MCAT Psych/Soc (The Princeton Review) Glossary

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person-situation controversy

(also known as trait-vs-state controversy) this controversy stems from a disagreement about the degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality (trait) or is due to a situation itself (state)

reporting bias

(epidemiology) selective revealing/suppression of info by subjects, e.g. about past medical history, smoking, sexual experiences

observational learning

(or vicarious, social learning) a type of learning that occurs when a person watches another person's behavior and its consequences, thereby learning rules, strategies, and expected outcomes in different situations

semicircular canals

3 loop-like structures in the inner ear that contain sensory receptors to monitor balance

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

6 identifiable developmental stages of moral reasoning which form the basis of ethical behavior, the pre-conventional (level 1) contains the first stage (obedience and punishment orientation and second stage (self-interest orientation)), the conventional (level 2) contains the third stage (interpersonal accord and conformity) and fourth stage (authority and social-order maintaining orientation) the post-convential (level 3) contains the 5th stage (social contract orientation) and 6th stage (universal ethical principles)

five-factor model

A model developed to explain personality using five overarching personality traits which include extroversion, neuroticism, openness to experience, agreableness, and concentiousness, this was developed by Costa and McCrae

GAD (Generalized Anxiety Disorder)

A psychological disorder characterized by tension or anxiety much of the time about many issues, but without the presence of panic attacks.

feature detection theory

A theory of visual perception that proposes that certain neurons fire for individual and specific features of a visual stimulus such as shape, color, line, movements, etc.

Gestalt psychology

A theory that the brain processes information in a holistic manner, especially for visual information, the brain tends to make assumptions in order to detect the whole, instead of serially processing all of the individual parts.

auditory tube

AKA the Eustachian tube, the auditory tube connects the middle ear cavity with the pharynx. It functions to equalize middle ear pressure with atmospheric pressure so that pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane is equal

anterior pituitary gland

AKA the adenohypophysis, the anterior pituitary is made of glandular tissue. It makes and secretes six different hormones: FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, prolactin, and growth hormone. The anterior pituitary is controlled by releasing and inhibiting factors from the hypothalamus

Sigmund Freud

An Australian neurologist who is considered the founding father of psychoanalytic theory

anxiety disorder

Anxiety is an emotional state of unpleasant physical and mental arousal; a preparation to fight or flee. In a person with an anxiety disorder, the anxiety is intense, frequent, irrational (out of proportion), and uncontrollable; it causes significant distress or impairment of normal functioning

Mary Ainsworth

Famous for her "strange situation experiments" where mothers would leave their infants in an unfamiliar environment to see how they would react. Studies suggested a distinction between securely attached infants and insecurely attached infants

filter model

Model of selective attention that suggests that information from a sensory buffer is put through a filter that allows only selected inputs through (Broadbent)

formal operation stage

Piaget's 4th stage of his developmental theory, from age 12-adulthood. During this stage, people learn abstract and moral reasoning

preoperational stage

Piaget's second stage in his developmental theory from ages 2-7; during this stage, children learn pretend play and the idea that a symbol can represent something else, they remain egocentric in this stage

concrete operational stage

Piaget's third stage of his developmental theory where children aged 7 to 11 learn to think logically and learn the principle of conservation as well as mathematical concepts

affirmative action

Policies that take factors like race or sex into consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or job hiring decisions; these policies have been used to benefit those believed to be current or past victims of discrimination

Harlow, Harry, and Margaret

Researchers known for their controversial experiments with monkeys in which they showed that baby monkeys are drawn to mothers that provide comfort rather than simply food, also showed that monkeys raised in isolation developed severe mental and social defecits

genital stage

The fifth of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages, this stage begins in adolescence when sexual themes resurface and a person's life/sexual energy fuels activities such as friendships, art, sports, and careers

genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism

adrenal medulla

The inner region of the adrenal gland, the adrenal medulla is part of the sympathetic nervous system and releases epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine into the bloodstream when stimulated. Epinephrine and norepinephrine prolong and enhance the effect of sympathetic stimulation on the body

fecundity

The potential reproductive capacity of a female in a population

altruism

a behavior that helps ensure the success of survival of the rest of a social group, possibly at the expense of the success or survival of the indivudal

negative feedback

a biological process that works by maintaining stability or homeostasis; a system produces a result which feeds back to stop the system and maintain the result within tightly controlled bounds

inter-generational mobility

a change (increase or decrease) in social class between parents and children of a family (e.g. Trenton's grandparents were immigrants from a foreign country who spent most of their lifetimes working factory jobs so that Trenton's parents could go to school. As adults, Trenton's parents were able to get college degrees and both became teachers. Trenton's mother later retired to be a stay-at-home mom. Trenton was able to develop his skills as a guitar player and become an international star and multi-millionaire.)

neurotransmitter

a chemical released by the axon of a neuron in response to an action potential that binds to receptors on the post-synaptic cell and causes that cell to either depolarize slightly (EPSP) or hyperpolarize slightly (IPSP) e.g. acetylcholine, norepinephrine, GABA, dopamine, etc.

pheromone

a chemical signal that causes a social response in members of the same species

hallucinogens

a class of drugs, also known as psychedelics, that distort perceptions in the absence of any sensory input creating hallucinations or altered sensory perceptions (e.g. LSD, marijuana)

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

a clear fluid that circulates around and through the brain and spinal cord. it helps to physically support the brain and acts as a shock absorber. It also exchanges nutrients and wastes with the brain and spinal cord; HOWEVER, it is NOT concerned with delivering oxygen to the brain. This is the job of red blood cells; it also helps reduces brain ischemia by reducing its own volume to reduce pressure on the blood vessels

caste system

a closed social stratification where people can do nothing to change the category that they are born into

ganglion

a clump of grey matter (unmyelinated neuron cell bodies) found in the PNS

group

a collection of any number of people 'as few as two' who regularly interact and identify with each other sharing similar norms, values, and expectations

global stratification

a comparison of the wealth, economic stability, and power of various countries

social isolation

a complete/ near complete lack of contact with people and society for members of social spears; not the same thing as loneliness, which is temporary

social institutions

a complex of roles, norms, and values organized into a relatively stable form that contributes to social order by governing the behavior of people; they provide predictability and organization for individuals within a society and mediate social behavior between people

door-in-the-face technique

a compliance method commonly studied in social psychology. The persuader attempts to convince the respondent to comply by first making a large request that the respondent will most likely turn down, much like a metaphorical slamming of a door in the persuader's face. This is followed by a smaller request which the respondent will now more easily agree to.

