MCAT Psych/Sociology, Psych/SocMCAT
How to improve self efficacy
-Mastery experiences - experiencing success -Modeling - seeing similar others succeed -Social persuasion - getting encouragement from others -Physiological states - reducing stress/fatigue
Functional fixedness
"inside the box problem solving" refers to problem solving technique where people's tendency to think/solve only in terms of typical/usual functions -can inhibit solving problems.
Kelley's covariation model
"kelleys contaminated→CDC" Says that we attribute behavior based on *Consensus: social comparison *Distinctiveness: situations *Consistency cues: time
Social behavior
All interactions taking place between members of the same species
What are the two main hormones released by the sympathetic nervous system?
Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
Iron law of oligarchy
Criticizes the hierarchal nature of bureaucracy ,stating that people at the top of the hierarchy will inevitably come to value their power over the purpose of the orgnanization
Social Stratification
3 component theory of stratification (Weberian Stratification): states that wealth, prestige, and power influence the way that individuals treat one another *Power: ability of a person to achieve their goals despite opposition from others *Prestige: The respect with which a person or status position is regarded by others *Class: or wealth and assets that an individual possesses
Visuospatial sketchpad
A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information
Reaction Formation
A defense mechanism that involves expressing the opposite of of what one really feels, when it would be dangerous to express the real feeling
Denial
A defense mechanism that involves forceful refusal to acknowledge an emotionally painful memory
Repression
A defense mechanism that involves lack of recall of an emotionally painful memory
Displacement
A defense mechanism that involves redirecting aggressive or sexual impulses from a forbidden action or object onto a less dangerous one
Monoamine hypothesis
A deficiency in the availability of monoamines (serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine) in the synapses contributes to depression
Change blindness
A failure to bring attention to changes in our environment
Fixed-interval reinforcement
A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after a specific time interval has passed after a response
Fixed-ratio reinforcement
A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after a specified # of responses
Variable-ratio reinforcement
A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after an unpredictable number of responses
Age stratified theory
Age is a way of regulating behavior of a generation
Categorical self
Occurs once babies realize they are separate. It is becoming aware that even though we're separate, we exist in the world with others. Babies first learn AGE and GENDER, then SKILLS and SIZE. They learn concepts like traits, comparisons, and careers last.
Attraction
Factors that draw members of a species together. A social behavior
The most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships:
Geographical proximity
Regression to the mean
If the first measurement is extreme, second measurement will be closer to the mean
Confirmation bias
Individuals tend to value new info that support a belief they already hold, while disregarding info that goes against preconceived notions. In groups, group members seek out information that support the majority view
Income vs wealth
Income is assets EARNED while wealth is assets already OWNED.
Chi-square
Involves categorical variables. Looks at 2 distributions of categorical data to see if they differ from each other.
what are Sanctions?
Norms are reinforced by sanctions rewards/punishments for behaviours in accord with or against norms respectively.
Folkways
Norms that are less important but shape everyday behavior
Stimulus discrimination
The learned lack of response to a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus
Existential self
The most basic part of self concept. It is the sense of being separate and distinct from others. Awareness that the self is constant throughout life.
Spreading activation
Occurs when one item brought into working memory triggers an activation of related memory
Need based theory
People are motivated by the desire to fulfill unmet needs
Cannon-Bard Theory
Theory of emotion that states that emotional feelings and physiological reactions to stimuli are experienced SIMULTANEOUSLY physiological and cognitive appraisal simultaneously--> emotion
Gender oppression
Women are not only unequal as men, but they're oppressed and abused.
Symbolic Interactionism
a micro-level theory in which shared meanings, orientations, and assumptions form the basic motivations behind people's actions
A sleepy, relaxed state of awakeness will show what type of wave on an EEG?
alpha waves
Superior colliculus
helps us coordinate head rotation(movement) with visual focus (visual system) on a specific point
framing effects in decision making
how you frame the answer choices will effect the decision as well
agraphia
inability to write
Interference of Memory
information can be lost or less accurate due to an overlap of similar information
Frontal Lobe structures and their functions
motor cortex: body movements Prefrontal cortex: executive, director Brocas: speech production
Biopsychosocial approach to health and illness
physical health & Illness is determined by multiple factors (psychological, social, biological), not just biological. Hollistic approach.
Residential segregation
physical separation groups into different neighborhoods, affecting our life chances, politics, healthcare, jobs, availability to education ect
James-Lange theory of emotion
physiological response triggers emotion see snake, HR increases, feel fear because of HR increase
Older adults show minimal decline in ________ but greater decline in __________.
recognition, free recall
manifest functions
the intended beneficial consequences of people's actions
what is deindividualization
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
Latent Content (Freud)
the underlying hidden meaning of a dream
Social Constructionism
what society is rather than how it exists/changes. Everything is created from the mind of society. Agreement that something has meaning and value that it doesn't have intrinsically, ex. Money. Everything only has value because everyone agrees it has value; we construct the world around us.
spontaneous recovery is what?
when old conditioned stimulus elicits response Don't know why it happens, usually infrequently, doesn't persist for a long time, and less strong
Role strain
when you can't carry out all obligations of a status, tensions within one status. Causes individual to be pulled many directions by one status, ex. a student has to write two papers, five reading assignments, give a speech, two lab reports in one week.
Self Efficacy
your perception of your ability to complete a task
formal operational stage (Piaget)
12++teen/adult moral, abstract, hypothetical thinking
GI (Greatest) generation
1901-1924 - oldest people alive today. Born first quarter of the 20th century (Acronym: Your great grand father)
Silent Generation
1925-1945 older than baby boomers born during Great Depression (Acronym: Your silent grandfather)
neuroleptics
1st antipsychotic drugs used to treat schizophrenia and though they are effective in treating positive symptoms(i.e. hallucinations, delusions, racing thoughts, their side effects include cognitive dulling, which can exacerbate negative symptoms (i.e. apathy, lack of emotion, poor or nonexistant social functioning)
Specific phobia
A persistent, strong, and unreasonable fear of a certain object or situation
Self esteem
A person's overall value judgment of himself. Acts as a mediating factor between self-concept and experience by shaping interpretations of events. High --> positive self concept Low --> negative self concept
Cultural capital
All non-money things that give you higher social class (Power, Privilege, and Prestige) Ex. worldly knowledge/experiences, manners, education, proper speech, skills
Culture
All of the beliefs, assumptions, objects, behaviors, and processes that make up a shared way of life for a particular group/nation. "People are shaped by culture and culture is shaped by people"
Statistical regression
All variables examined are continuous. Makes assumptions about which variable is influencing the other
Correlation
All variables examined are continuous. Makes no assumptions about causation.
Neutral stimulus
A stimulus that does not elicit a behavioral response. Can eventually become conditioned response if presented immediately before unconditioned stimuli.
Role of culture in cognitive development
Children in Western cultures are generally object-focused, while those raise in Eastern cultures are more relationally focused.
Proprioception
Cognitive awareness of of balance/position of body in space.
Positive symptoms of psychosis
Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and disorganized/catatonic behavior
What is Alzheimer's disease?
Dementia that is characterized behaviorally by anterograde amnesia (can remember the past but cannot form new memories). Visual memory is also impaired, leading to confusion with regard to orientation.
Tactics
Describe how the movement implements a strategy
Gestalt Principles
Describe the top-down processing that organizes sensory information into distinct forms. Six principles: nearness, similarity, common region, closure, continuity, and figure & ground
Identity moratorium
Describes a person actively attempting to develop a unique set of values and an understanding of self in society
Identity diffusion
Describes a person with no sense of identity or motivation to engage in identity exploration. Associated with an external locus of control
Obedience
Describes behavioral changes made in response to a command by an authority figure
Reinforcement schedule
Describes how often and under what conditions a behavior is reinforced
Theory of Differential Association
Deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws
Theory of Differential Association states that what?
Deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws
Secondary appraisal
Assessing personal ability to cope with a threat. An individual who does not think they can handle a threat will experience greater stress than someone who appraises their ability more highly.
Quasi-Experimental Design
An experiment that does not require random assignment to conditions. This type of design describes an effect on a specific cohort of the population
Microsociology
Face to face interactions, families, schools, other social interactions. Interpretive analysis of society, looking at sample of society and how individual interactions would affect larger groups in society
Economic interdependence
Factor in globalization where corporations often conduct operations across multiple continents
This theory deals with systems such as families
Systems Theory
Punishment
In operant conditioning, a consequence of a behavior that decreases the likelihood of a behavior
Individual discrimination
Individual person acting to discriminate based on something (sex, religion, race, age etc) ex. a science professor who doesn't let women into his class. (in this example sex discrimination)
Generalized anxiety disorder
People feel tense or anxious much of the time about many issues, but do not experience panic attacks.
Obsessive compulsive personality disorder
Person does not have any true obsessions/compulsions, but may instead accumulate money and worthless objects. Person is perfectionistic, rigid, and stubborn
Cognitive appraisal
Personal interpretation of the situation that triggers stress
Polysomnography
Multimodal technique to measure physiological processes during sleep
Retroactive interference
Newly learned material that prevents successful retrieval of related older memories. Occurs when information that is newly learned is similar to that in older memories
Semantic networks
Organization of information in networks of meaningfully related memories
Incentive theory
People are motivated by external rewards, and get psychological feeling of pleasure that comes with receiving an incentive DISTINCT from operant conditioning because it focuses on the internal motivations of the individual rather than their outward behavior
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon
People are much more likely to agree to a large request if they first agree to a smaller one
Mere presence
People are simply in each other's presence, either completing similar activities or apparently minding their own business
Cognitive theory
People behave based on what they predict will yield the most favorable outcome
Matrilineal descent
Preference for maternal relations in the kin group
Patrilineal descent
Preference for paternal relations in the kin group
Difference in prejudice and discrimination?
Prejudice is belief while decrimination is action
Intuition
Problem solving using personal perception or feeling rather than logic. Aka the "gut feeling". Time saving but potentially flawed.
Cohort study
Following a subset of a population with similar characteristics over a "lifetime"
sublimation (defense mechanism)
channeling threatening devices into acceptable outlets (e.g. working out) sublet-->outlet
alerting attention is affected by what?
affected by aging, norepinephrine modulates it in locus coerculus
External validity
does our results match with real world outcomes?
Scapegoats
individuals or groups blamed for wrongs that were not of their doing ex. Jews during World War II.
What do barbiturates do?
induce sleep, reduce anxiety, depress CNS Anesthesia or anticconvulsants ex-barital
Hippocampus function
key role in forming new memories. Convert STM (Short term memory)→ LTM (long term memory).
thick band of nerve fibers which connects the two hemispheres
corpus callosum when this is damaged, creates split-brain patient
perceived similarity
degree of similarity that people believe exists between them
attribution
the process of explaining one's own behavior and the behavior of others
Ideal Self
the self one aspires to be (hopes, wishes, goals)
medial geniculate nucleus
receives and transmits a great deal of general sound/auditory information.
what describes the alientation that individuals feel when social norms and social bonds are weak?
social anomie describes the alientation that individuals feel when social norms and social bonds are weak.
this theory deals with Social factors, observational learning, and environmental factors (ex. opinions/attitudes of friends and family) can influence your beliefs.
social cognitive theory
Ascribed statuses
statuses you can't change, given from birth. ex. Prince of royal family
what class of drug is MDMA?
stimulant or hallucinogen
this trait is a stable predisposition towards a certain behavior
personality trait
The genetic contribution to depression is:
polygenic
Counterbalancing
A method of controlling for order effects in a repeated measure design by either including all orders of treatment or by randomly determining the order for each subject
lexicon
A set of vocabulary items
Superego
ANGEL: The internalization of cultural ideals and parental sanctions. "Morals" Interjection/Internalization. The Superego inhibits Sexual and Aggressive impulses, and tries to replace reality with morality, striving for perfection. The Superego has subsystems: - The Conscious - what you should not be "wrong" - The Ego Ideal - what you should/want to be "right"
Secondary reinforcer
AKA conditioned reinforcers. Require learning and social context to affect behavioral decisions, but are just as effective at controlling behavior as primary reinforcers. Include money, praise, prestige, and good grades.
Associative learning
AKA conditioning. Refers to learning that involves associations between certain stimuli and specific responses
Partial reinforcement
AKA intermittent reinforcement. Reinforcement of a behavior by delivering a response only part of the time. Four types: Fixed-ratio, Variable-ratio, Fixed-interval, and Variable-interval
Function of sleep cycles
Allows the individual to enjoy benefits of both light and deep sleep.
What is required for associative learning of non-instinctual behaviors?
Appropriate cognitive processes (higher level brain function)
Operationalization
Approximating the true variables of interests with one that can be measured or tabulated
Acquiescence bias
Aqui"YES"ence selecting responses to please the researcher
Reticular formation
Area of the brainstem involved in alertness and arousal
Who did the "Looking glass self"
Charles Cooley
What are the 3 ossicle bones of the middle ear?
1. Malleus 2. Incus 3. Stapes
People under 20 make up approximately ________ of the US population.
25%
Unconditioned response
A behavioral response that is innate (not learned)
Instinct
A biological, innate tendency to perform a central behavior that leads to the fulfillment of a need
Parallel processing
Cognitive process involving devotion to multiple inputs at once
Attribution theory
Conscious and unconscious processes both contribute to the formation of ideas about what caused another person to behave in a particular way
Stage 4 Sleep
Deep sleep. Characterized entirely by delta waves on an EEG
Context effects
Describes how the context in which a stimulus occurs can contribute to how people perceive that stimulus
Decay
Describes the fading of a memory. Fate of information in working memory that is not encoded into long term memory. Neurologically, represents wearing of connections that make up the neural network holding a memory.
Long term potentiation
Describes the increase in likelihood that presynaptic input will trigger an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron. Repeated stimulation by the presynaptic neuron leads to increase in strength of the excitatory postsynaptic potential--> makes the postsynaptic neuron more likely to fire in response to stimulation by the presynaptic neuron. Can take place via additive influence of multiple inputs.
Latent learning
Describes the manifestation of previously unseen behavior. Somethings s learned by not expressed as can observable behavior until it is required
ABC Model
Describes three major components of attitudes Affective component- person's feelings about the thing Behavioral component- The influence that attitudes have on behavior Cognitive component- Beliefs/knowledge about a specific object of interests
George Herbert Mead
Developed Symbolic Interactionism. Believed development of individual was a social process as were the meanings individuals assigned to things
SES factors
Education, Income, Occupation Status Socioeconomic factors "Old McDonald had a farm, eio" NO SOCIAL CAPITAL is Included with this according to AAMC
Instrument bias
Errors due to systematic malfunctioning of a mechanical instrument
Primary appraisal
Evaluating a situation for the presence of any potential threat. If present, a secondary appraisal is generated
Anxiety disorders manifest physically as:
Excessive sympathetic nervous system activation
Social norms
Expectated social behavior that is acceptable within a group. Norms helps define a culture
Gender differences
Expectations for gender are passed down from generation to generation.
this person is known in connection to the trait perspective of personality. He argued that three key types of traits contribute to personality: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits.
Gordon Allport
Which region of then brain is particularly important in positive conditioning?
Hippocampus
unconditioned response (UR)
In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
Informational influence
In group discussion, the most common ideas to emerge are the ones that favor the dominant viewpoint. Looking to group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct
Secure attachment
Infants will play in the presence of their primary caregiver, but will become distressed when the caregiver leaves the room. Upon the caregiver's return, the child will seek contact with her and is easily consoled
Short-term memory
Information that is held as items in conscious awareness. Info can be manipulated rather than stored passively (can be applied to real world).
