). Choices A, C, and D do not describe the exaggeration of the initial beliefs and thus do not demonstrate the concept of group polarization (choices A, C, and D are incorrect).

All the following correctly describe concepts of mobility EXCEPT: A. Horizontal mobility occurs when an individual who was at threat to experience downward mobility somehow manages to remain at the same socioeconomic class. B. Exchange mobility occurs when parents bequeath their wealth to their children. C. Intragenerational mobility occurs when an individual who spent a significant portion of his or her life in a certain socioeconomic class moves upward or downward to a different class. D. Structural mobility occurs when an entire society undergoes socioeconomic changes that move a significant number of individuals up or down in socioeconomic class.

B. Exchange mobility occurs when parents bequeath their wealth to their children. B. Mobility refers to the ability to move up or down within the social stratification system. Exchange mobility suggests that society is made up of various economic classes and these classes maintain a relatively static number of individuals; if a certain number of individuals moved from the middle to upper class, for example, a similar number would be expected to move down from the upper class. Choice B does not described exchange mobility correctly (choice B is correct). Choices A, C, and D are all correct (eliminate choices A, C, and D).

Which of the following would an individual most likely be subject to due to one of his or her social identities? A. Social epidemiology B. Institutional discrimination C. Social isolation D. Cultural relativism

B. Institutional discrimination B. Institutional discrimination refers to unjust practices employed by large organizations that have been codified into operating processes or institutional ojectivies; social identity are the social definitions of self, including race, religion, gender, occupation, etc. Individuals can be subjected to discrimination at the hands of a large organization due to a social identity (choice B is correct). Social epidemiology is the study of the distribution of health and disease across a population using social concepts to explain patterns of health and illness; an individual would not be subject to this (choice A is incorrect). Social isolation refers to a lack of social connections. While it is true that an individual can be socially isolated, this is typically not due to one's social identities. Cultural relativism is when one judges another culture based on its own culture standards; this is not necessarily subjected to an individual, but rather, an entire culture (choice D is incorrect).

What is the primary difference between prejudice and discrimination? A. While discrimination involves biased thoughts, opinions, and feelings about a certain social group, prejudice involves acting on those discriminatory thoughts, opinions, and feelings. B. While prejudice involves biased thoughts, opinions, and feelings about a certain social group, discrimination involves acting on those prejudiced thoughts, opinions, and feelings. C. While both prejudice and discrimination include over-simplified ideas about a particular type of person or social group, prejudice can be either positive or negative, while discrimination is always negative. D. While both prejudice and discrimination include over-simplified ideas about a particular type of person or social group, discrimination can be either positive or negative, while prejudice is always negative.

B. While prejudice involves biased thoughts, opinions, and feelings about a certain social group, discrimination involves acting on those prejudiced thoughts, opinions, and feelings. B. Prejudice, by definition, involves biased thoughts, opinions, and feelings about a certain social group, while discrimination involves acting on those prejudiced thoughts, opinions, and feelings (choice B is correct), not the other way around (choice A is wrong). While stereotypes, which are oversimplified ideas about groups of people, can sometimes be positive (e.g. "women are good at communicating"), neither prejudice nor discrimination are ever positive (choices C and D are wrong).

Based on the fundamental components of symbolic interactionism, in researching homelessness, interactionists are expected to focus on all of the following, EXCEPT: A. the internalized behavioral expectations reported by those experiencing homelessness. B. the changes in modern societies that have contributed to the prevalence of homelessness. C. the micro-level inequalities in modern societies that can affect those experiencing homelessness. D. the behaviors of the homeless than can shape the experiences of those experiencing homelessness.

B. the changes in modern societies that have contributed to the prevalence of homelessness.

Social stratification can be described as: A. the division of people based on self-classification. B. the grading of individuals into hierarchal groups. C. the separation of individuals into neighborhoods. D. the division of labor based on natural abilities.

B. the grading of individuals into hierarchal groups.

Altruistic behavior

Behavior that helps ensure the success of the rest of the social group, even if it's at the expense of the indiviual

Taboo

Behaviors that customs forbid

Which of the following terms are LEAST associated with supportive and integrated social networks: A. Altruism and cultural diversity B. Prosocial behavior and coping strategies C. Closed networks, social boundaries, and racialization D. Group affinity and psychosocial development

C. Closed networks, social boundaries, and racialization C. A social network is a web of social relationships, including those in which a person is directly linked as well as indirectly connected people. Social support is the perception that one is cared for and part of a social network; these supportive resources can be tangible or emotional. Choice C describes the opposite of what we would except (choice C is correct). Choices A, B, and D are all the byproducts of supportive social networks and thus would be expected (choices A, B, and D are all incorrect).