addiction

a compulsion to do an act repeatedly; can consist of a psychological dependence and/or a physical dependence as evidenced by drug addiction withdrawal

learned helplessness

a condition where on has learned to behave helplessly, failing to respond even though there are opportunities to avoid unpleasant circumstances or gain positive rewards

reinforcememnt

a consequence that increases the likelihood that the preceding behavior will be repeated: two types are there: positive and negative

interdependence

a culture in which members contribute to each other and view the collective good as the primary goal. This is closely related to the goals of a transformational leader who seeks to inspire deep loyalty and shared vision across the organization

habituation

a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations

downward mobility

a decrease in social class

case study

a descriptive analysis of an individual, group, or an event, which does not involve various experimental groups

personal identity

a distinct sense of self including personally defined attributes

ecclesia

a dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, is recognized as the national or official religion, and tolerates no other religions

endocrine gland

a ductless gland hat secretes hormones into the blood

delusion

a false belief that is not due to culture, and is not relinquished despite evidence that it is false

hallucination

a false sensory perception that occurs while a person is conscious (not during sleep or delirium)

egalitarian family

a family system where spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in more negotiation when making decisions

rational-legal authority

a form of leadership that is organized around rational-legal rules

charismatic authority

a form of leadership where devotion is reliant upon an individual with exceptional charisma (persuasiveness, charm, and ability to connect with people)

polygyny

a form of marriage in which a man is married to more than one woman

polyandry

a form of marriage in which a woman is married to more than one man

polygamy

a form of marriage in which an individual may have multiple wives or husbands simultaneously

monogamy

a form of marriage in which two individuals are married only to each other

personality trait

a generally stable predisposition towards a certain behavior

exocrine gland

a gland that secretes its product into a duct, which ultimately carries the product to the surface of the body or into a body cavity. Example: sweat glands

society

a group of people who share a culture and live /interact with each other within a definable area

in-group

a group that an individual belongs to and believes to be an integral part of who they are

out-group

a group that an individual does not belong to

reference group

a group that serves as a standard measure that people compare themselves to, such as a peer group

pupil

a hole in the center of the iris of the eye that allows light to enter the eyeball; its diameter is controlled by the iris in response to the brightness of light

peptide hormone

a hormone made of amino acids, in some cases, just a single modifies amino acid; they are generally hydrophilic and can't cross the plasma membrane of cells; thus receptors for them must be found on the cell surface; and exception is THYROXINE which is hydrophobic enough to enter the cells easily; binding of these hormones do its receptor usually triggers a second-messenger system within the cell

epinephrine

a hormone produced and secreted by the adrenal medulla that prolongs and increases the effects of the sympathetic nervous system

parathyroid hormone

a hormone produced and secreted by the parathyroid glands that increase serum calcium levels; it targets the bones (stimulates osteoclasts), the kidneys (increases calcium reabsorption), and the small intestine (increases calcium absorption)

growth hormone

a hormone released by the anterior pituitary that targets all cells in the body and stimulates whole body growth in children and adolescents and increased cell turnover rate in adults

prolactin

a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that targets the mammary glands stimulating them to produce milk

dual coding hypothesis

a hypothesis that it is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone

organization

a large group, more impersonal than a network that comes together to pursue particular activities and meet goals efficiently

secondary group

a larger and more impersonal group than a primary group which usually interacts for specific reasons for relatively short periods of time; these groups serve pragmatic needs

action potential

a localized change in a neuron's membrane potential that propagates away from its point of origin. Action potentials are all-or-none processes mediated by the opening of voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels when the membrane is brought to threshold potential; opening Na+ channels causes characteristic depolarization, while opening K+ channels repolarizes the membrane

axon

a long projection off the cell body of a neuron down which an action potential can be propagated

method of loci

a memory device that involves imagining moving through a familiar place such as your home and in each place leaving a visual representation of a topic to be rememebered

functional amnesia

a memory disorder characterized by sudden retrograde autobiographical memory loss, said to occur for a period of time ranging from hours to years, also called psychogenic and dissociative amnesia. These gaps involve an inability to recall personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature consciously, but subconscious recall (sweating and increased HR) is common

ennui

a mental state characterized by lethargy and apathy, often associated with depression; it is not a social effect

spreading activation

a method for searching associative networks, neural networks, or semantic networks.

parkinson's didsease

a movement disorder caused by the death of cells that generate dopamine in the basal ganglia and substantia nigr, 2 subcortical structures in the brain; among the symptoms are a resting terror (shaking, slowed movemement, rigidity of movements and the face, and a shuffling gait)

interneuron

a neuron found completely within the central nervous system that typically connect sensory and motor neurons especially in the reflex arcs

efferent neurons

a neuron that carries information (action potentials) away from the central nervous system; a motor neuron

multipolar neuron

a neuron with a single axon and multiple dendrites; the most common type of neuron in the nervous system

bipolar neuron

a neuron with a single axon and single dendrite, often projecting from opposite sides of the cell body. Bipolar neurons are typically associated with sensory organs

glucagon

a peptide hormone produced and secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas, which primarily targets the liver stimulating the breakdown of glycogen, thus increasing blood glucose level

illusory correlation

a perceived relationship between two things (people, events, or behaviors) even when none exists (e.g. A man holds the belief that people in urban environments tend to be rude. Therefore, when he meets someone who is rude he assumes that the person lives in a city, rather than a rural area. )

long-term potentiation

a persistent increase in synaptic strength between two neurons that occurs following brief periods of their stimulation leads to increased sensitivity of neurons recently stimulated; believed to play a role in learning and the consolidation of memory from short-term memory to long-term memory

attitude

a person's feelings and beliefs about other people or events around him, and his behavioral reactions based on those underlying evaluations

mood

a person's sustained internal emotion that colors his/her view of life

affect

a person's visible emotion in the moment

multiculturalism

a perspective that endorses equal standing for all cultural traditions; it promotes the idea of cultures coming together in a true melting pot, rather that in a hierarchy; also called pluralism

groupthink

a phenomenon where within a group, the desire for harmony or conformity results in an easy consensus even if the final decision is not the best one

iris

a pigmented membrane found just in front of the lens of the eye, in the center of it is the pupil: a hole though which light enters the eyeball; it regulated the diameter of the pupil in response to the brightness of the light