Long-term memory
Information that is maintained outside of conscious awareness and can be called back into working memory when needed. HAS NO LIMIT OF STORAGE
task similarity
It's harder to multitask with similar tasks
temperament is what?
It's their characteristic emotional reactivity, intensity, - their shyness and their sociability. Persistent through age
who proposed the psychosexual theory of development
Freud fixation occurs and has 5 stages
Who Developed Symbolic Interactionism.
George Herbert Mead Developed Symbolic Interactionism. Believed development of individual was a social process as were the meanings individuals assigned to things
fixation (problem solving)
Getting stuck on a wrong approach to a problem.
Cyclothymic disorder
Similar to bipolar disorder but the moods ar else extreme
Socioeconomic status (SES)
Social Stratification based on income, occupation, education Low vs High (high has more power, resources, better start in life)
Social dysfunction
Social process that has undesirable consequences, reducing the stability of society
Mirror neurons
Specialized nerve cells which fire both when a person is completing an action and when the person observes someone else completing the same action. Critical for observational learning (learning by imitation), and responsible for vicarious emotions
Traditionalism
Tendency to follow authority. Shown to be common in twins
operational span testing
Test of working memory tasks, patients are asked to read and verify a simple math problem (is 4/2 -1 = 1?) then read then read a word, with a recall test following some number of those verify/read pairs. The maximum number of words that can be recalled is the "operation span".
Mead's "I", "Me", and "Other"
Me: social self view I: the response to me, attitudes towards others
social mobility
Movement of individuals or groups from one position in a society's stratification system to another Open stratification: achieved status can allow for mobility Closed stratification: no mobility, cast system, ascribed (born with) status Marx
What stage of sleep does sleep apnea affect?
N3(slow-wave sleep) Fatigue in the morning
what stage does sleepwalking/sleep talking happen in?
N3, slow wave sleep children do it more, partly because they have more N3
Source monitoring
Occurs when a person attributes a memory to a particular source. May not always be accurate. Memory construction may follow, where a person converts their inference into memory. Also can lead to incorrect construction of memories that never actually happened.
Non associative learning
Occurs when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus
Big 5 Model of Traits
Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism (OCEAN)
Cultural universals
Patterns/traits that are common to all people. Tend to pertain to basic human survival and needs (eg. securing food and shelter)
Belief perseverance
People hold on to their initial beliefs even when rational argument would suggest they are incorrect
Appraisal view of stress
People make two appraisals which determine their overall emotional reaction to the event.
Mere exposure effect
People prefer repeated exposure to the same stimuli (aka familiarity breeds fondness)
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
People understand the world through language and language shapes how we experience the world
Aggregate
People who exists in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity
Social reproduction
People with rich parents end up wealthy themselves, leads to transmission of social inequality from one generation to the next
Interposition
Perception that one object is in front of another. An object that is in the front is closer.
Trait theory of personality
Personality consists of a set of traits which are characteristics that vary between people and are STABLE over the course of the lifetime. Key: NO ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES. Very little personal control over personality, and personality is hereditable.
Primary Group vs In Group difference?
Primary group the is your core social group. Parents, close friends from childhood. Long term relationships formed which have a great social impact on the individual. ▪ In group- a group you are affiliated with based on identification - can be ethnicity, nationality, gender, religion, etc.
Learning occurs more quickly through what type of stimuli?
Primary stimuli ---> learning is quicker if it's biologically relevant
Primary versus secondary deviance
Primary: no big consequences Secondary: more serious consequences
Reflexive movements
Primitive, involuntary movements of infants that serve to prime the neuromuscular system and form the basis for more complex movements later in life.
negative priming
Prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably = influences the response to the same stimulus.
this is a personality disorder characterized by a need for social isolation, anxiety in social situations, odd behavior and thinking, and often unconventional beliefs.
Schizotypal personality disorde
Hidden curriculum
School curricula transmits cultural ideals beyond the stated goal of the institution. Encompasses the unspoken aims of education (teaching children to conform to social expectations)
Foraging behavior
Set of behaviors through which animals obtain food. A social behavior. Animals optimize this to maximize the energy available through food and to minimize the energy expenditure involved in obtaining it.
Dementia
Severe loss of cognitive ability beyond what would be expected from normal aging.
Personality
The characteristics that make a person different from others and may be predictive of behaviors. Considered the individual pattern of thinking, feeling, and behavior associated with each person.
foot-in-the-door phenomenon
We have a tendency to agree to small actions first. Eventually over time comply with much larger actions. Basic concept of how people are brainwashed too. Door is eventually pushed completely open over time. Society behaviors strongly feed into your attitude.
Stranger anxiety
The fear a child feels for faces that are not recognized by their developed schemas
Principle of closure
We perceive whole shapes even when they are not actually present in the stimulus
Selective attention
The focus of attention on one particular stimulus or task at the expulsion of other stimuli. Limitation: potentially important information may be discarded and missed
The hippocampus is critical in:
The formation of NEW memories (and emotional, flashbulb memories)
maladaptiveness vs distress criterion of abnormality
The maladaptiveness criterion takes into account whether behavior interferes with persons life The distress criterion takes into account whether the behavior demonstrates unusual or prolonged levels of stress
Attenuation Model
The mind has an attenuator which is able to turn down unattended sensory input rather than eliminating it.
Self-concept
The most personal aspect of identity. The knowledge of oneself as a person both separate from other people and constant throughout changing situations. AKA a person's view of his/her own personality. Developed and refined through interactions with others
Interposition
The overlapping of objects signifies positioning relative to one another. A monocular cue
Social identity
The perception of oneself as a member of certain social groups. Characteristics that are associated with the group come to be seen as part of the self. Cognitive component: categorization of oneself into a certain group Emotional component: individual's emotional attachment to the groups w/ which they identify
Constancy
The perceptual problem of distinguishing between information received by the retina and chances in the surrounding. Two types: Size--> allows a single object to be perceived as being the same size regardless of whether it is moved closer/further from the eye Shape--> allows us to know an object has the same shape regardless of how light reflects onto it
REM rebound
The phenomenon that occurs when someone misses REM sleep in a night. Causes an increase in REM sleep the next night
Instinctual drift
The phenomenon whereby established habits learned using operant techniques, eventually are replaced by innate food-related behaviors
Spontaneous recovery
The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of lessened response
Rehearsal
The repetition of a phonetic representation. A process used to maintain information in working memory.
Recall
The retrieval of memory from scratch. A harder form of retrieval.
Peer pressure
The social influence exerted by one's peers to act in a way that is acceptable or similar to their own behaviors
instinctual drift
The tendency for an animal to drift back from a learned operant response to an innate, instinctual response to an object.
Perception
The use of sensory information and pre-existing knowledge to create a functional representation of the world
Spearman's Intelligence
Think "Mans ability" because all the S facotors are associated men stereotypical ability 1st: g factor (general ability) 2nd: s factor higher anarchy (specific abilities) ie. spatial, mechanical, verbal, numerical
Self-referencing
Thinking about new information and how it relates to you personally. Form of encoding
The occipital lobe is associated with:
Visual information
who proposed the Sociocultural Cognitive development theory
Vygotsky Believed children learned actively through hands-on processes, and suggest parents/caregivers/cultural beliefs/language/attitudes are all responsible for development of higher function of learning. o Child internalizes information w/ interactions with others. This social-interaction is important development of cognition.
Adaptive associations
biological advantage (those who have a biological advantage) are learned faster than learning with no biological value. Learning is not simply classical and operant conditioning
Values
a culture's standard for evaluating what is good and bad
Confounding variable
a factor other than the independent variable that may have produced an effect in an experiment, bu your not sure
Social anomie
a feeling of disconnection from moral boundaries in society. Thus, individuals feeling this way could perceive greater crime rates than what is actually occurring due to the fact that they do not feel that society reflects values that they hold important.
taste aversion
a learned avoidance of a particular food limitations to aversion shown that it doesn't work in lab experiment with rats
Symbolic Interactionism is what?
a micro-level theory in which shared meanings, orientations, and assumptions form the basic motivations behind people's actions society is a product of everyday interactions of individuals. Looking at how people behave in normal everyday situations and helps us to better understand and define deviance.
Dysthymia
a more subtle form of depression. This mood disorder may cause feelings of sadness and perhaps pessimism
Modernization Theory
all countries follow similar path of development from traditional to modern society. With some help traditional countries can develop similarly to today's developed countries did. o Looks at internal social dynamics as country adapts to new technologies o Looks at political and social changes that occur during adaptation as well.
Directed attention
allows attention to be focused sustainably on a single task, in this case a single orientation of the Necker cube.
General paresis
also known as general paralysis of the insane or paralytic dementia, is a neuropsychiatric disorder affecting the brain, caused by late-stage syphilis.
mesolimbic pathway, what areas of the brain are involved?
amygdala and hippocampas
dependency ratio
an age-based measurement takes people <14 and >65 who are not in the labour force, and compares that to # of people who are (15-64) o Higher the ratio, more dependent people there are. o Living longer = older residents can contribute to workforce for longer time
long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. -Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory -example of synaptic plasticity -The greater the postsynaptic potential, the more ion channels will open in the neuron. This will result in a stronger neural response.
Test Validity
an indicator of how much meaning can be placed upon a set of test results
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
analytical, creative, practical
Dementia is characterized by ____________ amnesia.
anterograde
Why injury to one side of brain often results in damage to other side?
because all the somatosensory pathways cross to the other side.
Psychophysical discrimination testing
directly assess our perception of stimuli in relation to their true physical properties
mirror neurons are involved with these things (name 3)
empathy, repeated behaviour, theory of mind Theory of mind (involves being able to take another person's perspective)
what are the 2 types of cues that can direct our attention
exogenous and endogenous
Type 1 error (alpha) in problem solving
false positive Rejecting null hypothesis when it is true
Joint attention
focusing of attention on an object by two separate individuals.
Cohort studies
following a subset of population over a lifetime. A cohort is a group of people who share a common characteristic (ex. people born and exposed to same pollutant/drug/etc.) in period of time.
what makes up the cerebral cortex?
frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe
informal norms
generally understood but not precisely recorded and have no specific punishments
Communism
classless, moneyless community where all property is owned by community a political theory derived from Karl Marx, advocating class war and leading to a society in which all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs.
Where is the cerebral cortex of brain located?
cor"tex" imagine TEXAS hat covering outermost part of your brain the bumps part
flashbulb memory
people claimed to remember detail of what they were doing when they received news about an emotionally arousing even (9/11)
habituation is what?
person tunes out the stimulus
anterograde amnesia
inability to encode new memories.
what is anhedonia
inability to experience pleasure
Nativists perspective
inate part of biology, born with it
Conflict Theory
is also a macroperspective - the idea society is made of institutions that benefit powerful and create inequalities. Large groups are at odds until conflict is resolved.
Delirium tremens
is an acute episode of delirium that is usually caused by withdrawal from alcohol.
Ethnocentric:
judging someone else's culture from the position of your own culture o Viewing our own culture to be superior to that of others o Can lead to cultural bias and prejudice o Using one's own cultural standards, such as norms and values, to make judgements about another culture.
meditation and brain waves/activity
more alpha waves than normal relaxation in light meditation deep mediation, more theta waves regular practice: increased activity in prefrontal cortex, right hippo campus, and right anterior insula, increased attention control good for ADHD and aging
activity theory
looks at how older generation looks at themselves. Certain activities or jobs lost, those social interactions need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged and maintain moral/well-being
Expansive pyramids
lots of deaths and lots of births. Lots of young people not many old people
Concurrent validity
measures the test against a benchmark test and high correlation indicates that the test has strong criterion validity
Coercive Organization
members don't have choice about membership, ex. people in a prison, or the military (you need to be discharged to leave).Usually highly structured and have very strict rules
schemas
mental models: Frameworks for us organize and interpret new information To develop these, you need to be able to grow/change them - which happens through assimilation and accommodations.
cerebellum functions to..
motor task execution
what structures does the basal forebrain make up?
nucleus accumbens, nucleus basalis, medial septal nuclei
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
Subculture
the values and related behaviors of a group that distinguish its members from the larger culture; a world within a world
social identity theory
theory in which the formation of a person's identity within a particular social group is explained by social categorization(race, job ect.), social identity, and social comparison
what do benzodiazepines do? what's is its mechanism of action?
used to induce sleep, reduce anxiety, reduce seizures enhances brains response GABA, opens GABA-activated chloride (Cl-) channels to negatively charge neuron ex. -zelam, -zolam
overextension
using a term/word for one class of objects to other objects with superficial resemblance (for example child saying, "doggie" for a cow).
"PAID" are organizations where members are compensated for their involvement. Employees of a particular company share membership in a __________ organization type
utilitarian organization.
The primary sense of humans is:
vision
occipital lobe structures and their funtion
vision, striate cortex(striated cells)
iconic memory
visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second
Visual and spatial info are processed in the:
visuospatial sketchpad
bureaucratization
process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy. Ex. customer service, now move through 12 menu options before reaching someone to help you.
what is Vigilance attention and signal detection
processes that attempt to detect a signal or target of interest. This allows responses to be primed and quick actions undertaken in response to the signal or target of interest, i.e. a pothole in the road is detected and avoidance actions are undertaken.
projecting own feelings of inadequacy on another
projection
Psychoeducation
providing knowledge about a topic to participancts in research or to patients about research findings and therapy procedures relevant to their situation
Hyperglobalist Perspective
sees globalization as a new age in human history - countries become interdependent and nation states themselves are less important. Countries become one global society. Theorists don't agree if this good or bad. Driven by a legitimate process.
Informational support
sharing information with us or giving us advice. Can come from family/friends or even articles online.
Group produced reduction of individual effort is a result of _____________.
social loafing groups experiencing social loafing are less productive, put forth less effort, and perform poorly. Perhaps to guard against being the person who is doing all the work, or because you know that your individual contributions are not evaluated.
Symbolic interactionism
social theory that's a microperspective, focuses on the individual and significance they give to objects, events, symbols, etc. in their lives.
token economy
system of behavior modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behavior, reinforcers are "tokens" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers (ex. Prizes).Rewarding individuals with secondary reinforcers that can be exchanged for appetitive stimuli is typical of a token economy
Cochrane reviews
systematic reviews of primary research in "human health care and health policy" Highest standard in evidence-based health care. They investigate the effects of interventions for prevention, treatment and rehabilitation.
The reward system structures in the brain
*Amygdala *Hypothalamus *Nucleus Accumbens *MCAT question VTA Substantia Nigra Prefrontal cortex Thalamus Dorsal striatum
Structures involved in the reward pathway
-Prefrontal cortex -VTA -Nucleus accumbens
Affect
A person's VISIBLE emotion in the moment
What machine measures brain waves?
EEG: electroencephalogram
Type II error
False negative
Type I error
False positive
Echoic memory
Fleeting memory for sound
Strategy
General plan describing the goals of a movement
Looking glass self
Identity develops through interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perceptions of others. People shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them
Gender inequality
Central to all behavior. Women subordination is viewed as an inherent feature in our patriarchal society.