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention suggests that more than a third of adults in the United States are considered obese. The related conditions include heart disease and other leading causes of preventable death. Non-Hispanic blacks are at the greatest risk; 48 percent in this group are considered obese. The absence of nutritious foods in certain areas is one explanation for these differences. Which of the following concepts describes this issue? A. Environmental injustice B. Ethnic enclave C. Food desert D. Residential segregation

C. Food desert C. Inequalities in modern societies create the conditions for health and illness. For example, as described in the question stem, it is often difficult to find fresh food in certain areas, such as high-population lower-income urban environments. These areas are called food deserts (choice C is correct). There is a disproportionate number of minorities of lower socio-economic status, and thus the presence of food deserts is a common explanation for the fact that almost half of non-Hispanic blacks are considered to be obese. It is common that there is an abundance of high-calorie, nutrient-poor options that contribute to the high rates of obesity in these populations. Environmental injustice and residential segregation are similar concepts, but do not describe the specific situation as well. Environmental injustice describes the fact that those in poorer communities are more often subjected to more negative environmental exposures, like pollution (choice A is wrong). Residential segregation describes the separation of groups into different neighborhoods (choice D is wrong). Residential segregation can contribute to food deserts, but this is not as specific of an answer because segregation does not necessitate this outcome. Ethnic enclaves are geographic areas with high populations of ethnic minorities (choice B is wrong). These concentrated areas can experience negative outcomes, such as occurred in immigrant slums, but this is again not necessitated. In fact, these immigrant clusters tend to have immediate benefits for new residents, such as ethnic-specific labor markets that encourage participation without the cultural barriers present in other industries (e.g., language barriers).

Which of the following is NOT an example of stereotype threat? A. Females perform worse on a test when they are told it measures their "math skills" than when they are told it measures their "problem-solving ability." B. Black males perform significantly better on a standardized test when they are told that the test is a "nondiagnostic standard laboratory measure" than when they are told the test is a "predictor of intellectual ability." C. Males perform better on a simple physical task when they are in the presence of other males than when they perform the task alone. D. Asian American males perform worse on a physical task when they are first told that "Asian Americans tend to perform worse on this task than Caucasians" than when they do not receive this message prior to attempting the task.

C. Males perform better on a simple physical task when they are in the presence of other males than when they perform the task alone.

Suppose that when an individual behaves in a negative way, she tends to blame the situation for her negative behavior, and not her personality. Which term best explains this tendency? A. The fundamental attribution error B. hindsight bias C. The self-serving bias D. confirmation bias

C. The self-serving bias B. The self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute our successes to ourselves (e.g. "I worked hard and deserved a good grade") and our failures to others (e.g. "the teacher failed me because he hates me"; choice C is correct). The fundamental attribution error occurs when we tend to blame dispositional factors for others' behavior (e.g. "he yelled at me because he's a jerk"; choice A is wrong). The hindsight bias is the tendency to believe that an event was predictable after it has already occured (choice B is wrong). The confirmation bias is the tendency to search only for information that confirms a preconceived conclusion (choice D is wrong).

All of the following statements are true EXCEPT: A. If an individual achieves a much higher social status as an adult than that of her parents when she was a child, this is an example of intergenerational upward mobility. B. Prosocial behavior includes both altruism and empathy and can result in both greater social integration and greater social solidarity in social groups. C. When majority groups are homophilous, social segregation declines. D. Downward mobility is a form of vertical mobility that can negatively affect an individual's self-concept as well as his or her social status.

C. When majority groups are homophilous, social segregation declines. D. This question wants the answer choice that is false. Homophily the tendency to form strong social connections with people who share one's core demographics or beliefs; when a group is more homophilous, social segreation will increase, not decrease (choice C is false and is thus the correct answer). Choices A, B, and D are all true statements and thus should be eliminated.

The doctor-patient relationship is most expected to be studied using: A. a micro-sociological approach, such as functionalism. B. a macro-sociological approach, such as conflict theory. C. a micro-sociological approach, such as interactionism. D. a macro-sociological approach, such as functionalism.

C. a micro-sociological approach, such as interactionism. C. The doctor-patient relationship is a popular interest of medical sociologists as it is the foundation of medical practice. This question can be answered using the 2 x 2 approach. (1) The communication between the doctor and the patient is important for health care outcomes. This is a micro-level factor (choices B and D can be eliminated). Micro-sociologists are concerned with small-scale social interactions, such as this relevant example. (2) The most common micro-level perspective is interactionism (choice A can be eliminated and choice C is the correct answer). The symbolic interactionism theory studies the subjective social meanings that are created through interactions. This communication is important in medicine where the exchange of information has serious implications for health and health care outcomes. Remember that functionalists and conflict theorists use macro-level approaches while interactionists use micro-level approaches.

According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion, which of the following target characteristics and processing approaches is most likely to lead to a lasting change in attitude that is resistant to counterattacks? A. High motivation and ability to process the message paired with the peripheral route of processing B. Low motivation and ability to process the message paired with the peripheral route of processing C. Low motivation and ability to process the message paired with the central route of processing D. High motivation and ability to process the message paired with the central route of processing

D. High motivation and ability to process the message paired with the central route of processing D. According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion, the target characteristic of high motivation and ability to process the message paired with the central route of processing is the most likely to lead to a lasting change in attitude that is resistant to counterattacks (choice D is correct). The target characteristic of low motivation and ability to process the message or the peripheral route of processing are both less likely to lead to a lasting change in attitude that is resistant to counterattacks (choices A and C are wrong). Low motivation and ability to process the message paired with the peripheral route of processing is the most likely to lead to a temporary change in attitude that is susceptible to counterattacks (choice B is wrong).