conditioned response

a previously unconditioned response to an unconditioned stimulus that becomes a learned response to a conditioned stimulus

social dysfunction

a process that has undesirable consequences, and may actually reduce the stability of society

acculturation

a process that occurs when one group adopts the behavior and cultural patterns of another after the two have made contact

neural plasticity

a process that refers to the malleability of the brain's pathways and synapses based on behavior, environment, and neural processes

dendrite

a projection off the cell body of a neuron that receives nerve impulses from a different neuron and sends the impulse to the cell body. Neurons can have one or several dendrites

dysthymic disorder

a psychological disorder characterized as a less intense, chronic form of depression. A person with dysthymic disorder has felt milder symptoms of depression most days for at least two years, with symptoms never absent for more than two months, and without experiencing a major depressive episode

conversion disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a change in sensory or motor function that has no discernible physical or physiological cause, and which seems to be significantly affected by psychological factors. The symptoms of conversion disorder begin or worsen after an emotional conflict of other stressor

antisocial personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a history of serious behavior problems beginning in adolescence, including significant aggression against people or animals, deliberate property destruction, lying or theft, and serious rule violation

dependent personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a need to be taken care of by others and an unrealistic fear of being unable to take care of himself or herself

mood disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a persistent pattern of abnormal mood serious enough to cause significant personal distress and/or significant impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning

dissociative disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a person's thoughts, feelings, perceptions, memories, or behaviors being separated from conscious awareness and control, in a way that is not explainable as mere forgetfulness

hypochondriasis

a psychological disorder characterized by a pre-occupation with a fear of having a serious illness

body dysmorphic diorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a preoccupation with a slight physical anomaly or imagined defect in appearance, often involving the face, hair, breasts, or genitalia

depersonalization disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a recurring or persistent feeling of being cut off or detached from one's body or mental processes, as if observing one's self from the outside

histrionic personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a strong desire to be the center of attention and seeking to attract attention through personal appearance and seductive behavior

somatization disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by a variety of symptoms over an extended time period, including pain, gastrointestinal symptoms, sexual symptoms, and pseudoneurological symptoms

Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by accumulation of money or worthless objects

dissociative identity disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by alternating between two or more distinct personality states (or identities), only one of which interacts with other people at any one time

personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by an enduring rigid set of personality traits that deviates from cultural norms, impairs functioning, and causes distress either to the person with the disorder, or to those in his or her life

dissociative amnesia

a psychological disorder characterized by at least one episode of suddenly forgetting some important personal information, usually related to severe stress or traums

pain disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by clinically important pain whose onset or severity seems significantly affected by psychological factors

bipolar disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by cyclic mood episodes at both extremes of "poles," depression and mania. In bipolar I disorder, a person has experiences at least one manic or mixed episode. In bipolar II disorder, the manic phases are less extreme

borderline personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by enduring or recurrent instability in impulse control, mood, and image of self and others. Impulsive and reckless behavior, together with extreme mood swings, reactivity, and anger, can lead to unstable relationships and to damage both of the person with the disorder and of others in his or her life

narcissistic personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by feelings of grandiosity with fantasies of beauty, brilliance, and power

avoidant personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by feelings of inadequacy, inferiority, and undesirability, and a preoccupation with fears of criticism and rejection; resulting in the person becoming socially withdrawn

schizoid personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by little interest or involvement in close relationships, even those with family members

paranoid personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by mistrust and misinterpretation of others motives and actions and suspicion of harm/betrayal

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

a psychological disorder characterized by obsessions (repeated intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts or impulses that cause distress or anxiety); compulsions (repeated physical or mental behaviors that are done in response to an obsession or in accordance with a set of strict rules in order to reduce distress or prevent something dreaded from occurring or both

major depressive disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by one or more major depressive episodes where a person has felt worse than usual for most of the day, nearly every day for at least two weeks

catatonic-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder characterized by psychosis in the form of catatonic behavior (including extremely retarded or excited motor activity)

paranoid-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder characterized by psychosis in the form of hallucinations and/or delusions usually relating to a certain theme

schizotypal personality disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by several traits that cause problems interpersonally, including constricted or inappropriate affect; magical or paranoid thinking; and odd beliefs, speech, behavior, appearance, and perceptions

schizophreniform disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by symptoms of schizophrenia present for a period of 1-6 months during which the symptoms may or may not have interfered with functioning

Schizoaffective disorder

a psychological disorder characterized by the combination of mood and psychotic symptoms; in this disorder, both the symptoms of schizophrenia and a major depressive, manic, or mixed episode are experienced for at least one month

panic disorder

a psychological disorder that is characterized by panic attacks which can be cued by certain situations but are more often uncued or spontaneous, "occuring frequently" and unexpectedly

disorganized-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder that is characterized by psychosis in the form of flat or inappropriate affect, disorganized speech, and disorganized behavior

schizophrenia

a psychological disorder that is chronic and incapacitating and is characterized by psychosis and material impairment in social, occupational, and personal function

cyclothymic disorder

a psychological disorder that is similar to bipolar disorder but the moods are less extreme. A person with cyclothymic disorder has experienced cyclic moods, including many hypomanic episodes, as well as many episodes of depressed mood that are milder than a major depressive episode for at least two years

dissociative fugue

a psychological disorder where someone suddenly goes on a journey, during which he or she cannot recall personal history prior to the journey

residual-type schizophrenia

a psychological disorder where the acute phase of schizophrenia has resolved and the criteria for schizophrenia are no longer met, but some symptoms are still present in milder forms

prison study (Stanford Prison Study)

a psychological experiment conducted by Philip Zimbardo designed to elucidate the extreme effects of roll-playing on human behavior. 24 male students were isolated and asked to play the role of prisoners and guards. The participants adapted to their roles well beyond Zimbardo's expectations. The guards enforced extreme measure including psychological torture and many of the prisoners passively accepted psychological abuse and readily harassed other prisoners who attempted to prevent it.

attachment theory

a psychological model that attempts to describe the dynamics of long-term and short-term interpersonal relationships between humans which depends on the person's ability to develop basic trust in their caregivers and self. (joint work of Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby)

humanistic psychology

a psychological perspective developed partially in response to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, which emphasizes an individual's inherent drive towards self-actualization. Carl Rogers is most associated with this kind of psychology