Information processing takes place in the:
Cerebral cortex
The most evolved portion of the brain is the:
Cerebral cortex
False memories
Using imagination to create inaccurate memories
what part of the brain stops responding to serotonin during stress?
anterior cingulate
door-in-the-face technique
asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment
Face Validity
at a glance, does an average person agree with experimental measures
Reciprocal altruism
behavior that benefits another with the expectation that those benefits will be returned in the future
Evolutionary Perspective
behavior that is a result of our natural selection or genetic inheritance from our ancestors
which perspective/view did Hans EysencK belong to
biological perspective
Functionalism
comes from macrosociology - looks at society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society adapt to keep society stable and functioning
linguistic determinism
Language has an influence on thought. weak: thought based on how the language is structured strong: language determines thought completely
Learning theory of language development
Language is a form of behavior and is learned through operant conditioning--> continuing interaction with environmental reinforcement
this brain area/system plays a major role in emotions, memory, and motivation
Limbic system includes the hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and several other structures
According to humanistic theory, what causes psychological distress in an individual?
Occurs when the actual self, ideal self, and perceived self (self concept) are different from one other
Side-effect discrimination
One institution can unintentionally influence another institution negatively.
According to Freud, adult personality is largely determined by what three psychosexual stages?
Oral, anal, phallic
Dependency theory
Periphery countries export resources to core countries, and don't have means to develop
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological- food, sex, etc. Safety- physical/emotional security Belongingness- Socialness Esteem- Approval and recognition Self-actualization- Equation, hobbies, religion
Arousal
Physiological/psychological tension
Word association testing
Projective test in which the interviewer says a word and the respondent must mention the first thing that comes to mind
Death instinct
Psychoanalytic concept--> drives aggressive behaviors fueled by an unconscious wish to die or to hurt oneself/others
Gold Standard for clinical trial
Randomized Controlled Trial people studied randomly given one of treatments under study, used to test efficacy/side effects of medical interventions like drugs
Negative reinforcement
Removal of an unpleasant stimulus in response to a desired behavior. AKA takes away stimulus to increase likelihood of behavior
Chunking
Reorganizing large number of items into a smaller number of "chunks". A process that allows a larger amount of info to be maintained in working memory
Trial and error
Repeated, unsystematic attempts to solve a problem until the desired outcome is achieved
Availability heuristic
Rule of thumb where we use examples that come to mind to apply to a new problem.
Intragenerational mobility
SES class mobility of the same individual moving up
Hyperglobalist perspective
Sees it as a new age in human history: countries become interdependent and nation-states themselves are less important
Sense organs differ in __________.
Sensitivity
Religiosity
The extent of influence of religion in a person's life
Reciprocal determinism
The interaction between a person's behaviors, personal factors (individual motivational forces), and environment. Posits that people both shape and are shaped by their environments.
The blind spot
The location on the retina where the optic nerve connects. It has no cones or rods, so images projected there are not visible.
Endogamy
The practice of marrying within a particular group
Misinformation effect
The tendency to misremember information
Social facilitation
The tendency to perform better when a person knows he is being watched. Usually most pronounced for tasks at which the performer is highly practiced or skilled
Social stratification
The way that people are categorized in society
Place theory
Theory of hearing. Our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane
tyranny of choice
Too many choices can also negatively impact our cognition and behavior Results in information overload, and can lead people to decision paralysis and increased regret over choice made.
reticular formation is what and functions to do what?
a nerve network in the brainstems midbrain that plays an important role in controlling things motivation, alertness, things like respiration, digestion, and lower/higher functions.
Agreeableness measures what?
kind vs. cold, appreciative vs. unfriendly
context effects
memory is aided/influenced by environmental factors/physical location where encoding took place
what does LSD do neurochemically? what class of drug is it?
modifies serotonin neurotransmission, especially the 5-HT2 receptor family hallucinogen(aka psychedelics)
Counterculture
cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society Ex. Mormons believe in polygamy Ex. Amish
what are the 4 main categories of psychoatic drugs
depressants, stiumulants, hallucinogens, opiates/opiods
In operant conditioning studies, the subject's motivational state is most typically operationally defined by what?
depriving the subject of some desirable stimulus item for a period of time
retina
detect light rays and convert them into signals for the brain to process retina contains photoreceptors (rods and cones), which detect light and transduces light to energy. The energy eventually becomes an action potential and the signal travels through the optic nerve and travels to the primary visual cortex.
parallel processing
detect/focus all information (color, form, motion) at same time
Esteem support
expressions of confidence/encouragement. Things people say to let you know they belief in you. Can come from family+ friends but also therapists, teachers, coaches.
semantic memory
general knowledge, facts
Semicircular canal helps with what?
head rotation
fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster part of macula (which is part of retina) completely covered in cones, NO rods "fOvea Only cOnes" fovea is directly involved in color sensation and its distribution of receptors varies across different species
Social potency trait is what and what is its tendency in twin studies?
the degree to which a person assumes leadership roles and mastery of roles in social situations. Common in twins reared separately.
Cultural imperialism
the deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture.
Racialization
the formation of a new racial identity by drawing ideological boundaries of difference around a formerly unnoticed group of people
central executive
the part of working memory that directs attention and processing
whats the region of the egg that the sperm binds to?
zona pellucida
what different things can makes up a hormone?
•Protein/polypeptide: Small→ large (100) •Steroid: from cholesterol (lipid - not charged and can pass freely thru mem) •Tyrosine derivative: from tyrosine. Thyroid hormones and catecholamine's (adrenal medulla produces this)
Examples of maladaptive behaviors for coping
•dissociation •sensitization •safety behaviors •anxious avoidance •escape (including self-medication).
blind spot structure for eye
optic disc Where optic nerves converge and exit the eye
psychosexual development stages
oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latency stage, genital stage
drive theory
peoples behaviors/motivations are influenced by reducing their drives (aroused tension state, biological/physiological needs) also called Drive Reduction Theory of motivation
devil effect/reverse halo effect
perceive people with an overall negative impression or if one attribute is very negative (ex: a kid that often acts up in class and is considered a "bad kid" can never do right)
semicircular canals
perceive rotation of the body or head
Central tendency Bias
rater uses middle range, avoids extreme choices
Sexual dimorphism
refers to biological differences based on gender.
lexical access
refers to identifying a word and connecting it to its meaning, which has been stored in long-term memory.
Simple innate behaviors example
reflexes reflexes or taxis when bugs fly towards a light
ANOVA
similar to t-test, compare distributions of continuous variable between groups of categorical variable, but can be used for 3+ groups
Clonus
rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle. Ex. Foot goes involuntarily up and down. Cause is hyperflexia, because if doctor pulls on foot activates muscle stretch reflex, so triggers antagonist muscles. upper motor sign
Emotion is:
Adaptive
Extrinsic motivation
Motivation driven by external rewards.
function of limbic system
emotion and memory
Criterion validity
is test valid, can variable predict certain outcome
Pheromones
Chemical messengers employed by animals to communicate with each other
Positive control
Treatment with known response
Vestibular helps with what?
balance and linear acceleration
formal norms are what?
established, written rules
Xenocentrism
judging another culture as superior to one's own culture
What is dispositional attribution?
(internal characteristics/personalities of people)
libido
-Sex drinve natural energy source - fuels energy of mind for motivation for survival, growth, pleasure,
Factors Associated with Performance on Multitasking
-Task similarity -Task difficulty -Task practice
In-group
A group with which an individual shares identity and toward which she feels loyalty
Orexin
A neurotransmitter associated with narcolepsy
Self Discrepancy Theory
A theory that behavior is motivated by standards reflecting ideal, actual and ought selves
what hormones does the posterior pituitary gland make?
ADH Ocytocin
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
Average is defined at 100. Every 15 points above or below this score represents 1 SD above or below the man.
this person is more closely related to the behaviorist perspective of personality, where he studied the ability of operant conditioning to modify personality over time
B.F. Skinner
which psychologist talked about incentive theory
B.F. Skinner
Operant Conditioning details and who created it?
B.F. Skinner: Rewards and Punishment influence behavior: Stimulus present (Positive) or not (Negative), increases (reinforcement) or decreases (punishment) Behavior
paradoxical sleep
BATS-Drink Blood Beta, Alpha, Theta, Sleep-spindle/k-complex Delta Beta) REM when muscles are deeply relaxed but there are high levels of brain activity
what person is associated with Social Cognitive theory?
Bandura Bobo doll
Mating behavior
Behavior surrounding propagation of a species through reproduction. Natural selection plays a role in this.
Private conformity
Changing internal behaviors/opinions to align with the group
Schizophrenia
Chronic, incapacitating disorder by which a person is out of touch with reality
Somatosensory communication
Communicate through touch and movement. Ex. mating dances. Movement can also convey food location (bees), pair/group bonding
The amygdala is associated with:
Emotional reactions of fear and anger
Evolutionary psychology
Gene associated with certain psychological traits that improve an individual;s chances for successful reproduction tend to be conserved
High neuroticism corresponds to:
High levels of emotional instability, anxiety, and moodiness
Flashbulb memories
Highly vivid memories that are tied to emotions. Can be subjected to reconstruction.
Professions
Highly-esteemed white collar occupations that require a great deal of education
Bilateral descent
Kin groups that involve both maternal and paternal relations
who did moral dilemas?
Kolhlberg 6 stages in 3 phases EX. Mr Heinz Dilema
Transformationalist perspective
National governments are changing, with world order (new world order) forming
Myopia
Nearsightedness
Distal stimuli
Objects and events out in the world around you
Dreaming occurs during ________ sleep.
REM
Syntax
Sentence structure
Inductive reasoning
The ability to use specific situations to forming general concepts
Observer bias
When an observer intentionally/unintentionally records a distorted measurement
False consensus bias
When we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not
Formal norms
Written down rules that are precisely defined, publicly presented, and often accompanied by strict penalties for those who violate them
list the "other" neurotranmitter
acetylcholine (ANS) + motor neurons.
Social capital
benefits/resources provided by social networks
cranial nerves are attached to what part of the brain?
brainstem
primacy bias
first impression is more important than later data.
term for Both Broca's Aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia are damaged. .
global aphasia
Fertility
is natural ability of human beings to have babies, which add to the population.
Objectification
practice of treating people as objects, less important
Anomia Aphasia
problems difficulties in naming objects or in retrieving words.
latent functions
unintended and unrecognized consequences of an aspect of society
cultural capital
"High Social Status" Person's assets (education, knowledge, skills) that provides social mobility: advantages in achieving a higher social-status in society Examples: things like knowledge, skills, and education required to practice medicine are associated with high social status in the United States
what is the "I" and "Me" represent from one of the theories regarding sociology?
"I" Independent response, creative, free will, within social norms "Me" socialized self, internalized set of societal values and attitudes
what are the 4 different theories of emotions?
"James shot a Cannon at a Lazy Singer" 1. James Lange 2. Cannon Bard 3. Lazarus 4. Schachter Singer James-Lange: physiological -> emotion, Cannon-Bard: physiological + emotion, Schachter-Singer: physiological + cognitive -> emotion, Lazarus: cognitive -> emotion + physiological
Difference threshold
"Just noticeable difference"--> the smallest difference that is sufficient for a change in a stimulus to be perceived. The more sensitive the sensory system, the smaller the threshold.
Observational learning stages
"MAMA": (Social Cognitive theory aligns with this theory of learning) Attention to the behavior Memory of the behavior Ability or capability to behave similarly Motivation or drive to behave similarly
Gardner's Multiple Intelligence Theory
"My gardener has multiple personalities" Interpersonal, intra-personal(within one person), bodily kinesthetic, natural, spatial, logical/mathematical, verbal/linguistic, musical ,and existential
Material culture
"Objects" Physical stuff (food, house) and technology (computor, cell phone) aspects involved in a certain way of life
Mixed Methods study
"Quantitative" component (the statistical analysis of the total claims) and a "Qualitative" component (the in-depth analysis of a subset of cases)
Prestige
"Respect" with which a person or status position is regarded by others
social capital
"Social Resources" the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively Social Network: types include: ▪ Peer network ▪ Family network ▪ Community network
Nonmaterial culture
"Symbolic culture" NON-physical Includes shared ideas, knowledge, assumptions, values, and beliefs that unify a group of people.
Primary deviance
"accepted" deviance from norm by others, no social aggressive backlash from others Also, if a person is only violent and aggressive when shopping on one day of the year, and his actions do not produce any long-term effects on his self-image or interactions with others
cognitive dissonance
"conflicting inner struggle about contradicting belief/knowledge" discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, believes, values, emotional reactions). feelings of discomfort which we want to alleviate. We want to reduce the discomfort by minimizing the dissonance/inconsistencies/ CONTRADICTIONS
Cross-sectional study
"correlational, NOT causal" look at a group of different people at one moment in time
Lateral Geniculate nucleus (visual pathway) facts
"entrance to brain" 1st stopping location, to brain for visual path of visual sensory information
intrusion errors
"false memories" a memory error in which one recalls elements that were not part of the original episode because memories are reconstructive, they are prone to be not 100 percent accurate
Superstructure of society(Marxism)
"ideas and institutions" or main culture structure (religious beliefs, educational systems, philosophies, the arts, and such) compatible with and produced by the material substructure of the society.
Achieved Status vs. Ascribed Status
-achieved status is a social role that is obtained through voluntary action or achievement. -ascribed status is a status that can't be voluntarily changed (or that one is born with), like sex or age
what are the 4 main types of brain waves, and what main activities are you doing when each one is active?
Beta(12-30Hz: alert Alpha(8-13Hz): daydreaming Theta(4-7Hz): light sleep Delta(0.5-3Hz): deep sleep or coma
Exurbs
Beyond suburbs, prosperous areas outside the city where people live and commute to city to work, like suburbs. o Ex: Rochester outside Detroit, Michigan and Woodlands near Houston, Texas
World Systems Theory
Importance of world as a unit, dividing world into CORE (Western Europe/US), PERIPHERY (Latin America, Africa), and SEMI-PERIPHERY (India, Brazil)
Retrieval
The return of information stored in long-term memory into working memory for the purpose of problem-solving and guidance of behavior
Ethology and what is it, what is it's purpose?
The scientific study of how animals behave, particularly in natural environments. Innate behavior, learned behavior, and complex behaviours.
Divided attention
The splitting of perceptual resources between multiple stimuli or behaviors. Results in the stimuli receiving less attention than if they were focused on individually.
cultural diffusion
The spread of ideas, customs, and technologies from one people to another Can occur in many ways. o Exploration, military conquest, missionary work, mass media, tourism, internet. •Ex. McDonalds in Asia.
Acquisition
The stage of learning over which a conditioned response to a new stimulus is established
Stress
The strain that is experienced when an organism's equilibrium is disrupted and it must adapt
Memory consolidation
The strengthening of the neural network that represents a memory
Self-fulfilling prophecies
The stress and lowered expectations regarding a situation contribute to making beliefs into reality
Behaviorism
The study of external observable behaviors (as opposed to internal motivaitons/thoughts)
Sociobiology
The study of how biology and evolution have affected human behavior. Applies Darwin's theory of natural selection to social behavior, suggesting there is a biological basis for many behaviors. Additionally, argues that biological predisposition is influenced by social factors, and that the origins of culture lie in human evolution.