Which of the following statements is LEAST accurate? A. Hidden curriculum is a latent function of education. B. According to the dramaturgical perspective, presenting an acceptable self to others is a manifest function of impression management. C. Relative deprivation is a latent function of globalization. D. Medicalization is a manifest function of healthcare.

D. Medicalization is a manifest function of healthcare. D. For this question, three choices will be correct and one will be incorrect. Medicalization is the process by which a condition comes to be reconceptualized as a disease with a medical diagnosis and a medical treatment. Manifest functions are the intended or obvious functions of a social institution. In this case, the healthcare system was not intended to reconceptualize symptoms as a disease, but rather, to manage the health of a given population (choice D is false and is therefore the correct option). Choices A, B, and C are all true (choices A, B, and C are incorrect).

Which statement about demographic changes is most correct? A. The demographic transition theory states that societies naturally transition to ever increasing population growth due to technological advancement. B. Because of demographic changes, the dependency ratio of both Canada and the USA is projected to decline for at least the next 15 years. C. The birth rate of any country depends more on its fecundity rate than its fertility rate. D. The net population growth rate of any country depends on its birth rate, death rate, immigration rate, and emigration rate.

D. The net population growth rate of any country depends on its birth rate, death rate, immigration rate, and emigration rate. D. In order for a population to be considered growing, there should be more annual births than deaths and/or more immigration than emigration (choice D is correct). The demographic transition theory would that state birth rates tend to fall when technology advances; choice A is opposite (choice A is incorrect). The dependency ratio is an age-population ratio of those typically not in the labor force (children and older persons) and those typically in the labor force (15-64 year olds). The dependency ratio is projected to increase for both the US and Canada (choice B is incorrect). The fecundity rate is a women's physiological potential to bear children while the fertility rate is the number of children born to a woman; this answer option is backwards (choice C is incorrect).

People's statuses can be described as ascribed or achieved. "Teenager" is an: A. ascribed status because it is generally assumed voluntarily. B. achieved status because it is generally assumed involuntarily. C. achieved status because it is generally assumed voluntarily. D. ascribed status because it is generally assumed involuntarily.

D. ascribed status because it is generally assumed involuntarily. C. This question can be answered in two steps. (1) Ascribed statuses are those that are assigned to people regardless of their personal efforts; achieved statuses are those that are assigned to people because of their personal efforts. "Teenager" is not an achieved status (choices B and C can be eliminated). (2) Ascribed statuses are generally involuntary; achieved statuses are generally voluntary (choice D is wrong and choice A is correct).

All of the following are true regarding an individual with an external locus of control, EXCEPT: A. he is more likely to suffer from a depressive disorder. B. she is likely to believe that her decisions and life are controlled by environmental factors which she cannot influence. C. in certain circumstances, he may fall victim to learned helplessness. D. she is more likely to be proactive and feel in control of her destiny.

D. she is more likely to be proactive and feel in control of her destiny. D. A strong internal locus of control can be empowering and lead to proactivity; an individual with an internal (not external) locus of control feels they are able to influence their destiny (choice D is correct). An external locus of control, on the other hand, means that an individual feels like environmental factors or forces control one's decisions and life, and this mentality is much more likely to lead to passivity and learned helplessness (choices B and C are wrong). An external locus of control is often found in those suffering from clinical depression (choice A is wrong).

Master status

Dominates other statuses and thereby determines a person's general position within society

Achieved status

Due largely to the individual's efforts

Social loafing

Each person in a group has a tendency to exert less individual effort than if they were working independently

Mores

Highly important and strictly enforced norms

Folkways

Less important norms but shape everyday behavior

False consensus

Occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do (even though they may not)

Self esteem

One's overall self-evaluation of their self-worth

Self-handicapping

People create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly

Differential association

Perspective that argues that deviance is a learned behavior resulting from interactions between individuals and their communities

Structural strain theory

Perspective that argues that deviance is the result of experienced strain, either individual or structural

Hindsight bias

Tendency to believe that an event was predictable after it has already occurred

Self-reference effect

Tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves

Social behaviorism

The mind and self emerge through the process of communicating with others

Self-verification

We want to be understood in terms of our deeply held core beliefs

When does learned helplessness occur?

When someone has low self-efficacy and an external locus of control

Groupthink

When the desire to get along causes individuals in a group to go along with group decisions without more careful consideration

Projection bias

When we assume others share the same beliefs we do

Illusory correlation

When we assume there is a relationship between a group of people and a characteristic based on unique cases

Actor/observer bias

When we attribute our own actions to the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities

Self-serving bias

When we attribute our own successes to ourselves, but our failures to others

Optimism bias

When we believe that bad things happen to other people, but not to ourselves