Raymond Cattell

a psychologist interest in personality, who used factor analysis with hundreds of surface traits to identify which traits were related to each other. By this process, he identified sixteen source traits, and by factor analysis reduced fifteen of these into five global factors: extroversion, anxiety, receptivity, accommodation, and self-control

saltatory conduction

a rapid form of action potential conduction along the axon of a neuron in which the action potential appears to jump from node of Ranvier to node of Ranvier

proprioceptor

a receptor that responds to changes in the body position such as stretch on a tendon, or contraction of a muscle; the receptors allow us to be consciously aware of the position of our body parts

photoreceptor

a receptor that responds to light

reciprocal determinism

a reciprocal interaction between a person's behaviors (conscious actions), personal factors (cognitions, motivations, personality), and environmental factors

reflex arc

a relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement

sect

a religious organization that is distinct from the parent religion from which it was formed

cult (aka a new religious movement)

a religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle

exogamy

a requirement to marry outside a particular group, with it being the norm in almost all cultures to prohibit sexual relationships between certain relatives

decoy

a research technique often used as part of deception, generally to intentionally mislead or confuse participants

neobehaviorism

a school of psychology based on the general principles of behaviorism but broader and more flexible in concept. It stresses experimental research and laboratory analyses in the study of overt behavior and in various subjective phenomena that cannot be directly observed and measured, such as fantasies, love, stress, empathy, trust, and personality; psychologists belonging to this school believe that behavior can be modified by rewards or punishments

critical theory

a school of thought that stresses the reflective assessments and critique of society and culture by applying knowledge from the social sciences and the humanities; it focuses on changing, rather than understanding, society

baroreceptor

a sensory receptor that responds to changes in pressure; for example, there are baroreceptors in the carotid arteries and the aortic arch that monitor blood pressure

mechanoreceptor

a sensory receptor that responds to mechanical disturbances such as shape changes, being squashed, bent, pulled; they include touch receptors in the skin, hair cells in the ear, muscle spindles, and others

chemoreceptor

a sensory receptor that responds to specific chemicals. Some examples are gustatory (taste) receptors, olfactory (smell) receptors, and central chemoreceptors (which respond to changes in CSF pH)

psychological disorder/illness or mental illness

a set of behavioral and/or psychological symptoms that are not keeping with cultural norms and that are severe enough to cause significant personal distress and/or sufficient impairment to social, occupational, or personal functioning

culture

a shared way of life, including the beliefs and practices that a social group shares

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

a slight depolarization of a postsynaptic cell, bringing the membrane potential of that cell closer to the threshold for an action potential

IPSP

a slight hyperpolarization of a postsynaptic cell moving the membrane potential of that cell further from the threshold

social construct

a social mechanism or practice that is constructed by society; essentially everybody in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value, e.g. the idea of gender, social class

class system

a social stratification where people are grouped together by similar wealth, income, education, and the like, but the classes are open, meaning that people can strive to reach a higher class (or fall to a lower one)

meritocracy

a social stratification where people's social standing's are judged based on merit (or personal effort) alone; this is an idealized system - no society solely stratifies based on effort

matriarchy

a social system where females, esp. mothers within families are the primary authority figures

patriarchy

a social system where males are primary authority figures, and where fathers hold authority over women and children in a family

ethnicity

a socially defined concept referring to whether of not people identify with each other based on shared social experience or ancestry

social constructionism

a sociological theory that argues that people actively shape their reality through social interaction; it is therefore something that is constructed, not inherent; it looks to uncover the ways in which individuals and groups participate in the construction of their perceived social reality

physical attractiveness stereotype

a specific type of halo effect bias; people tend to rate attractively individuals more favorable for personality traits and characteristics than they do those who are less attractive

algorithm

a step-by-step detailing of steps that aids with problem solving

progesterone

a steroid hormone produced by the corpus luteum in the ovary during the menstrual cycle. Progesterone maintains and enhances the uterine lining for the possible implantation of the fertilized ovum. It is the primary hormone secreted during pregnancy

neutral stimulus

a stimulus that does not elicit any intrinsic response in the absence of outside interference (conditioning)

self-handicapping

a strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

a strategy that involves enticing people to take small actions, and then gradually asking for larger and larger commitment

phobia

a strong unreasonable fear that almost always causes general anxiety of a full panic attack

meta-analytic study

a study that involves contrasting and combining results from different studies, with the aim of finding patterns among the results that might bring about new information

secure attachment

a style of relating to to others that forms whe an infant has caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to needs, in Ainsworth's experiments, securely attached infants were found to be willing to explore surroundings in the presence of the mother; they were upset, but consolable when the mother left and then returned to the room

language

a symbolic system that is codified for communication

endocrine system

a system of ductless glands that secrete chemical messengers (hormones) into the blood

patrilineal descent

a system of lineage in which relatives on the father's side are considered most important; an individual belongs to their father's lineage

bilateral descent

a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side and father's side are considered equally important

matrilineal descent

a system of lineage in which the relatives on the mother's side are considered most important; an individual belongs to their mother's lineage

parallel processing

a system whereby many aspects of a stimulus are processes simultaneously instead of in a step-by-step or serial fashion. e.g. visual processing in the brain

distraction

a technique in which researchers attempt to redirect the brain while conducting an experiment, usually in order to allow a previously acquired memory to be encoded

rehearsal

a technique of repeating verbal information in one's phonological loop to promote the encoding of sensory information into memory

halo effect

a tendency to believe that people have inherently good or bad natures rather than looking at individual characteristics

primacy effect

a tendency to better recall the first items on a list

belief bias

a tendency to draw conclusions based on what one already believes rather than sound logic

mental set

a tendency to fixate on ideas and solutions that have worked in the past even if they may not have applied to the current situation

misinformation effect

a tendency to misremember an event, particularly when misleading information is presented between the event and the mental encoding of the. (e.g. if an interrogator questions an individual about an event using leading questions, the person's perception of the event will change to fit the question)

functional fixedness

a tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed and unchanging

recency effect

a tendency to recall the last item presented in a list

confirmation bias

a tendency to search only for information that confirms a preconceived conclusion