Naroclepsy
The takeover of waking life by REM that occurs without warning
Conformity
The tendency of individuals to CHANGE their attitudes, opinions, and behaviors to align with group norms. Necessary for the smooth functioning of social communities
Causation bias
The tendency to assume a cause and effect relationship
Self serving bias
The tendency to attribute one's success to internal factors and one's failures to external factors. Functions to support self esteem -Invoked by members of individualistic cultures more Here we are JUDGING OURSELVES
Halo effect
The tendency to believe that people have inherently good/bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics. Our overall impression of a person is influenced by how we feel/think about his character
Self-reference effect
The tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves and consistent with one's self-schemas
Belief bias
The tendency to judge arguments based on what one believes about their conclusions rather than on whether they use sound logic
Stimulus generalization
The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus
Gardner's Theory of Intelligence
Theorizes that everyone has a variety of intelligences that are used in combination to solve problems and perform tasks. Intelligence has multiple domains: Linguistic Musical Logical-mathematical Spatial Bodily-kinesthetic Interpersonal
Sternberg's Theory of Intelligence
Triarchic theory of intelligence that emerges from a person's adaptive abilities Analytical intelligence Creative intelligence Practical intelligence
fluid intelligence
ability to think on one's feet, be adaptable, and solve problems using deductive and inductive reasoning.
binocular cues vs monocular cues: quick way to differentiate between them
binocular cue has: "point of focus" retinal disparity and convergence Monocular has everything else Form: big/small, interposition(overlapping objects), higher/lower, shadows Motion Parallax
list monamine neurotransmitters
biogenetic amines: amino group and aromatic group connected by 2 carbons seratonin, histamine, dopamine, epinephrine, norephinephrin
exchange theory
application of rational choice theory to social interactions. Exchange theory addresses decision making via cost-benefit analyses
safety behaviors are what?
are demonstrated when individuals with anxiety disorders come to rely on something, or someone, as a means of coping with their excessive anxiety.
this theory suggests important components of personality are inherited, or determined in part by our genes.
biologic theory
how do optiates work neurochemically? examples of opiates?
binds to opiod receptors mimicking endorphins heroine, codine, morphine, vicodin, oxycodin, oxycodone
Meritocracy
is one in which selections, appointments, and advancement are made on the basis of merit - skills, credentials, achievements, etc. assumes that "opportunity" is based on a combination of Talent and Effort
halo effect
is tendency people have inherently good/bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics. Ex. the physical attractiveness stereotype - believe attractive people have more positive personality traits.
reciprocal determinism is what?
is the interaction between a person's behaviours, personal factors (motivation/cognition), and environment are all determined by one another
Fecundity
is the potential reproductive capacity of a female.
what is Sense of agency/ effective agency
is the sense that you feel in control of your life, in control of your thoughts and behavior, and able to handle a wide range of life problems successfully
Demographic transition
is the tendency for both birth and death rates in developed countries to decline over time
Secularization
is the weakening of social and political power of religious organizations, as religious involvement declines.
Secondary reinforcers are what?
learned to be reinforcers, such as previously neutral stimuli
latent learning
learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful
Cross-sectional study
looks at a group of different people at one moment in time
Ecological validity
looks at the testing environment and determines how much it represents external environment, whether it influences behavior
Retrospective analysis
looks back at previous events data on set of population looking for correlations, a kind of psychological autopsy -Large sample to have statistical power -Sample of population needs to represent bigger population
Constrictive pyramid
low birth and death rates. More old people than younger pyramid. (in very developed countries)
when does Stereotype threat occur? give an example
occurs when individuals perceive that they are expected to perform in a certain way based on a stereotype, such as gender norms about academic performance.
Likert Scale
participants to rate their agreement with statements about "attitudes, feelings, and beliefs" on numbered scale of 1-5, or 1-10 -Most common type of scales used in research -Weaknesses: Self-reporting bias, aka response bias: (Social desirability bias, Acquiescence bias, Central tendency Bias)
A strong argument will be effective in changing attitudes through a) central route b) peripheral route or c) both
c--> both
Autocommunication
can give information to themselves. Ex. bats and echolocation and this allows them to gain information about the environment
Conscientiousness measures what?
careful vs. careless, disciplined vs. impulse, organized or not
Inclusive fitness
concerns the # of offspring an animal has, how they support them, and how offspring support each other. Inclusive fitness is thinking about fitness on a larger scale - evolutionary advantageous for animals to propagate survival of closely related individuals and genes in addition to themselves.
Role conflict
conflict/tension between two or more different statuses, unlike role strain. The different status compete for someone's time. Ex. someone who's is a parent, friend, husband, and worker
how are conformity and obedience difference?
conformity has a cognitive component and obedience has no thought process, they just follow orders
Stereotyping
creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike
Binet's idea of mental age
how a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years
Impersonality
how individuals and officials conduct activities in unbiased manner ▪ Pro - equal treatment ▪ Con - alienation, discourage loyalty to the group
Unintentional discrimination
how policies can discriminate unintentionally
primary reinforcers are what?
innately satisfying/desirable, like food, water, sexual activity
Self-monitoring
is a long-term strategy that usually involves self-reflection and taking regular notes on your behavior, thoughts, and attitudes over time.
stigma
is extreme disapproval of a person based on some behavior or quality of that person Typically, a culture (or sub-culture) will stigmatize a person based on overt physical deformations (physical disability), deviant personal traits (drug addiction), or deviation from accepted norms of the ethnic group (being a "loose" woman in a traditional Latino subculture).
Relapse prevention
is often used when the target behavior carries with it high risk for relapse or a maladaptive coping mechanism. The program incorporated peer support and taught coping skills
Power Analysis
stats calculation that determines the minimum number of participants you need to have in your study that will best detect the true effect of the independent variable
master status
status that serves as one's primary identifying characteristic, is the most important aspect of one's social identity, and shapes everything in one's life.
Achieved status
status you earn yourself after working for it, ex. Olympic athlete
Hidden curriculum in education
we learn how to stand in line, wait our turn, and treat our peers. We internalize social inequalities, when boys and girls are treated differently by their teachers.
name of area of brain associated for understanding, and specific location
wernicke's area left temporal lobe
Gender script
what we expect men and females to do. Gender Script: organized information regarding the order of actions that are approximate to a familiar situation.
Polyandry vs. Polygyny
- Two types of polygamy - *Polyandry*: woman takes 2+ husbands - *Polygyny*: man takes 2+ wives
Religion
A system of beliefs that affects how people make sense of their experiences and provides a framework for questions about life, death, and the purpose of existence
Church
A type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the large society. Membership teds to occur by birth, but most churches allow people to join. Can be tied to the state or independent of it.
Emile Durkheim
Functionalism: dynamic equilibrium between social facts and institutions, systems and integral parts Does not address individuals, social change, conflict
Kinship/kin
How we think about who we are related to. Considered a cultural group rather than biological
Blue-collar work
Occupations that require skilled or unskilled manual labor
General fertility rate
The annual number of live births per 1000 women of childbearing age
STRONG social constructionism
The whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits. All knowledge is social construct and no brute facts. There are no facts that just exist.
Gender bias
Women and men receive different treatment for the same disease or illness. In healthcare, often due to research being conducted only on male subjects
Structural oppression of women
Women's oppression and inequality are due to capitalism, patriarchy and racism. Women are exploited because of capitalism model, but not all women express oppression in the same way. Men are associated with the mind, while women are associated with the body.
Health/medicine as a social institution
organized healthcare, with beliefs about diseases and approaches to healing varying between societies and cultures
Socioeconomic status (SES) can be defined in terms of:
power, property, and prestige
Demographics
statistical characteristics of human populations (i.e. income, age, gender, nationality, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, SES, immigration status, education level)
Spatial inequality
unequal amounts of qualities/resources and services depending on the "space" area or location i.e medical
Social inequality
unequal distribution of goods, wealth, opportunities, rewards, and punishments, treatment for different individuals/groups
Random error
Error that is due to chance and is not standardized. Decreases precision.
substructure of society(Marxism)
"material base/subculture" or mechanism of a society determines the nature of all social relationships, as well as religions, art, philosophies, literature, science, and government. consists of 3 components: -The means of production (natural resources). -The forces of production (technology, equipment). -The relationships of production (who does what, who owns what, and the effects of such divisions).
Intersectionality
"multiple forms of discrimination can exist simultaneously" Intersectionality calls attention to how identity categories intersect in systems of social stratification. Example: an individual's position within a social hierarchy is determined not only by his or her social class, but also by another personal identifier (race/ethnicity, age, gender, or sexual orientation. T
conformity
"peer pressure" how we adjust our behaviour/thinking (cognition) to match group (like primary group-peers) to align with group norms (to get you to use alcohol) Powerful method in social situations. o This is why it is important for people to have positive peers. If group behavior is positive, then there will be peace, harmony, happiness o Negative peers = negative behaviors, which can be catastrophic
list peptide neurotransmitters
"peptides pain" opiods (endorphin). Perception of pain
Where is melatonin produced?
"pins and needles in a melon" pineal gland
proletariat
"proletariat" refers to individuals from a working class, where their worth is determined by their ability to perform manual labor. Marx's term for the exploited class, the mass(majority) of workers who do not own the means of production Karl Marx that believed society evolved through several stages: feudalism -> capitalism -> socialism.
Repertory Grid Test
"psychological test" that reveals the respondent's way of construing the world
Social scripts
"schema-knowledge structure" society/culturally provided instructions for how to act in various situations violent video games, movies, tv, social media, ect..
counterconditioning is what?
"stimulus substitution" is a form of respondent conditioning that involves the conditioning of an unwanted behavior or response to a stimulus into a wanted behavior or response by the association of positive actions with the stimulus.
Independent Variable
(X-axis) variable: researcher manipulate Comes before the dependent
Dependent Variable
(Y-axis) variable: the changes or not changes made after the experiment has been manipulated Comes second to Independent
what are two reasons why you would agree/conform with the group?
*Informative influence: look to group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct. *Normative influence: even if you know what's right, do what group's negative actions to to avoid social rejection.
Sleep Waves(examples of stages with what sleep wave)
*Pre-Sleep/Sleepy: "Alpha" waves are detected when an individual is awake, but fatigued and less than fully alert. *Stage 1: sleep is characterized by "theta" *2.sleep spindles *Stage 3 sleep: bedwetting and night terrors *REM sleep: is characterized by waves similar to "beta" waves, but with a "less regular" distribution. *Awake: "Beta" waves are emitted when an individual is awake and fully alert.
Erikson's Stages: Infant, Toddler, Preschool, Children(school), Adolescence, Young adult, Middle-aged, Elderly
*these are all vs, but this is shortened" Infant: Trust Toddler: I can do it by myself Preschool: Self starter School age: Industrious Adolescence: Identify Young adult: Intimacy Middle adult: Generativity (contribute next generation) Elderly: Integrety (meaningful life or not?)
Systematic error
Error that shifts all measurements in a standardized way. Decreases accuracy. Can result in bias
What is situational attribution?
Individuals attribute behaviour to external situational clues
Choroid (eye) facts
-Absorbs excess light, So a problem in this area would make you bright light sensitive -contains connective tissue and blood vessel, located behind retina
implicit (non-declarative)
-All memories formed by conditioning -formed unconsciously. -All habits are procedural memories, a type of implicit memory. -Memories that inform unconscious motor skills are procedural memories, a type of implicit memory. ▪ Procedural memory is long-term memory for actions or habits such as how to kick a ball or washing hands before eating. Procedural memory is type of implicit memory. ▪ Habits/Implicit memory is stored in the basal ganglia.
Factors Affecting Attitude Change
-Behavior change -Characteristics of the message -Characteristics of the target -Social factors
5 Considerations of Gender
-Biological--> XX vs XY -Identity --> What gender they identify -Expression--> What gender they express -Attraction--> Not dependent on gender of a person (is not limited to sexual attraction, can be romantic) -Fornication --> sexual attraction
3 Main Assumptions of Rational Choice Theory
-Completeness (every action can be ranked) -Transitivity (Since A is preferable to B, A is also preferable to C) -Independence of irrelevant alternatives (if I have a 4th option, it won't change order of how I ranked first 3 options)
George Herbert Mead's I vs Me
-Description of a restricted influence of other people on our perceptions of self -Generalized other: society as a whole and its expectations on an individual -Me: our social self (how we believe society sees us) -I: response to the social self (our personal responses to what society thinks) -Our actual self balances the I and the Me
Weber's 5 main characteristic of an ideal bureaucracy
-Division of labor -Hierarchy of organization -Written rules and regulations -Impersonality -Employment based on technical qualifications
Industry vs inferiority
-Erikson psychosocial crisis -Resolved age 7-12 years -Ability to learn new tasks
Identity vs role confusion
-Erikson psychosocial crisis -Resolved in adolescence -Ability to form a stable identity
Initiative vs guilt
-Erikson psychosocial crisis -Resolved in age 3-6 years -Ability to carry out a plan
Integrity vs despair
-Erikson psychosocial crisis -Resolved in mature adulthood -Determining how well one has lived
Generativity vs stagnation
-Erikson psychosocial crisis -Resolved in middle adulthood -Ability to put energy into others
Intimacy vs isolation
-Erikson psychosocial crisis -Resolved in young adulthood -Ability to form relationships with others
Collective behavior
-Happens when large numbers of individuals rapidly behave in ways that are not in line with societal norms -Time limited -Involves short social interactions -Have loose norms
collective behavior
-Happens when large numbers of individuals rapidly behave in ways that are not in line with societal norms -Time limited -Involves short social interactions -Have loose norms
Stage 1 Sleep
-Light sleep -The brain emits alpha waves--> consistent with a relaxed state of wakefulness
Brute facts vs Institutional Facts
-Part of WEAK social constructionism -Brute facts: cannot be defined nor explained by something else, most fundemental facts -Institutional facts created by social conventions attaching meaning/value, do rely on other facts
The components of Emotional Intelligence
-Perceiving emotions -Using and reasoning with emotions -Understanding emotions -Managing emotions
3 Stages of Self Consciousness Development
-Prepatory stage--> imitation of others -Play stage--> pretend play, focused on perspectives of other people (role taking) -Game stage--> understanding of generalized other, starting to understand that people can take multiple roles in society
what cognitive abilities decline with age?
-Recall -Episodic memory (personal memories like past residence or fishing trip) -Processing speed -Divided Attention
Anxiety is characterized by:
-The experience of unwanted fear -A physical manifestation of excessive sympathetic nervous system activation -The frequent experience of excessive responses to stress -Concerns about the future and hypothetical situations
brain stem functions to..
Basic Alive Stuff: breathing, swallowing, heart rate, blood pressure, consciousness-ALERT, and whether one is awake or sleepy
what memory is stable with aging?
-implicit memory (aka procedural memories ex. riding a bike) -recognition memory (being able to pick something out of a list)
reinforcement schedule; interval vs ratio, fixed vs variable
-interval: time -ratio: fraction of a whole -fixed: frequency stays the same, same time or same amount every time -variable: unpredictable
Threshold of conscious perception
-min. intensity at which a stimulus is consciously perceived
which memory declines with aging?
-recall becomes more difficult (although recognition is stable), -episodic memories impaired (forming new episodic memories is difficult, old memories stable), -processing speed (older people have a harder time outputting a response) -divided attention (becomes harder to switch attention between task and become easily distracted). Also prospective memory (remembering to do things in future) is decreased.
what memory improves with aging?