Drive Reduction Theory

a theory about the impact of motivation on human behavior that suggests that a physiological need (a drive) creates an aroused state that motivates the organism to reduce that need by engaging in some behavior

attribution theory

a theory that attempts to explain how individuals view behavior - both our own behavior and the behavior of others - by attributing behavior to either internal or external causes; it is the idea that individuals make inferences in order to understand the causes of various behaviors or actions

signal detection theory

a theory that attempts to predict how and when someone will detect the presence of a given sensory stimulus (the signal), amidst all of the other sensory stimuli in the background (noise), there are 4 possible outcome: a hit (signal present and detected), a miss (signal present but not detected), a false alarm (signal not present but person thought it was), and a correct rejection (signal not present and the person did not think it was)

cognitive dissonance theory

a theory that explains that we feel tension ("dissonance") whenever we hold two thoughts or beliefs ("cognitions") that are incompatible, or when attitudes and behaviors don't match. When this occurs, we try to reduce this unpleasant feeling of tension by making our views of the world match how we feel or what we've done.

inclusive fitness

a theory that suggests that cooperation among organisms (including altruistic behaviors) promotes genetic success, meaning that even if not all of the organisms survive to reproduce, some of their genes will still be passed to the next generation (e.g. a lapwing will fake injury to distract a hawk from its young, thereby acting altruistically toward its offspring)

incentive theory

a theory that suggests that incentives (objects or events in the environment that either help induce or discourage certain behaviors) motivate human behavior

conflict theory

a theory that views society as being in competition for limited resources. According to conflict theory, society is a place where there will be inequality in resources, therefore individuals will compete for social, political, and material resources like money, land, power, and leisure

game theory

a theory used to try and predict large complex systems such as the overall behavior of a population

cerebral cortex

a thin (4 mm) layer of gray matter on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral cortex is the conscious mind, and is functionally divided into four lobes: the frontal lobes, parietal lobes, temporal lobes, and occipital lobes

aqueous humor

a thin, watery fluid found in the anterior segment of the eye (between the lens and cornea). The aqueous humor is constantly produced and drained, and helps bring nutrients to the lens and cornea, as well as remove metabolic wastes

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

a tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the adrenal cortex, stimulating it to release cortisol and aldosterone

luteinizing hormone (LH)

a tropic hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that targets the gonads; in females, it triggers ovulation and the development of corpus luteum during the menstrual cycle; in males, it stimulated the production and release of testosterone

exposure therapy

a type of cognitive-behavioral therapy whereby the individual is introduced to the specific anxiety-inducing situation gradually and in a controlled environment until his or her anxiety level decreases through adaptation; it has been found to be the most effective form of treatment for agoraphobia

retroactive interference

a type of memory interference that occurs when newly learned information interferes with the recall of information learned previously

proactive interference

a type of memory interference that occurs when previously learned information interferes with the recall of information learned more recently

bottom-up processing

a type of sensory processing that beings with the sensory receptors and works up to the complex integration of information occurring in the brain; note that the brain in fact uses a combination of bottom-up processing and top-down processing

chemical synapse

a type of synapse at which a chemical (a neurotransmitter) is released from the axon of a neuron into the synaptic cleft, where it binds to receptors on the next structure (either another neuron or an organ)

electrical synapse

a type of synapse in which the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing ions (and therefore the action potential) to spread easily from cell to cell

cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)

a type of therapy that addresses thoughts and behaviors that are maladaptive by using goal-oriented and systematic techniques

humanistic psychotherapy

a type of therapy that focuses upon the more positive aspects of human beings in general and rejects the medical model, the psychoanalytic emphasis upon maladaptive personality traits, and the labeling of individuals as pathological. Accordingly, it places considerably less emphasis upon dispositional factors than does psychoanalysis

deviance

a violation of society's standards of conduct or expectations

social network

a web of social relationships including those in which a person is directly linked to others, as well as those in which people are directly connected through others

intelligence

ability to learn from experience, problem solve, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

parasomnia

abnormal behaviors during sleep including somnambulism and night terrors; usually occur during stage 3 or slow wave sleep

psychosexual stages

acc. to Freud's psychoanalytical theory, individuals progress through 5 psychosexual stages, one corresponding to the part of the body that is the focus of sensual pleasure; the 5 stages are: the oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stages, the latent stage, and the genital stage

psychological fixation

acc. to Freud, adult personality is largely determined during the first 3 psychosexual stages; if parents either frustrate or overindulge the child's expression of sensual pleasure at a certain stage so that the child does not resolve that stage's developmental conflicts, the child becomes fixated at that stage and will, as an adult, continue to seek sensual pleasure through behaviors related to that stage

psychoanalytic theory

acc. to this theory, personality is shaped by a person's unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. the classical version of this theory was developed by Sigmund Freud

ego

according to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the ego is ruled by the reality principle, and uses logical thinking and planning to control consciousness and the id (the unconscious driving force ruled by the pleasure principle)

according to Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the largely unconscious id is the source of energy and instincts ruled by the pleasure principle, the id seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain pleasure; it does not use logical or moral reasoning and it does not distinguish mental images from external objects; according to Freud, young children function almost entirely from the id.

manifest content

according to Freud, the overt storylines of dreams

latent content

according to Freud, the unconscious drives and wishes that are difficult to express and underly dreams (e.g. falling in a dream might have to do with feeling out of control in your life or failing at something. It might even represent giving in to sexual temptation)

self-actualization (actualizing tendency)

according to humanistic psychology, individuals have an innate drive to maintain and enhance themselves or realize their human potential as long as no obstacle intervenes

libido

according to psychoanalytic theory, it is the life instinct which drives behaviors focused on survival, growth, creativity, pain, avoidance, and seeking pleasure

death instinct

according to psychoanalytic theory, the death instinct drives aggressive behaviors fueled by an unconscious wish to die or to hurt oneself or others

behaviorism

according to this perspective, personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment. Behaviorism is deterministic, proposing that people being as blank slates, and that environmental reinforcement and punishment completely determine an individual's subsequent behavior and personalities

social cognitive perspective

according to this perspective, personality is formed by a reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors

habit

action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic

peripheral nervous sytem

all the parts of the NS except for the brain and the spinal cord

amygdala

almond-shaped structure deep within the brain that orchestrates emotional experiences

operant conditioning

also known as 'instrumental conditioning'; a form of associate learning based on consequences, in which rewards increase the frequency of behaviors associated with them and punishments decrease their frequency

basal nuceli

also known as basal ganglia, these structures in the brain help to smooth coordinated movement by inhibiting excess movement

posterior pituitary gland

also known as the neurohypophysis; it is made up of nervous tissue/neurons and stores and secretes 2 hormones made by the hypothalamus (oxytocin and ADH); it is controlled by action potentials from the hypothalamus

food desert

an area typically in a highly populated, lower income urban environment, where healthy, fresh food is difficult to find

capitalism

an economic system in which resources and production are mainly privately owned and goods/services are produced for a profit

socialism

an economic system where resources and production are collectively owned; it includes a system of production and distribution designed to satisfy human needs (goods/services are produced for direct use instead of for profit)

priming

an effect of implicit memory whereby exposure to a given stimulus "primes" or prepares the brain to respond to a later stimulus

manic episode

an experience of an abnormal euphoric, unrestrained, or irritable mood with at least three of the following symptoms: grandiose, exaggerated, or delusional self-esteem, high energy with little need for sleep, increased talkativeness and pressured speech, poor judgement, increase psychomotor and goal-directed activity, and distractibility with flight of ideas or racing thoughts

deindividuation

an explanation of people's startling and often uncharacteristic behavior when situations provide a high degree of arousal and a very low sense of responsibility

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

relative poverty

an inability to meet the average standard of living within a society

sensitization

an increase in the strength of a response with repeated presentation of a stimulus

ostrich effect

an individual avoiding an apparently risky financial situation by pretending it does not exist; not a social effect

Huntington's Disease

an inherited (autosomal dominant) disease that causes the progressive breakdown (degeneration) of nerve cells in the brain; it has a broad impact on a person's functional abilities and usually results in movement, thinking (cognitive) and psychiatric disorders

myelin

an insulating layer of membranes wrapped around the axons of almost all neurons in the body; it is essentially the plasma membranes of specialized cells: in the PNS they are Schwann cells and in the CNS they are Oligodendrocytes

normative organization

an organization where membership is based on morally relevant goals

conditioned stimulus

an originally neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it can produce the conditioned response without the unconditioned stimulus being present

overconfidence

an overestimation of the accuracy of one's knowledge and judgments

social phobia

an unreasonable paralyzing fear of feeling embarrassed or humiliated while one is watched by others even while performing routine activities such as eating in public or using a public restroom

drive

an urge originating from a physiological discomfort such as hunger, thirst, or sleepiness. Drives can be useful for alerting an organism that it is no longer in a state of homeostasis, an internal state of equilibrium

instrumental conditioning

another term for operant conditioning

mental retardation

another way of saying intellectual disability

prefrontal cortex

anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain involved in complex behaviors such as planning, sequencing, social responses, and decision-making; directs behavioral aspects of emotion, including approach and avoidance behaviors; damage to this are may lead to inappropriate social behavior, impulsivity, and trouble with initiation

gonadotropins

anterior pituitary tropic hormones, follicles stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) which stimulate the gonads (ovaries and testes) to produce gametes and to secrete sex steroids

mnemonic

any memory technique used to promote the retention and retrieval of information

linguistic relativity hypothesis

asserts when the language one speaks determines their thoughts and perceptions of the world//structure of language

dramaturgical approach

assumes that people are theatrical performers and that everyday life is a stage; just as actors project a certain on-screen image, people in society choose what kind of image they want to communicate verbally and nonverbally to others. Also called the dramaturgical perspective

reflex

automatic behaviors that occur without thinking

self-consciousness

awareness of oneself

consciousness

awareness of self, internal states, and the environment

aggression

behavior that is forceful, hostile, or attacking. In sociology, aggression is considered something that is intended to cause harm or promote social dominance within a group

self-enhancement

behaviors that an individual engages to elicit a more favorable response from others

instinct

behaviors that are unlearned and present in fixed patterns throughout a species

selective priming

being predisposed to observe something because it has previously been encountered frequently or is expected

procedural bias

bias related to how information is obtained and may occur when researchers put some sort of pressure on subjects to provide responses. By offering monetary compensation of any amount to subjects, researchers used incentive to obtain results, leading to this phenomenon

selection bias

bias that arises when the sample is not representative of the population, such as not being randomly chosen

hypothalamus

brain structure located above the brainstem that is involved in many autonomic processes including body temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, and sleep; it is also involved in the physiological aspects of emotion including sweating and increased HR

hippocampus

brain structure located in the medial temporal lobe of the brain and plays a key role in forming memories; damage to this part of the brain can lead to the inability to form new memories or anterograde amnesia

dyssomnias

broad category of disorders involving abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep. Includes insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea

self-concept (self-identity)

broadly defined as the sum of an individual's knowledge and understanding of his/herself including physical, psychological, and social attributes, which can be influence by the individual's attitudes, habits, beliefs, and ideas

rapid eye movement (REM)

bursts of quick eye movements present in the last stage of sleep

sleep spindle

bursts of waves present in stage 2 sleep

olfactory receptors

chemoreceptors in the upper nasal cavity that respons to odor chemicals

gustatory receptors

chemoreceptors on the tongue that respond to chemicals in food

depressant

class of drugs that depress or slow down neural activity, includes alcohol, barbiturates (tranquilizers), and opiates

intellectual disability

classification for individuals who have an IQ below 70 and functional impairment in their everyday lives; previously called mental retardation

episodic memory

clear memories of unique and often highly emotional events, such as where you were and what you were doing during the 9/11 terrorist attacks, also called flashbulb memories

Karl Marx

closely identifies with conflict theory, he argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who own and control production and those who labor and provide the manpower for production; he believed that capitalism produced internal tensions which would ultimately lead to self-destruction of capitalist societies to be replaced by socialism; he along with Emile Durkheim and Max Weber are considered the founding fathers of sociology

Pygmalion effect

closely related to the self-fulfilling prophecy; the two terms are even considered synonymous in some circles; it is a type of self-fulfilling prophecy where if you think something will happen, you may unconsciously make it happen through your actions or inaction. It occurs in the workplace when a manager raises his or her expectations for the performance of workers, and this actually results in an increase in worker performance.

central route

cognitive route of persuasion based on the content and deeper aspects of an argument

peripheral route

cognitive route of persuasion that involves more superficial or secondary characteristics of an argument or an orator

B.F. Skinner

coined the term "operant conditioning"; he is famous for his box in which he used reinforcements to shape animal behavior

secondary reinforcers

conditioned reinforcers that are learned through their direct/indirect relationship with primary reinforcers; e.g. money: it is not innately rewarding, but we have learned that it can provide access to primary reinforcers