-semantic memories improve till around age 60, so older adults have better verbal skills (they are great at crossword puzzles!). -Also crystallized IQ is improved (ability to use knowledge and experience. Typically tested by analogy tests and reading comprehension). -Also better at emotional reasoning.
Sensorimotor Stage (Piaget)
0-2 years old senses - children gather information about the world via sight, smell, taste, hearing, touch etc. + motor = active "peek a boo game"
Erikson's Psychosocial Development Conflicts
0→1 trust v mistrust 1→3 Autonomy v shame 3→6 Initiative v Guilt 6→12 Industry v Inferiority 12→20 Identify v Role Confusion 20→40 Intimacy v Isolation 40→65 Generativity v Stagnation 65→death: Integrity v Despair
How to improve self-control?
1) Change environment - make object of your temptation harder to get while making better/healthier options easier to get. ex. Moving unhealthy snacks to more difficult to reach shelf than the healthy snacks. [This surprisingly head a great effect] make good choices easier to reach. 2) Operant conditioning - reinforcing good behaviours with rewards. Positive/negative reinforcement or punishment. Ex. Watch an episode on Netflix for each segment of dissertation completed (positive reinforcement) or preventing a beeping on your computer as you typed into MSWord (negative reinforcement) to increase work to get a reward/avoid an annoying stimuli. Punishment - turn off internet to decrease behavior of watching Netflix. Reward good behavior + Punish bad behavior 3) Classical conditioning - ex. eat healthy snack every time you crave chocolate and over time you might start craving healthy snacks. Refocus desires to something more in line of long term goals. 4) Deprivation? - Removing the object of temptation completely is problematic. Can make you want it more, and leads to ego depletion (takes lot of effort to deprive of yourself something completely). This is probably why those on strict diets are likely to fall to temptation.
Three ways that behavior may be motivated by social influence
1) Compliance 2) Identification 3) Internalization
Factors that influence conformity
1) Group size (the larger, the better) 2) Unanimity 3) Cohesion 4) Status 5) Accountability 6) No prior commitment
Two reasons why group polarization occurs
1) Informational influence 2) Normative influence
What are 3 main characteristics that impact on how we are persuaded for/against a message:
1) Message characteristics - message itself, clarity, was it logical, how well thought message it. Also includes how well written it was, does speaker have good grasp of grammar, appropriate vocabulary, length of talk, etc. 2) Source characteristics - the environment around the message and the speaker's background. What is their level of expertise of speakers around us - do they seem knowledgeable, trustworthy, and is information credible or not. Where does the information come from - internet poll, street poll, or a psych journal. Physical environment, venue of event (campus or a bar). 3) Target characteristics -characteristics of listener such as mood, self-esteem, alertness, intelligence, etc. How we receive a message.
"father of psychoanalysis,"
Sigmund Freud unconscious desires. psychoanalytic therapy id, ego, superego
social movement stages
1- idea 2- incipient stage= public takes notice of situation deemed a problem 3- people organize a group 4- succeed in change or fail and adapt, no longer active
what are the (3) stages of stress, the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) by Hans Selye
1. Alarm Phase: heart raises, ready state 2. Resistance: fight or flight engaged 3. Exhaustion: if no recovery after resistance, body is damaged (sick) same as long term stress
Hawthorne Effect
Individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed
what are the 2 theories of how Hypnotism works?
1. Dissociation theory: divided consciousness 2. Social Influence Theory: people do and report whats expected of them, like actors in a role more alpha waves in this state
Fundamentalists
Individuals who adhere strictly to religious beliefs
what are the 3 things intentions are are based on according to the theory of planned behavior? of how do our attitudes influence behavior.
1. Our attitudes towards a certain behavior (ex. I like/favor studying), ▪2. Subjective norms - what we think others think about our behavior (ex. My friends think studying is a waste of time) ▪3. Perceived behavioural control (how easy/hard we think it is to control our behavior) ex. I also have to work 40 hours this week on top of studying. ▪ In this example: Our attitude is positive, but our behavior of studying is low!
What are the 3 biases?
1. Overconfidence - Can overestimate ability to produce answers when you need too. 2. Belief perseverance - ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts, ex. During elections learned about and then ignore facts about someone you like. 3. Confirmation bias - actively seek out only confirming facts. Ex. Only read stories about how wonderful candidate was.
What are the 3 levels of moral reasoning?
1. Pre-Pre-Morality: Preconventional: preadolescent (obedience vs punishment) 2. Conventional social norms and law and order 3.Postconventional: social contract and universal ethics
5 ways to encode memory (temporary to long term memory)
1. Rote rehearsal: flashcards, repeating over and over. Least effective 2. chunking: categorical listing of information 3. mnemonic devices: crazier, the better(accronyms, imagery, word associations, loci method) 4. self-referencing: personal relevance 5. spacing: breaks in between learning (5 hours to study, so 5x1hour study sessions)
3 different components of self-concept
1. Self-image: what we believe we are. The view we have of ourselves. 2. Self-esteem/self-worth: how much value we place on ourselves 3. Ideal-self: what we wish/aspire to be all according to Carl Rogers (humanistic theory)
Argument for medical model includes..
1. Those with mental health issues can assume the "sick role," allowing them to focus on treatment. 2. Highlighting dysfunctional behavior allows clinicians to focus treatment on the most salient behaviors. 3. Allows clinicians to use diagnostic criteria to communicate dysfunction to other clinicians.
morula is what?
32 cells. The cells become tighter (cells get closer together and the outside cells become different). Differentiation is occurring. The outside is trophoblast and the inside is an embryoblast.
3 main types of innate behavior
1. reflexes (sensory and motor nerve loop w/o thinking) 2. orientation behaviors (regulating specially in our environments) 3. fixed action patterns (FAPs) sequence of coordinated movement performed w/o interruption
Piaget's stages of cognitive development
1. sensorimotor 2. preoperational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational
Sensorimotor stage
1st stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development -Ages 0-2 years -Children learn to separate themselves from the world -Object permanence is learned here
Whats the difference in absolute and relative poverty?
2 different ways of thinking about poverty - does it threaten survival of person, or does it exclude them from society? Absolute poverty: Minimum level of resources a human being needs to survive. Relative poverty is not about survival, its people whose incomes are so low in their own society they're being excluded from society
which neurotransmitters are associated with inhibition in CNS
2 g's GABA-brain Glycine-spinal cord
What percentage of adults in America suffer from a diagnosable psychological disorder?
26%
Pre operational stage
2nd stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development -Ages 2-7 years -Children learn to use language -Children think literally and egocentrically here--> unable to take on perspective of others
Concrete Operational stage
3rd stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development -Ages 7-11 years -Children develop inductive reasoning -Children learn about conservation of mass
covariation model
3 cues of Kelley's covariation model: consistency (time), distinctiveness (situation), consensus (people)
Formal Operational stage
4th stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development -Ages 11+ -Children develop deductive reasoning -Children start to think theoretically and philosophically -Children can begin to develop post-conventional moral reasoning (Kohlberg's theory!)
How much information can be held in working memory?
5-9 pieces of information (7 +/- 2)
What percent of the American population will have a serious mental illness?
6%
preoperational stage (Piaget)
6/7 yrs old pretend stage, egocentric, non conservation
concrete operational stage (Piaget)
7-12 understands conservation, empathy, math
Population Pyramid
A bar graph representing the distribution of population by age and sex.
Labelling Theory
A behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant
episodic buffer
A component of working memory -connecter for information to be stored in long-term memory.
Episodic buffer
A component of working memory where information in working memory interacts with information in long term memory (eg. relating information you are processing to a previous memory)
Phonological loop
A component of working memory where we repeat verbal information to help us remember it
Social construct
A concept or practice that is construct of a group. Everybody in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value in nature.
Learned helplessness
A condition that occurs after a period of negative consequences where the person begins to believe they have no control. uncontrollable bad events can lead to a perceived lack of control, which leads to general helpless behavior.
Feminist Theory
A contemporary approach of looking at world from macro-perspective, developed from feminism movement originating from conflict theory by focussing on stratifications/inequalities in society. It examines women's social roles/experience in education, family, and workforce. It looks beyond more common male-based perspective to focus on gender inequalities in society.
Habituation
A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations
Projection
A defense mechanism that involves attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts/feelings to another person
Sublimation
A defense mechanism that involves channeling aggressive/sexual energy into positive, constructive activities
Rationalization
A defense mechanism that involves explaining and intellectually justifying one's impulse behavior
Regression
A defense mechanism that involves reverting to an earlier, less sophisticated behavior
Variable-interval reinforcement
A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after an unpredictable time interval has passed since the response
Out-group
A group with which an individual does not identify and toward which she may feel competition or hostility
Leptin
A hormone released by white adipose tissue to reduce hunger
Melatonin
A hormone secreted by the pineal gland that stimulates the drive for sleep as part of the sleep-wake cycle
what is attitude
A learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. To evaluate people, issues, events, objects.
Social facts
Basic structure for any society to exist laws, morals, values, religions, customs, rituals, and rules that make up a society.
Polygyny
A man married to more than one woman
The later sleep cycles are ____________.
A mixture between REM and non-REM sleep.
method of loci
A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations
Spotlight model
A model of visual attention. Shifts in attention precede the movement of our eyes
Stigma
A negative social label that changes a person's social identity by classifying the labeled person as abnormal/tainted
Mood
A person's sustained INTERNAL emotion that colors his/her view of life
Identity
A person's view of who they are in terms of both internal factors and social/external factors. Places a larger emphasis on the individual's own perception of self, which contrasts from a "personality".
REM sleep
A period of high brain activity and rapid eye movements that occur during stage 1 sleep. The brain lives the massive amount of stimuli experienced during the day and consolidates important info into memory and discards less important info. The body is immobilized during this stage.
Dissociative fugue
A person goes on a journey, during which he cannot recall personal history prior to the journey. During the journey, the person may be disoriented, confused, or violent. Usually involves the assumption of a new identity/occupation. Journey usually ends suddenly with recovery of prior memories but amnesia for the episode
Depersonalization disorder
A person has a recurring or persistent feeling of being cut off or detached from his body or mental processes, as if observing themselves from the outside. May feel that the external world is unreal
Identity foreclosure
A person has a sense of identity but has failed to identify an identity crisis (unquestionably adopts the values and expectations of others)
Dissociative amnesia
A person has had at least one episode of suddenly forgetting important personal information. Person usually wanders aimlessly during the episode. Disorder usually ends suddenly with full recovery of memory
Panic disorder
A person has suffered at least one panic attack and are worried about having more of them. Can be cued by certain situations, but are more often spontaneous
Self-regulation
A person's ability to control their behavior in the absence of rewards or punishments; in association with observational learning
Locus of control
A person's belief about the extent to which internal or external factors play a role in shaping his/her life
social class
A person's economic position in a society, based on birth and individual achievement
Cognitive behavioral therapy
A person's feelings/behaviors are seen as reactions not to actual events, but to the person's thoughts about those events. Helps the client become aware of their irrational thoughts and substitute rational/accurate beliefs and thoughts through reconditioning, desensitization, and reversal of self-blame.
Biological theory of personality
A person's genome contributes to the formation of personality, and that personality traits differ in the event to which they are influenced by heredity versus environmental factors
Motivation
A psychological factor that provides a directional force or reason for behavior
Primary punisher
A punishing stimulus that is based on a physiological need (eg. exposure to extreme temperature). Harness physiological needs and the drive for survival.
Secondary punisher
A punishing stimulus that requires learning and social context to affect behavioral decisions, but is just as effective at controlling behavior as primary punishers. Includes fines, scolding, ostracism, and bad grades.
acrosome is what
A region at the head of a sperm cell that contains digestive enzyems which, when released during the acrosome reaction, can facilitate penetration of the corona radiata of the egg, and subsequently, fertilization
Primary reinforcer
A reinforcing stimulus that is based on a physiological need (ex. food, water, shelter). Harness physiological needs and the drive for survival.
what is a trait?
A relatively stable characteristic of a person that causes individuals to consistently behave in certain ways. Combination and interaction of traits forms the personality
Sect
A religious organization that is distinct from that of the larger society. Formed from breaking away from larger religious institutions. Membership may be by birth or through conversion.
Cult/New religious movement
A religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle. Many major world religions originated as cults.
Exogamy
A requirement to marry outside a particular group, with it being the norm in almost all cultures to prohibit sexual relationships between certain relatives
Conditioned response
A response that is learned (elicited through a conditioned stimulus). Is similar to the original unconditioned response that is used to create a conditioned stimulus
Hypnic jerks
A sensation of falling as you enter stage one sleep
Family
A set of people related by blood, marriage, adoption, or some other agreed-upon relationship that signifies some responsibility to each other. Serves five functions: -Reproduction and the monitoring of sexual behavior -Protection -Socialization -Affection and companionship -Social status
reference group
A social group that you evaluate/compare yourself against These groups influences our social decisions - our own beliefs, attitudes and behaviors.
social stratification
A society's categorization of people into socioeconomic strata based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social status, or derived power (social and political).
Physical attractiveness stereotype
A specific type of halo effect where people tend to rate attractive individuals more favorably for personality traits and characteristics
Reference group
A standard measure that people compare themselves to
Hypnosis
A state of relaxation, focused attention and increased willingness to relinquish control over one's actions. Induced through cooperation with a hypnotist or later as self-hypnosis. CANNOT be done against someone's will.
Ascribed status
A status that is assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts (ex. gender, race)
Algorithm
A step by step procedure that leads to a definite solution. It is an exhaustive technique but is not always the most efficient
Nicotine
A stimulant that disrupts sleep and suppresses appetite. Also causes muscles to relax and release stress-reducing neurotransmitters.
Caffeine
A stimulant that inhibits adenosine receptors, disrupting sleep.
Conditioned stimulus
A stimulus that has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a learned response
Unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus that results in an innate behavioral response (a response that is not learned)
Analogies
A strategy where a new problem is reduced to a previously known problem, and prior knowledge of how to determine the solution can be applied
naming explosion
A sudden increase in an infant's vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age.
Mental set
A tendency to fixate on solutions that worked in the past but might apply to a current situation.
False consciousness
A term used by Karl Marx to describe an attitude held by members of a class that does not accurately reflect their objective position. owners can promote this false consciousness by controlling classes, making it more difficult for workers to see their oppression.
Methadone
A treatment that activates opiate receptors slowly than other opiates, dampening the high that addicts get. Eases withdrawal.
systematic desensitization is what? and when is it used?
A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.
Shaping
A type of operant conditioning where successive approximations of a desired behavior are reinforced in order to gradually achieve the desired behavior
Feral children
Individuals who were not raised with human contact or care
Cocktail party effect
Ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd
Hyperreflexia
Abnormally increased reflexes resulting from nervous system damage upper motor sign
this person is better known for his involvement with the humanistic perspective of personality, where he formed the hierarchy of needs to describe the physiological and psychological needs humans require to be fulfilled.
Abraham Maslow
Absolute poverty vs relative poverty
Absolute: basic surviving level, does NOT change Relative: based on median in that area you live in, DOES change
Relative Deprivation Theory
Actions of groups that are oppressed/deprived of rights that others in society enjoy. ex. Civil Rights Movements
Confederate
Actors that are told what to do during an experiment
Role taking
Adopting the role of another person either by imitating behaviors associated with specific social roles or by taking the other person's POV in a social interaction
what is the endocrine response to stress?