Solomon Asch

conducted research on conformity and group pressure by placing subjects in a room with several confederates (the subjects believes the confederates to be fellow study subjects) and observing the behavior of the subject when the confederates provided clearly wrong answers to questions

Stanley Milgram

conducted research on obedience where he asked subjects to administer a shock to what they thought was another subject (but was just an actor) and he monitored the degree of subjects' compliances or obedience

Emile Durkheim

considered the father of sociology and a major proponent of functionalism, Emile Durkheim was the pioneer of modern social research and established the field of sociology as separate and distinct from psychology and political philosophy

Carl Rogers

considered the founder of the humanistic psychology perspective, Carl Rogers pioneered the person-centered approach to therapy

parallel forms reliability

consistency between/among alternate versions of the same instrument; e.g. creating 2 parallel forms of a questionnaire (with difficult questions) and both tests show correlation

material culture

consists of physical objects that are particular to a culture which helps to explain the relationship between artifacts and social relations (e.g. saree in indian culture)

ideal self

constructed out of life experiences, societal expectations, and admirable traits, from role models, the ideal self is the person you ought to be while the real self is the person you actually are

intragenerational mobility

describes the differences in social classes between different members of the same generation

Jean Piaget

developmental psychologist who formulated a 4 stage theory of development for children

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

disorder characterized by 3 clusters of symptoms: 1) re-experiencing of traumatic events through flashbacks or nightmares 2) hypervigilance of one's surroundings 3) avoidance of situations related to stressful events

Ludwig Gumplowicz

expanded upon Marx' ideas about conflict theory by proposing that society is shaped by war and conquest and that cultural and ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over other groups

social roles

expectations for people of a given social status

Robber's cave experiment

experiment which showed that even arbitrary group distinctions (camp teams) can cause a bitter rivalry and discrimination, thus demonstrating in-group/out-group biases

Erik Erikson

extended Freud's theory of developmental stages in two ways. He added social and interpersonal factors, to supplement Freud's focus or unconscious conflicts within a person. And he delineated additional developmental stages and conflicts in adolescence and adulthood, to supplement Freud's focus on early childhood. His stages include: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair

kinship

familial relationship including blood-ties, family-ties, and common ancestry

Phineas Gage

famous case of a man who suffered damage to his prefrontal cortex after a railroad tie blasted through his head. His symptoms due to damage to this area included: impulsivity, an inability to stick to plans, an inability to demonstrate empathy

Albert Bandura

famous for his Bobo doll studies that demonstrated observational learning; also pioneered the idea of the importance of self-efficacy in promoting learning

Ivan Pavlov

famous for naming and describing the process of classical conditioning by training dogs to salivate to the sound of a ringing bell

REM stage

final stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, and beta waves which are seen in individuals when they are awake; despite these wave patterns, however, the sleeper is paralyzed aside from small twitches leading to the description of the stage as 'paradoxical sleep', this is generally when dreams occur

sensorimotor stage

first stage of Piaget's developmental theory from birth to age 2 where babies learn object permanence and demonstrate stranger anxiety

general intelligence

foundational base of intelligence that supports more specialized abilities

nodes of ranvier

gaps in the myelin sheath of the axons of the peripheral neurons; action potentials can jump from node to node; thus increasing the speed of conduction (saltatory conduction)

primary groups

groups that play a more important role in an individual's life (often meeting emotional needs); these groups are usually smaller and include those with whom the individual engages within person, in long-term, emotional ways

executive functions

higher order thinking processes that include planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision-making

melatonin

hormone produced by the pineal gland that affects sleep/wake cycles, and seasonal functions

generalization

in classical conditioning, the process by which stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus also become conditioned stimuli that elicit the conditioned response

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the process of learning the association between a conditioned stimulus and response

extinction

in classical conditioning, the unpairing of the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, accomplished by introducing the conditioned stimulus repeatedly in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus

punishment

in operant conditioning, a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated; types includes positive and negative punishment

shaping

in operant conditioning, the process of reinforcing intermediate proximal behaviors until a final desired behavior is achieved

confederates

in psychological and social research, a confederate is a person who is working with the experimenter and posing as a part of the experiment, but the subjects are not aware of this affiliation

palmar grasp reflex

in response to stroking a baby's palm, the baby's hand will grasp. This reflex lasts a few months

Babinski reflex

in response to the sole of the foot being stroked, a baby's big toe moves upward or toward the top surface of the foot and the other toes fan out

rooting reflex

in response to touching or stroking on of a baby's cheek, the baby will turn its head in the direction of the stroke and open its mouth to "root" for a nipple

dynamic equilibrium

in sociology, a dynamic equilibrium occurs when complex societies contain many different but interdependent parts working together to maintain stability

church

in sociology, a type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the political and economic structures of society, and attempts to provide an all-encompassing worldview for followers

postganglionic neuron

in the autonomic division of the PNS, a neuron that has its cell body located in an autonomic ganglion (where a pre-ganglionic neuron synapses with it) and whose axon synapses with the target organ

preganglionic neuron

in the autonomic nervous system of the PNS, a neuron that has its cell body located in the CNS and whose axon extends into the PNS to synapse with a second neuron at an autonomic ganglion (the second neuron's axon synapses with the target organ)

back stage

in the dramaturgical perspective, this is where we can "let down our guard" and be ourselves, as opposed to the "front stage," where we are playing a role for others

front stage

in the dramaturgical perspective, this is where we play a role and use impression management to craft the way we come across to other people

false memory

inaccurate memory created by the power of imagination of suggestion

serial position effect

includes the primacy and recency effect; when information is presented serially in a list format, individuals are more likely to recall the first and the last items presented

reaction formation

individual deals with an objectionable impulse by behaving in a manner diametrically opposite to that impulse e.g. being super sweet to a group of girls you greatly despise

long-term memory

information that is retained long-term, potentially indefinitely; it is believed to have an infinite capacity

language acquisition device

innate feature unique to the human mind that allows people to gain mastery of language from limited exposure during sensitive developmental years in early childhood as hypothesized by Noam Chomsky

positive punishment

introduction of a negative or aversive stimulus following a behavior; tends to decrease the likelihood of that behavior

nonverbal communication

involves all of the methods of communication that we use that do not include words

cultural relativism

judging another culture based on its own cultural standards

repression

keeping that which is painful/anxiety producing from one's conscious mind

infantile amnesia

lack of explicit memory for events that occurred before the age of roughly 3.5 years, while people are unable to recall memories from this part of their life, learning and memory do still occur, the reason for infantile amnesia is unknown