Adrenal glands - • The adrenal medulla release catecholamine's (epinephrine/adrenaline and norepinephrine/noradrenaline). Catecholamine's are tyrosine derivatives. Developed from ectoderm. • The adrenal cortex release glucocorticoid (cortisol) - steroid hormone redistributes glucose energy in body and suppressing immune system. Developed by endoderm. Acronym: COTisol is released by the CORTex • Play a role in development of muscles/bones
Advantages and Disadvantages to IQ Tests
Advantages -Simple to administer -Provides scores that are easy to compare -Correlates with academic performance Disadvantages -Less able to predict later career success/advancement -Shows a cultural bias against minorities -Single number score is misleading
Alertness
The default state of consciousness--> most people are generally alert when awake
Life Course theory
Aging is a social, psychological, and biological process that begins from the time you are born until you die.
who did the Bobo Doll Experiment?
Albert Bandura Cited when people debate if they should ban violent video games. It's a blow-up doll you can punch.
who performed and what did the "Bobo doll" experiments show?
Albert Bandura which showed that children can display observational learning for aggressive behavior when they watch adults exhibit such behavior.
Nonverbal communication
All communication between individuals that does not involve words (eg. body language, touch, appearance, facia l expressions)
The most prevalent form of dementia is:
Alzheimer's disease
What region of the brain is particularly important in negative conditioning?
Amygdala
Emotional Regulatory Centers of Brain
Amygdala--> conduction and identification emotions Hypothalamus--> creates physiological aspects of emotions Prefrontal cortex--> controls behavioral aspects of emotions
Habit
An action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic
Principle of aggregation
An attitude affects a person's average behavior, but not necessarily each isolated act
principle of aggregation
An attitude affects a person's average behavior, but not necessarily each isolated act
Working Memory "Baddeley" Model
An explanation of the memory used when working on a task (lanuage, visual, episodic) and their relationships to storing things in long-term memory
Sensitization
An increase in the responsiveness to a stimulus due to either repeated application of a stimulus or a particularly aversive/noxious stimulus
Operant conditioning
An individual becomes more or less likely to carry out a certain behavior based on its consequences. Think: BEHAVIOR ---> RESPONSE. Discovered by B.F Skinner.
Classical conditioning
An individual develops a response to a previously neutral stimulus by associating the stimulus with another the already elicits the response. Think: STIMULI ---> BEHAVIOR. Discovered by Ivan Pavlov and his dogs.
Central route processing
An individual thinks deeply and even elaborates on argument presented ( occurs when a person is deeply invested in a situation/has not knowledge). If a person is using this route, is more likely to change attitude if argument is strong and persuasive
Coercive organization
An organization by which its members do not have a choice
Utilitarian organization
An organization where people are paid/rewarded for their efforts
Social phobia
An unreasonable, paralyzing fear of feeling embarrassed or humiliated while one is watched by others
Crude birth rate
Annual number of live births per 1000 people
Neuroleptic agents
Antipsychotic medications that have an added side effect of enhancing negative symptoms. The "original" drugs
Atypical antipsychotics
Antipsychotics that do not have significant side effects common to older antipsychotics
Prevalence of psychological disorders in adults
Anxiety disorders -20% Mood disorders- 10% Schizophrenia - 1% Personality disorder - 9% Dissociative disorders- 19% Eating disorders -1-6% Somatoform disorders- up to 2%
episodic memory
Any Memories(facts/details) you formed from an "event/situation" because you witnessed them personally
Exchange Theory
Application of rational choice theory to social interactions. Looks at society as series of interactions between individuals. Used to study family relationships, partner selection, parenting, etc. Interactions are determined by weighing rewards and punishments of each action.
Food deserts
Areas (low-income urban neighborhoods) that are difficult to find/transport to affordable, healthy food options, only fast food/highly caloric/snacks (obesity)
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Arises when person feels intense fear, horror, or helplessness while experiencing, witnessing, or otherwise confronting an extremely traumatic event
Hair cell are what? functions to do what?
Arrangement of hair in different parts of the cochlea ----allows us to hear "different frequencies" This is how cochlear implants work, to be receptive to sound pitches
Institutional discrimination
As opposed to discriminatory acts committed by individuals, there are institutional policies that disadvantage certain groups and favor others- i.e. governments, banks, schools etc. Example: Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954. In this court case, overturned separate schools for whites and African-Americans. Brown said these schools aren't equal, and Africans were being mistreated.
Caste system
Ascribed status (born status) into role/position without ability to advance in society -can only marry same caste people -high social stability, low social mobility Ex. The Hindu caste system
Dispositional attribution
Assigning the cause of an inherent quality or desire (internal locus of control)
Stage 2 Sleep
Associated with bursts of brain wave activity that indicate a full transition into sleep
State 3 Sleep
Associated with the appearance of delta wave brain emissions, reflecting the transition into deep sleep. Alpha waves are still around, but are less prominent
Dramaturgical approach
Assumes that people are theatrical performers and that everyday life is a stage, where people choose what kind of image they want to communicate verbal and nonverbally to others. Critics say this research may not be objective, ad that theory is focused too narrowly on symbolic interaction.
Medical Model
Attempts to link societal factors with how people manage issues of health and illness, disease and disorders, and health care. For example, the stigmatization of mental illness has a demonstrable effect on patients and the kind of care they will seek out.
What determines which sensed stimuli continue to the level of perception?
Attention
What is the gatekeeper of consciousness?
Attention
Stereotype
Attributing a certain thought/cognition to a group of individuals and overgeneralizing
The temporal lobe is associated with:
Auditory/ olfactory information, emotion and language, and memory formation
Describe these Parenting styles : authoritarian, permissive, or authoritative
Authoritarian parenting: very strict, break will of child. Punishment. ▪ Authoritative: (BEST) also strict, consistent and loving but more pragmatic and issue-oriented and listen to children's arguments. Balance responsibility with rights of child. Discipline. ▪ Permissive parenting/Indulgent parenting: non-directive and lenient. Few behavioral expectations for child.
Avoidance conditioning
Avoidance of unpleasant stimuli by learning new behaviors to help avoid the unpleasant stimuli before it occurs.
Escape conditioning
Avoidance of unpleasant stimuli by learning new behaviors to help terminate the occurring unpleasant stimuli.
escape conditioning
Avoidance of unpleasant stimuli by learning new behaviors to help terminate the occurring unpleasant stimuli. negatively reinforced
Consciousness
Awareness of oneself, one's surroundings, one's thoughts, and one's goals
What person said that our learning is through observation of others, and observation of behavior of others.
Bandura Social-Cognitive Theory view behaviours as being influenced by people's traits/cognitions and their social context. Talking about interactions between individual and situation they're in.
Prototype willingness model of how do our attitudes influence behavior.
Behavior is a function of: past behavior, attitudes, subjective norms, our intentions, our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior, and prototypes/models. Argues that a lot of our behavior is carried out from prototyping
Prototype willingness model
Behavior is a function of: past behavior, attitudes, subjective norms, our intentions, our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior, and prototypes/models. Argues that a lot of our behavior is carried out from prototyping
Deviance
Behavior that violates social expectations or fails to conform to social norms
tell me some things about Behaviorist theory
Behaviorism is related to the theories of B. F. Skinner. It is a school of psychological research that focuses on individual behavior alone, ignoring mental states such as beliefs and identities.
Innate behaviors
Behaviors that are developmentally fixed (cannot be modified through experience)
What is necessary for an individual to be capable of observational learning?
Biological processes (mirror neurons)
Bipolar I vs Bipolar II
Bipolar I: Person experiences one manic/mixed episode Bipolar II: Person experiences less extreme manic phases
Bipolar disorder: differences in 1 and 2
Bipolar1: manic episodes, and depressive spells Extreme weight fluctuations, hallucinations and delusions Bipolar2: cycling of depression to severe depression
Stationary pyramid:
Birth rates and death rates are low. Lots of everybody
What point in the human lifespan has the highest amount of neurons?
Birth!
Birth rate, what ratio for increase, decrease
Births/1000 people per yr • >2 = increase in population • = 2, no increase/decrease in population. • <2 = decrease the population
Three types of kinship
Bloodline, marriage, adoption
Activation Synthesis Hypothesis
Brain gets a lot of neural impulses in brainstem, which is sometimes interpreted by the frontal cortex. Our brain tries to find meaning from random brain activity--> explanation that dreams may not actually have meaning.
Activation Synthesis Hypothesis
Brain gets a lot of neural impulses in brainstem, which is sometimes interpreted by the frontal cortex. Our brain tries to find meaning from random brain activity--> explanation that dreams may not actually have meaning.
Alpha waves
Brainwaves detected by an EEG during Stage 1 sleep that represent a relaxed state of wakefulness
Delta waves
Brainwaves detected by an EEG during Stage 3 and Stage 4 sleep that are stronger than alpha waves; signify a person is in deep sleep
Beta waves
Brainwaves detected by an EEG that represent a state of fully alert wakefulness
Anomie
Breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community
Iconic memory
Brief and fleeting photographic memory
Warning colors
Bright colors meant to advertise to predators that an organism is toxic or noxious
Top-down processing
Brings the influence of prior knowledge into play to make perception more efficient.
Sleep spindles
Bursts of waves on an EEG distinctive for stage 2 sleep
linked personality to brain systems in reward/motivation/punishment, such as low dopamine correlating with higher impulsivity. (acronym: Clone-iger cares about them brain systems - Clone the Brain)
C. Robert Cloninger (acronym: Clone-iger cares about them brain systems - Clone the Brain)
Brain Scan Types/Facts
CT (CAT): "brain structures" tumor, injuries MRI: "brain structure & soft tissue" tumor, injuries,grey, white, cerebrospinal fluid PET: "brain activity" radioactive glucose→Metabolism tumor/cancer scansactive cancer Metabolism fMRI: "brain activity" blood flow changes via cognitive thought process Most research studies (memory, sexual studies, image presentation) EEG: "sleep vs aroused/alert/seizure activity"
Perceiving depth
Cannot be represented on the 2D surface of the retina, so the brain compensates by comparing images seen by each eye--> the differences in the two versions of the same stimulus from slightly different locations allows the brain to estimate depth of object being viewed
Perceiving motion
Cannot be represented on the brain based only on pattern of information received by retina. Visual cortex integrates information gathered by retina and by eye movements to develop correct inferences about motion.
What aspect of cognition is unaffected by aging?
Capacity for retrieving general information
Gordon Allport: studies of personality, trait theory 3 traits: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. Describe what each trait is.
Cardinal traits are those around which people organize their entire lives. Central traits are defining characteristics of a person that can be easily inferred from that person's behavior. Secondary traits are those that only occur sometimes, particularly when a person is in a certain social situation.
Humanistic theory of personality
Carl Rogers. People continually seek experiences that make them better, more fulfilled individuals- motivated by enhancing the organism. The individual shapes his or her own personality through free will. Conscious decisions make people who they are.
Global inequality
Certain countries hold a majority of the resources. Access to resources among countries seriously impacts social factors such as mortality. The burden of inequality is placed on certain segments of the population.
Specialized movement stage
Children learn to combine fundamental movements and apply them to specific tasks.
How is the law of effect different from classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning involves involuntary responses, while the law of effect involves voluntary actions.
Panic attack
Classified as a person experiences intense dread, SOB, chest pain, choking sensation, cardiac symptoms
Principle of nearness
Clusters of objects will each be perceived as a distinct group
What do these stimulants do neurochemically? cocaine, amphetamine, caffeine, nicotine, and THC
Cocaine: blocks dopamine reuptake Amphetamines: block dopamine re uptake and stimulate presynaptic dopamine release Caffeine: inhibits the enzyme that breaks down cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) THC: works on anandamide. Increases dopamine and GABA activity.
what science related method is the Highest standard in evidence-based "health care".
Cochrane reviews
this is an organization type in which members are forced to join. Prison is a classic example.
Coercive organizations
The components of emotion
Cognition: Personal assessment of the significance of particular situation Physiological: Activation of the autonomic nervous system Behavioral: Urges to act in a certain way NOTE: these components can act in ANY order
This theory focuses on thoughts and behaviors.
Cognitive behavioral theory
Serial processing
Cognitive process involving considering each input one at a time
T-test
Compares mean values of a continuous variable between 2 categories/groups.
ANOVA
Compares mean values of a contributes variable for multiple categories/groups
Front stage self
Component of the dramaturgical approach. Encompasses the behavior that a player performs in front of an audience. The player know they are being watched and that their behavior is subject to judgment by an audience
Back stage self
Component of the dramaturgical approach. Encompasses the behavior that a player performs when with other players, but no audience is present. Can include behavior that would be unacceptable when performed in front of the audience.
Aggression
Conflict and competition between individuals. A social behavior
The prefrontal cortex is associated with:
Conscious regulation of emotional states, and CRITICAL in temperament and decision making
Class system
Considers both social variables and individual initiative in social stratification
Social cognitive theory of personality
Considers learned experiences and observable behaviors as shaping personality, but also considers the contributions of an individual's mental life and personal choices. Posits reciprocal interaction between behavior, personal factors, and environment in shaping personality/ Includes process of observational learning. Individual have personal control over personality by choosing experiences
Agents of socialization
Consist of the groups and people who influence personal attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. Include family, friends, neighbors, social institutions, consumption of mass media, and environments
Three factors impacting attribution of behavior
Consistency--> is the person's behavior typical Distinctiveness--> is the person's behaviors towards everything, or just one thing? Consensus--> are they the only person with that behavior
What is the most rapid way to establish a learned response?
Continuous reinforcement
Beliefs
Convictions or principles that people hold in a culture
this theory states that people pay attention to "intentional behavior" rather than "accidental ones"
Correspondent inference theory Jones and Davis The actor (person who performs the action) is fully aware of the consequences of the actions, and deliberately performed the action He/she is able to perform the action. When actors action either directly harms or helps you (the person making the attribution) The correspondent inference theory helps us properly understand the internal attribution. Internal attribution is easily understandable because of the correspondence we see between motive and behavior.
Biological basis of Alzheimer's disease
Cortical disease (affects outermost tissue of brain) due to formation of neuritic plaques (hard formations of beta-amyloid protein) and neurofibrillary tangles (clumps of tau protein). Some evidence of acetylcholine activity abnormality in the hippocampus
Social class in America is largely determined by ________.
Financial wealth
whats the difference in culture and society?
Culture = learned, reshaped/adapted/passed on cumulative rules that guide way people live how to live. ex. Knowledge, beliefs, values, language, and customs Society = structure/institutions that provides organization for "groups people". ex. family, education, politics, which all meet basic human needs
Culture lag
Culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations, resulting in social problems
Social support
Finding help through social connections. A social behavior
Id
DEVIL: Innate. Reservoir of all psychic energy Id seeks to discharge tension arising from internal needs or external stimulation
The most recent edition of the guidebook for diagnosis of psychological disorders is the:
DSM-V
Situational attribution
Deciding that environmental forces were in control (external locus of control)
stage 4 sleep facts
Deep sleep, bedwetting, night terrors, Delta waves, sleep walk
Primacy bias
First impressions are important-- extra emphasis on information that reinforces first impression
pragmatics
Dependences of language on context and pre-existing knowledge. ▪ Pragmatics are affected by prosody - the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices.
Insight learning
Describes when previously learned behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways.
Mate choice
Determined by a number of factors, including genetic qualities, overall health, and potential parenting skills of prospective mates
Why is the problem with characterizing mental illness?
Determining what classifies ""abnormal" psychological conditions is ARBITRARY. Imposes categories on traits that exist on a continuum
Discrimination
Differing your treatment resulting in harmful actions against minorities "race, age, religion, etc" Can be at individual or at the organizational/institutional level
Operant extinction
Disappearance of a behavior through removal of reinforcers (ex. if a dog learns to sit down in order to receive a treat, and treats are no longer given, the "sit down" behavior will eventually disappear)
Classical extinction
Disappearance of a conditioned response through disassociation of the conditioned and unconditioned response
Reverse discrimination
Discrimination against the majority. Used to describe the negative consequences of affirmative action
Biomedical approach to health and illness
Disease is studied by examining only the biological factors of illness, neglecting contributing factors of psychological life and sociological context.
Role exit
Disengaging from a role that that has become closely tied to one's self-identity to take on another
Dishabituation and Disinhibition
Dishabituation: respond to an old stimulus as if it were new again (habituation stimuli is removed) Disinhibition: lack of restraint (disregard of social conventions, impulsivity, and poor risk assessment) from altered perception (binge drinking, alcohol abuse)
Neurodevelopment disorders
Disorders that involve distress/disability due to abnormality in development of nervous system. Include intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders, and ADHD
residential segregation
Groups of people separate into different neighborhoods. o Can mean race or income. o Where we live affects our life chances, because it affects our politics, healthcare, availability to education, etc.
Exogenous /External Cues are what?
Don't have to tell ourselves to look for them in order for them to capture our attention Ex. Bright colors, loud noises, "pop-out effect") • Exogenous attention is driven by bottom-up or external events, i.e. pop-out.
Neurotransmitter associated with additive behaviors
Dopamine
Hallucinogens
Drugs that alter sensory and perceptual experience. Most act as agonists.
Barbituates
Drugs that are used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety. Act as depressants.
Opiates
Drugs that are used to treat pain and anxiety. NOT depressants--> act on endorphins.
Antagonists
Drugs that bind to neurotransmitter receptors without activating them, thereby blocking the binding of the associated neurotransmitter and undermining its normal effects.
Depressants
Drugs that cause a decrease of activity in the CNS.
Reuptake inhibitors
Drugs that interfere with the reuptake of neurotransmitters in the synapse so that a greater amount remains in the synapse
Agonists
Drugs that mimic chemically similar, naturally occurring neurotransmitters
Enzyme inhibitors
Drugs that prevent the breakdown of neurotransmitters that have been taken up by the presynaptic neuron
Stimulants
Drugs that raise the level of activity in the CNS. Many act by increasing the amount of monoamine neurotransmitters (epinephrine/dopamine) in the synapse.
Sleep terrors are most likely to occur:
During NREM sleep
EEG and Alertness
EEGs show particular types of brainwaves called beta waves when a person is alert
Autonomy vs shame/doubt
Erikson psychosocial crisis resolved in the second year of life. Ability to self-care.
Role of Emotion in Memory Retrieval
Emotions act as retrieval cues, in that retrieval of memory is strongest when the emotional state during retrieval is similar to that of memory formation. Additionally, memories of higher emotional significance are more readily available for retrieval.
Interactionist theory of language development
Emphasizes interaction between biology and environment in developing language. The human brain develops so that it can be receptive to new language input and development. Children are motivated to practice the language in order to communicate/socialize
Serial position effect
Encompass the primacy and recency effects that come with trying to remember a list of items
name the germ layers and where they differentiate to
Endoderm: GI tract tube (forms esophagus, small intestine, large intestine)+ lungs + liver + pancreas • Mesoderm: form inner layers of skin, muscles, bones, cardiac muscles, kidneys, and bladder, ovaries/testes • Ectoderm: outer layer of skin, sweat glands, hair skin, nervous system
Retrieval cues
Environmental stimuli or pieces of information that are associated in some way with a memory being sought. Typically present at the time the memory was originally formed
Environmental justice
Equal green spaces(i.e. parks) and prevention of pollution (hazardous waste) for minorities
who proposed the Psychosocial development theory.
Erikson Proposed personality/identity development occurs through one's entire lifespan. Each stage depends on overcoming a conflict, and success/failure at each stage affects overall functioning of theory. 8 stages
Trust vs Mistrust
Erikson psychosocial crisis resolved in the first year of life. Ability to trust.
Social comparison
Evaluating our opinions by comparing them to those of others. Facilitates the development of a distinct self of self in terms of similarity/difference from other people
secondary appraisal
Evaluation of the individual's ability to cope with the situation. What is the individual's material preparedness to deal with stressor? Appraisal of harm, threat, and challenge (how to overcome it). ▪ Harm: what damage has already been caused ▪ Threat: How much damage could be caused ▪ Challenge: How can the situation be overcome or conquered. o Humans can have a stress reaction and also anticipate stressors! Makes the whole process a bit more interesting/complicated.
Past-in-present discrimination
Even if discrimination done in the past is no longer allowed, can still have consequences for people in the present
Iron rule of oligarchy
Even the most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by a select few
attitude to behavior process model of how do our attitudes influence behavior.
Event triggers one's attitude which affects: Perception of the event ➙ then behavior Social norms ➙ then behavior
Lazarus theory of emotion
Event → Label the event (appraisal-interpretation) → emotion + physiological response Based on appraisal from individual experiences + if label is + - if appraisal is - about the event. Lazarus - "LAzarus" = "LAbel" leads to emotion and physiologic response
Episodic memory
Event-related memories
Rational choices Theory
Every action people do is fundamentally rational. A person acts as if they are weighing costs and benefits of each action. People act in self-interest, driven by personal desires and goals.
Cultural universals examples
Ex. all cultures have ways of dealing with illness/medicine/healing Or wedding/funeral ceremonies. Language (ability to communicate within a group).
fMRI
Examines brain activity by measuring blood flow, which an indicator of metabolic activity (b/c of need for oxygen for increased metabolic activity)
Lazarus Theory
Experience of emotion depends on how the situation is labelled. We label the situation, which then leads to emotional and physiological response
What is a shadowing task?
Experiment that studies selective attention. In this task you are wearing headphones and they have two different sounds in each. Left ear hear one thing, right ear another thing. Told to repeat everything said in one ear and ignore the other. Focus on one ear and ignore the other (selective attention). Based on the unattended information that we do and don't end up comprehending - we can learn about how selective attention works by seeing what they filter out in other ear.
Priming
Exposure to one stimulus affects a response to another stimulus, even if we haven't been paying attention to it
Internal validity
Extent to which a causal conclusion based on a study is warranted. Impacted by confounding factors
Internal validity
Extent we can draw causal conclusions between IV and DV -Confounding factors often impact the internal validity of an experiment.
Social Sigma
Extreme disapproval/discrediting of individual by society - comes in 2 forms: 1. social stigma and 2. self-stigma
differences in external motivation and extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation "broader term" motivated behaviors from any outside factor External motivation: motivated behaviors to gain "reward/punishment" from social pressure from "social contacts"
Source traits
Factors underlying human personality and behavior
what are examples of important agents of socialization?
Family School-(hidden curriculum) Peers Mass Media
Hyperopia
Farsightedness
Max Weber
Father of sociology. Argued that in a capitalist society inequalities would lead to conflict, but that there would be more than one source of conflict. Argued that there were several factors that moderated people's reaction to inequality.
Karl Marx
Father of sociology. Associated with Conflict Theory. Looked at the economic conflict between different social classes, and argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who own and control production and those who labor and provide the manpower for production. Believed that capitalism would ultimately lead to self-destruction of society due to internal tensions.
Universal emotions include:
Fear, anger, happiness, surprise, joy, disgust, and sadness
Vicarious emotions
Feeling the emotions of others as though they are one's own, in order to learn from the successes and mistakes of others through observation
Sensory memory
First phase in memory formation. Acts as temporary storage for incoming sensory stimuli. Encoding at this state is simply transducing physical stimuli into electrical information--> unconscious, neurological process. Information from here will either be lost or encode as short-term memory. Can hold a LOT of information at any given time.
Rudimentary movements
First voluntary movements performed by a child
Fad
Fleeting behavior that occurs when something becomes incredibly popular very quickly but loses popularity just as quickly
Resource Mobilization Theory
Focus on factors that help/hinder a social movement like access to resources
Drive reduction theory
Focuses on internal factors in motivations. Posits that people are motivated to take action in order to lessen the state of arousal caused by a physiological need
Social epidemiology
Focuses on social and cultural factors/determinants to disease patterns & health disparities in populations (social indicators like race, gender, and income distribution, and how social factors affect a person's health) Correlation between social advantages/disadvantages and distribution of health + disease It is also well positioned to supplement the biomedical approach because social epidemiology is a sub-field of epidemiology.
Attachment
Forming relationships between individuals. A social behavior
Psychoanalytic theory of personality
Founded by Sigmund Freud. Personality is determined by a person's unconscious- the flow of psychic energy between three systems in the stream of consciousness (id, ego, and superego). Development of personality takes place according to a process of conflict between components of the SoC. CRUCIAL: Personality processes take place outside of conscious awareness.
Mass Media as viewed by functionalism and conflict theory
Functionalist: provides entertainment Conflict: portrays divisions that exist in society
list Amino Acid Neutrotransmitters
GABA (-)(CNS) Glycine (-)(PNS) Glutamate (+)
Gene-Environment Interaction is what?
Gene + environments effect our Behavior, and the role of genes + environments on behavior is dependent on each other. [Explains Nature through nurture]
A psychosis arising from an advanced stage of syphilis, in which the disease attacks brain cells, is called:
General paresis, also known as general paralysis of the insane or paralytic dementia is a neuropsychiatric disorder affecting the brain, caused by late-stage syphilis
Mass society theory
Groups only form for people seeking refuge from main society (ex. Nazism)
Informal norms
Generally understood but are less precise and often carry no specific punishments
Stress-diathesis theory
Genetics provides a biological predisposition for schizophrenia, but environmental stressors elicit the onset of the disease
Biological factors associated with schizophrenia
Genetics, excess dopamine activity, brain atrophy (smaller brain)
what is an ambient stressor?
Global stressors that are integrated into the environment. Perceivable, but hard to control. Can negatively impact us without us being aware of them. Stuff we just put up with in our lives. Ex. Pollution, noise, crowding
working backwards heuristic(problem solving)
Goal State → Current State. Start with goal and use it to suggest connections back to current state. Used in mathematical proofs, in mazes.
Survey methods-goals, benefits, disadvantages
Goal: to collect a ton of information, usually with questionnaires Benefits: Cheap and not labor intensive. Disadvantage: Potential for poor reliability, vulnerable to subjective interpretation, hard to compare w/ those from other measures.
this person says all of us have different traits. Came up with list of 4500 different descriptive words for traits. From those he was able to come up with 3 basic categories of traits: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits
Gordon Allport
Monarchy
Government embodied by single person, king/queen is the figurehead
Population pyramid
Graphs a population's sex and age cohorts
Factors that Influence Conformity and Obedience are what?
Group Size: 3-5 Unanimity: everyone agrees Group Status: trust popular people or doctors Group Cohesion: if we feel connected to group Observed Behavior: if our behavior can be seen Public Response: if we think we're met with acceptance vs. shunning. Internal factors: no prior obligations and feelings of insecurity
Social movement
Group of people who share an ideology and work together toward a specific set of goals
Negative control
Group with no response expected
In order to grow to self-actualization, 2 conditions that need to be met:
Growth is nurtured by when individual is genuine, one has to be open and revealing about themselves without fear of being wrong. Second is growth is nurtured through acceptance from others - allows us to live up to our ideal selves.
Structures of the limbic system?
HAT Hippo. Hypothalamus: physiological responses Amygdala: conductor of emotional experiences Thalamus: HIPPOcampus Structures are important with regulating emotions
this person proposed extroversion level is based on differences in the reticular formation (controls arousal and consciousness)- introverts are more aroused than extroverts so they seek lower levels of stimulation
Hans Eysenck We all poses all traits which we express to different degrees PEN (Eysenck's PEN) Psychoticism -degree to which reality is distorted. Extroversion (vs. introversion) - degree of sociability Neuroticism -emotional stability
Divorce rate in America
Has generally increased due to social and religious acceptance, more opportunities for women's autonomy, and lessened financial and legal barriers
Dizygotic twins
Have genomes that are no more similar than any other biological sibling
Monozygotic twins
Have virtually identical genomes
Paraphilia
Having sexual arousal to unusual stimuli
social epidemiology
Health & Disease issues/disparities of a population is affected by social-cultural advantages/disadvantage (race, gender, income/poverty, class) studies patterns in populations (the social determinants of a disease) aligns with sociological perspective of health and disease saying that they are conditioned in a social context.
Hypnagonic hallucinations
Hearing or seeing things that aren't there
explain the differences in these subject responses: Hit, Miss, False Alarm, Correct Rejection
Hit: the subject responded affirmative when a signal was present, False Alarm: the subject perceived a signal when there was none present; Correct Rejection: a correct negative answer for no signal Miss: a negative response to a present signal
Ghrelin
Hormone released by the stomach and pancreas that heightens the sensation of hunger
Self-presentation
How an individual is perceived
The looking glass self
How we see ourselves does not come from who we really are, but rather from how we believe others see us
This theory focuses on actualization and making meaning in life, among other focuses.
Humanistic theory
Dopamine hypothesis
Hypersensitive dopamine receptors and overabundance of dopamine is associated with schizophrenia
Social selection
Idea that an individual's health can influence their social mobility. Social conditions can affect reproductive rates of individual in a population
Rational Choice Theory
Idea that everything people do is fundamentally rational, people not only motivated by money, but do what's best to get better. -weighing costs and benefits of each action to gain most benefit. -Pattern of choices (not an individual choice). 3 assumptions: completeness, transitivity, and independence of irrelevant alternatives
Just world phenomenon
Idea that the universe is fair so people must get what they deserve (Good things happen to good people, and vice versa)
Internalization
Idea/belief/behavior that has be been integrated into our own values. We conform to the belief privately. Stronger than other types of conformity
Strain theory
If a person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, they may become frustrated/strained and turn to deviance
what happens if hippocampus is destroyed?
If destroyed, still have old memories intact, just can't make new ones (anterograde amnesia).
Central Processing
If listener interest, motivation, importance are high. People will only choose this route when they are interested in the topic. Focus on a deep processing of the information creates a lasting attitude change
Peripheral processing
If listener interest, motivation, importance are low we process via the peripheral route. Chosen when listener doesn't care about topic, ▪ We Filter information before we can even process it. Focus on superficial characteristics (shallow processing of information) such attractiveness of speaker, their PowerPoint attractiveness, or even how many points the speaker made. How many times speaker got audience to laugh, etc. creates a temporarily attitude change
Thomas Theorem
If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences. AKA the objective reality of a situation doesn't matter as much as someone's perception of what they believe is happening. Theory of social constructionism.
normative social influence
If we do something to gain respect/support of peers, we're complying with social norms. Because of this we might go with group outwardly, but internally believe something differently. ▪ Ex: friends are all obsessed with a certain singer. You tell the group you like the singer as well even if you absolutely hate him/her. You continue to say you like it (or even go to the singers concert)
Normative influence
In group discussion, taking a stronger stance than you initially would have in order to better relate with and internalize the group's belief system. Even if you know what's right, do group's actions to avoid social rejection
Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, a consequence of a behavior that increases the likelihood of a behavior
Reality principle
In psychoanalytic theory of personality, the ego uses logical thinking/planning to control consciousness and the id. Tries to find realistic ways to satisfy the id.