K complex

large and slow wave with a duration of a half-second that occurs in stage 2 sleep

nonassociative learning

learning that occurs in the absence of associating specific stimuli or events; two types are habituation and sensitization

latent learning

learning this takes place in the absence of any observable behavior to show that it has occurred; this learning can later manifest and be demonstrated as observable behavior when it is required (learning about cancer when your close family member has been diagnosed with it, even though you don't have to study it for a school test)

alpha waves

low amplitude, high frequency brain waves present in a relaxed state. Alpha waves are the first indicator that a person is read to drift off into sleep

biofeedback

means of recording and feeding back information about subtle autonomic responses to an individual in an attempt to train the individual to control previously involuntary responses (for example, muscle tension, heart rate, respiratory rate)

modeling

mechanism behind observational learning in which an observer sees a behavior being performed by another person; this model is utilized to allow the observer to later imitate the observer

explicit (or declarative) memory

memories that can be consciously recalled, such as factual knowledge

semantic memory

memory for factual information

echoic memory

memory for sound, which lasts for about 3-4 seconds

chunking

memory technique in which information to be remembered is organized into discrete groups of data. This clustering allows more information to be remembered overall

implicit (procedural) memory

memory that involves conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do things

short-term memory

memory that is limited in duration and in capacity

schemas

mental frameworks/blueprints that shape and are shaped by experience

availability heuristic

mental shortcut of making judgments on the frequency of something occurring based on how readily it is available in our memories

heuristics

mental shortcuts used for problem solving, using these sometimes sacrifices accuracy for speed

meditation

mindfulness technique for training attention in a particular way; may involve intense focus on one object of attention or broad attention to a field of awareness

attenuation model of selective attention

model of selective attention in which the mind has an attenuator, like a volume knob, that can tune up inputs to be attended and tune down unattended inputs, rather than totally eliminating them. Accounts for the cocktail party effect

elaboration likelihood model

model that explains when people may be persuaded by just the content of an argument, and when they may be persuaded by more superficial characteristics such as the appearance of the person delivering the message or the length of the argument

information processing models

models for cognition that assume that information form the environment is processed by our computer-like minds through a series of steps including, attention, perception, and storage into memory

insomnia

most common sleep disorder characterized by difficult falling or staying asleep

fundamental movement skills

movement patterns that involve different body parts. They are the foundation movements or precursor patterns to the more specialized, complex skills used in play, games, sports, dance, gymnastics, outdoor education and physical recreation. (Autistic children have the ability to master these)

polysomnography (PSG)

multimodal technique for measuring physiological processes during sleep, including EEG, EMG and EOG

ciliary muscle

muscle that helps focus light on the retina by controlling the curvature of the lens of the eye

social exclusion

negative impact of poverty in which low SES individuals are excluded from mainstream society & social benefits. They may also resort to crimes/rebel to meet their basic needs.

feral children

neglected/abandoned children who grow up without without human contact/care. Much of our knowledge about socialization comes from these individuals who were not socialized

mirror neurons

neurons that fire when a particular behavior or emotion is observed in another; may be responsible for vicarious emotions and a foundation for empathy

norms that are highly important for the benefit of of society and so are often strictly enforced, mores are general (but not always) formal norms

folkways

norms that are more informal, yet shape everyday behavior (style of dress, ways of greeting, etc.)

penis-envy

occurs during phallic stage (the third of Freud's 5 psychosexual stages) when a female realizes she does not have a penis

projective identification

occurs in close relationships, where one person induces feelings/impulses which are viewed as unacceptable in the other person

role-strain

occurs when a single status results in conflicting expectation, e.g. a homosexual man may feel pressure to avoid being "too gay" and also "not gay enough"

amalgamation

occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group

retrograde amnesia

occurs when one is unable to recall information that was previously encoded

self-reporting bias

occurs when subjects skew their responses often to impress/appease researchers

overgeneralization

occurs when the individual comes to a conclusion based on one episode or bit of evidence; e.g. the subject has recently experienced a single episode of insomnia and consequently believes he or she is prone to suffering from it in the future

role conflict

occurs when there is a conflict in the society-s expectations for multiple statuses held by the same person, e.g. 'male' and 'nurse'

false consensus

occurs when we assume that everyone else agrees with what we do (even though they may not)

projection bias

occurs when we assume that others have the same feelings we do due to our tendency to look for similarities between ourself an others// im nervous i gained weight so when I see mark it looks like hes gained weight

gender bias in medicine

occurs when women and men receive different treatment for the same disease or illness

double-blind study

of or relating to an experiment or clinical trial in which neither the subjects nor the researchers know which subjects are receiving the active medication, treatment, etc., and which are not: a technique for eliminating subjective bias from the test results.

SES (socioeconomic status)

often defined in terms of power; the ability to get other people to do something, property (sum of possessions and income), and prestige (reputation in society), because these three concepts tend to (but not always) be related in the US society

Schwann cells

one of the 2 peripheral nervous system supporting (glial) cells; they form the myelin sheathe on the axons of peripheral neuron

sleep cycle

one of these consists of the progression through sleep stages 1-4 in sequence followed by an ascension from 4 back to 1 and then a transition into REM sleep; typically takes about 90 min

self-esteem

one's overall self-evaluation of one's self-worth

coercive organizations

organization in which members do not have a choice in joining

acting out

overt expression of unconscious emotions and impulses without insightful understanding of one's behaviore

nociceptors

pain receptors found everywhere in the body except the brain

authoritarian parenting

parenting style in which parents impose strict rules that are expected to be followed unconditionally in an attempt to control children. his style is demanding and often relies on punishment

permissive parenting

parenting style that creates few rules and demands and little discipline; parents are warm and loving to their children, but very lenient and allow their children

authoritative parenting

parenting style that places limits on behavior and consistently follows through on consequences, but also expresses warmth and nurturing and allows for two-way communication between parents and children

episodic buffer

part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory that interacts with information in long-term memory

central executive

part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory that oversees the visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer. Responsible for shifting and dividing attention

phonological loop

part of Alan Baddely's model of working memory that allows for the repetition of verbal information to aid with encoding it into memory

cultural universals

patterns or traits that are common to all people; cultural universals tend to pertain to basic human survival and needs, such as securing good and shelter, and also pertain to events that every human experiences, including birth, death, and illness

aggregate

people who exist in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity

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