Pleasure principle
In psychoanalytic theory of personality, the id seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain pleasure. The id does so with no logical/moral reasoning, and does not distinguish mental images from external objects.
Insecure attachment
In the presence of their caregiver, infants aren't likely to explore their environment and might cling to their caregiver. If the caregiver leaves, the child will either be extremely distressed or demonstrate indifference to her departure. Occurs when mothers are insensitive or unresponsive
Presbyopia
Inability to accommodate the lens of the eye. Normal part of age.
Anterograde amnesia
Inability to encode new memories
Retrograde amnesia
Inability to recall info previously encoded
Bystander effect is what?
Individual may feel less inclined to take action because of presence of others in the group diffusion of responsibility theory - explains bystander effect.
Self-serving bias is more prominent in ______________.
Individualistic cultures
brainstorming groups vs individuals
Individuals: -generate more alternatives Groups: -social loafing, people come up with less ideas -individuals are less critical -less creative in groups -Why? distraction, social loafing, evaluation apprehension, and production blocking
Moro reflex
Infant reflex where a baby will startle in response to a loud sound or sudden movement.
Rooting reflex
Infant reflex where a baby will turn its head towards a stroke of cheek and open its mouth
Babinski reflex
Infant reflex where if its foot is stroked, the baby's toes fan out
Temperament
Innate, genetically influenced baseline of personality that includes the infant's tendency towards certain patterns of emotions and social interaction
stimulus motive
Innate, unlearned motives that causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity NOT necessary for survival
Precision
hitting the same spot/or close to the spot repeatedly -Doesn't mean your hitting the bullseye though
Manifest functions
Intended and obvious consequences of a social structure
Meditation
Intentional, self-produced state of consciousness induced by relying and systematically shifting attention away from day-to-day concerns
HPA axis
Interaction between the nervous and endocrine systems to produce the body's response to stress. Elevated levels of one of these hormones may lead to depression
Positive punishment
Introduction of a punishing stimulus in response to an undesired behavior. AKA adds stimulus to reduce likelihood of behavior
Positive reinforcement
Introduction of a reinforcing stimulus in response to a desired behavior. AKA adds a stimulus to increase likelihood of behavior
Declarative memory
Involves information that is consciously known
Declarative memory aka Explicit
Long-term conscious memory of specific facts (semantic) or events (episodic) that can be brought consciously to mind and explicitly stated or declared.
General adaptation syndrome
Involves three distinct stages of stress: 1) Alarm phase--> stress kicks in and heart races 2) Resistance--> fleeing, huddling, a ton of cortisol 3) Exhaustion--> if this doesn't occur, we get tissue damage
Absolute threshold
Is the lowest level of a "stimulus" that you can detect with your "senses" Measured by: minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
Where is dopamine produced?
It is mainly produced in the Substantia nigra and Ventral tegmental area.
The problem with heuristics is that:
It may lead to overgeneralization
Dual coding hypothesis
It's easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone.
dual coding hypothesis
It's easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone.
this person (Biopsychological theory of personality) proposed personality is governed by the behavioural inhibition (punishment/avoidance) and activation (reward) system.
Jeffrey Alan Gray "50 shades of grey"
White-collar work
Jobs that are professional, administrative, or managerial in nature; defines the middle class
who did the Little Albert experiment and what did it show?
John B. Watson's involved the use of classical conditioning and stimulus generalization to cause a healthy young boy to fear furry animals and objects.
Kohlberg's Theory of Development
Key: Developing children progress through a predictable sequence of stages of moral reasoning. Levels are defined by REASONING for decision, not by what decision is made Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality -Based solely on consideration of anticipated consequences of behavior (reward vs punishment) -No internalization of what's right and wrong Stage 1: Punishment--> avoid punishment Stage 2: Reward---> seek reward Level II: Conventional Morality -Acceptance of conventional definitions of what is right and wrong -Stage 3: Social disapproval--> avoid social disapproval -Stage 4: Rule following --> duty to obey rules established Level III: Post-conventional morality (few people reach this stage) -Internal ethical guidelines, with rules being useful but malleable guidelines Stage 5: Social contract --> wants to ensure greatest good for greatest number of people Stage 6: Universal ethics --> ensures universal justice
what happens if you destroy the amygdala?
Kluver-bucy syndrome mellow effect, oral fixation, hypersexuality
who proposed the Moral development theory
Kohlberg Focussed on moral reasoning and difference between right and wrong. o Moral reasoning develops through level of cognitive development, and people pass through 3 stages of development (each with 2 stages) - 6 levels total ▪ Did research on groups of children and present children in moral dilemma situations and interview kids based on each of their conclusions in each dilemma.
this is a neurological disorder caused by a lack of thiamine (vitamin B1) in the brain. Its onset is linked to chronic alcohol abuse or severe malnutrition, or both.
Korsakoff's syndrome
What is typically used to treat Parkinson's patients
L-dopa--> precursor to dopamine that is able to pass the blood-brain barrier (unlike dopamine)
Mass hysteria
Large # of people who experience unmanageable delusions and anxiety at same time
Macrosociology
Large scale perspective, looking at big phenomena that affect big portion of population. Social structures and institutions, whole civilizations/populations. Looking for patterns and effects the big picture has on lives on small groups. Broad social trends in cities and statistical data. Deals with matters like poverty, war, health care, world economy
Learning-performance distinction
Learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things
learning-performance distinction states what?
Learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things Just becuase you didn't do the behavior doesn't mean you didn't learn it
Observational learning
Learning through observation (and imitation) of others' behaviors. Very important in childhood.
Linguistic information is lateralized in the:
Left hemisphere
Rational-legal authority
Legal rules and regulations are stipulated in a document. How the United States government operates
what are central traits?
Less dominant than cardinal. ex. honesty, sociability, shyness
Kolberg's Levels of Moral Development
Level 1: focus on self (pre conventional) 1. punish 2. reward Level 2: focus on others (conventional) 3. good 4. law Level 3: focus on all (post conventional) 5. social 6. universal
whole report technique
Limited to 4-5 items
Broca's area
Located in the frontal lobe. Primarily involved in speech production. People who are damaged in this area cannot produce language but understand it normally.
Suprachiasmic nucleus
Located in the hypothalamus. Regulates the body's sleep-wake cycle. Maintains drive for wakefulness by inhibiting melatonin. Light triggers SCN firing.
Wernicke's area
Located in the temporal lobe. Primarily involved in speech comprehension. People who are damaged in this area can hear words and repeat them back, but do not understand language.
Non-declarative aka Implicit memory
Long-term "unconscious" memories that include procedural memories(such as how to catch a ball). Conditioned(classical or operant) responses, and priming (habituation or sensitizing) can relate to motor cortex
Activity theory
Looks at how older generation looks at themselves. Lost social interactions (work, certain activities) need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged
environmental justice
Looks at the fair distribution of the environmental benefits and burdens within society across all groups. A recognition that access to a clean, healthy environment is a fundamental right of all human beings.
Example of Normative organization
MADD, religious groups Members come together through shared goals Positive sense of unity and purpose ex. religion groups or MADD (Mothers against Drunk Driving). Positive sense of unity and purpose
Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development
MAGIC (II)s Sees Demons (1) Trust vs. Mistrust; (2) Autonomy vs. Shame; (3) Initiative vs. Guilt; (4) Industry vs. Inferiority; (5) Identity vs. Confusion; (6) Intimacy vs. Isolation; (7) Generativity vs. Self-absorption; (8) Integrity vs. Despair.
Ego
ME: "The Reality Principle" - Operates on secondary processes. (Reality testing) Mediates the demands of reality vs. the desires of the Id. The self. This is who we identify with/believe ourselves to be.
class consciousness
Marx's term for awareness of oppression and exploitation of persons of a common identity based on one's position in the means of production Marx believed this led to change in society because of Significant economic inequality Lower class united to create "class consciousness" as they realized they were being "exploited". Exploitation would allow lower class to overthrow the status quo. This Involves seizing and obtaining means and redistributing the means of production among the workers.
Encoding of information into long-term memory is guided by :
Meaning
What level of stress is optimal for performance?
Medium level of arousal
Social loafing
Members a group decrease the pace or intensity of their own work with the intention of letting other group members work harder
Semantic memory
Memory of words and phrases (remembering simple facts)
Schemas
Mental representations or frameworks of the world
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often lead to a solution. They are timesaving but can potentially lead problem solving efforts astray
Strain Theory says what
Merton's theory that deviance occurs when a society does not give all its members equal ability to achieve socially acceptable goals
Biological basis of empathy
Mirror neurons are responsible
Elaboration likelihood model
Model of Persuasion. There are two ways information is processes: central processing (depending on quality of arguments by persuader) and peripheral (superficial-non-verbal persuasion cues)
MAOIIs
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Interfere with the breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters (eg. serotonin, norepinephrine)
ill-defined problem
More ambiguous starting and/or ending point. An ill-defined problem does not have an obviously stated goal or lacks relevant information to solve the problem.- ex. how to live a happy life. Can still solve ill-defined problems solve but don't know outcome.
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of how do our attitudes influence behavior.
More cognitive approach - focuses on the why/how of persuasion. 2 ways info is processed: central: depends on words quality of arguments by persuader peripheral: superficial/non-verbal persuasion cues, such as attractiveness/status of persuader (like if they are a doctor)
As group size increases, the group is ___________ stable and __________ intimate.
More stable, less intimate
Glutamate
Most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS, EXCEPT vision. Acts as the major inhibitory neurotransmitter on bipolar cells of the eye in the absence of light.
GABA and glycine
Most common inhibitory neurotransmitters
Benzodiazepines
Most commonly prescribed suppressant. Act as a sleep aid or anti-anxiety aid. Enhances brain's response to GABA neurotransmitter.
Intrinsic motivation
Motivation driven by internal factors (pleasurable feelings or satisfaction). Can be diminished if person continuously receive extrinsic rewards for the behavior
The frontal lobe is associated with:
Motor control, decision making, and long-term memory storage
What is Parkinson's disease?
Movement disorder caused by the death of cells that generate dopamine in the basal ganglia and substantial nigra. Characterized by resting tremor, slowed movement, rigidity of facial muscles, and shuffling gait, and reduction in capacity for language
what are the 4 main stages of sleep, associated brain waves, and other information associated
N=non rapid-eye N1: theta waves: hypnagonic hallucinations, tetris effect, hypnic jerks) N2: theta waves, sleep spindles, K-complexes(declaritive/implicit memory consolidation): N3: delta waves: sleep walking/talking, declarative memory consolidation REM stage: alpha/beta mix like awake: paralyzed, most dreaming, most important for memory consolidation, formation of episodic memories
Sexual selection
Natural selection arising through preference for one sex for characteristics in individuals of the other sex
Language acquisition device
Neural cognitive system that allows for learning of syntax and grammar
Which type of personality makes someone more susceptible to authority?
No one type of personality makes someone more susceptible to authority. But people's moods can have an effect - those with rough day less likely to conform. Status and culture can play a role, those of low socioeconomic status (those with low power) are more likely to conform. Also cultures like US/Europe (individualized cultures) that emphasize individual achievement less likely to conform than collective cultures (Asia, cultures that emphasize family/group). • People conform all the time like going to school or eating cereal for breakfast.
Nativist theory of language development
Noam Chomsky. Language is an innate biological instinct, and everyone has a neural cognitive system allowing for learning of syntax and grammar.
what are Learned behavioral traits and characteristics?
Non-inherited - acquired only through observation/experience o Extrinsic - absent when animals are raised in isolation, ex. social skills o Permutable - pattern/sequence that is changeable o Adaptable - capable of being modified in response to changing conditions o Progressive - subject to improvement or refined through practice over time
Symbolic culture
Non-material,Includes the meanings ascribed by people (i.e. rituals, gestures, and objects)
Assortative Mating
Non-random mating where individuals with certain phenotypes/genotypes/similarities/genes/physical appearance tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency, ex. large animals mate with large animals and small animals mate with small animals.
Animal signals
Nonverbal methods to communication such as vocalizations, visual stimuli, touch, and smell
this organizational type is the "volunteer" ex. American Red Cross volunteer division
Normative organization
Types of Schizophrenia
Paranoid: psychosis involves hallucinations/delusions Disorganized: Flat/inappropriate affect, disorganized speech, disorganized behavior, negative symptoms Catatonic: Negative symptoms predominant Undifferentiated: Basic criteria are met, but symptoms do not fit a subtype Residual: Acute phase has resolved, but person still appears odd and suffers some symptoms
Mores
Norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and so are often strictly enforced
Secondary deviance
Not considered acceptable and often results in the individual being excluded from a group
non-associative learning
Noticing how response changes in relationship to the same stimuli over time Ex: you are sitting in a bedroom and you hear a thunder clap which results in you jumping out of your bed. What would happen? Three options: habituation, sensitization, or the same response due to the stimuli.
The pleasure center of the brain
Nucleus accumbens
Korsakoff's Syndrome
Nutritional deficiency of vitamin B1, which results in a deficit in the ability to recall recent events. Often due to severe alcoholism.
The authoritarian personality
Obedient to superiors but don't have much sympathy to those inferior to themselves (oppressive). Rigid thinkers, inflexible with viewpoints. Use prejudice to protect their ego and avoid confronting aspects of themselves. HARD to change.
Principle of common region
Objects sharing a common background will be perceived as a group even if they would be separated by eh principles of nearness and/or similarity
Principle of similarity
Objects with a shared feature (shape) will likewise be perceived as a single group
mirror neurons supports evidence for what?
Observational learning (aka social learning/vicarious learning) is learned through watching and imitating others - such as modeling actions of another.
Case-control study
Observational study where 2 people differing in outcome are identified and compared to find a causal factor
Obsessions vs compulsions
Obsessions: repeated intrusive uncontrollable thoughts/impulses that cause distress Compulsions: repeated physical/mental behaviors that are done in RESPONSE to an obsession
Memory construction
Occurs during retrieval. Memory is a construct of the mind and therefore can be updated with new info and experiences.
Fundamental movement stage
Occurs from age 2-7. During this time, child is learning to manipulate his body through actions like running, jumping, throwing. Necessary for proper motor development
Peripheral route processing
Occurs when an individual does not think deeply to evaluate an argument (occurs when a person isn't very invested in an argument/has no knowledge). If a person is using this route, is more likely to change attitude based on situational cues (strength of argument d/n matter)
Amalgamation
Occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group
Incongruence
Occurs when people encounter experiences in life that contradict their self-concepts. Can help a person learn what their true values are and then become healthy again by modifying their self-concept.
De-individuation
Occurs when people lose awareness of their individuality and instead immerse themselves in the mood or activities of a crowd
Drug overdoses
Often occur when a person takes a new drug at a high dose, or when a regular drug user takes their normal level of drug dose in an unfamiliar location--> no external cues to alert body that they're getting a dose.
Positive transfer
Older information can facilitate the learning of new information
Bystander effect
Onlookers in a crowd fail to offer assistance to a person who is in trouble because they assume someone else will help. Willingness to help is inversely proportional to # of people present
Skinner box
Operant conditioning chamber for animals, where food is dispensed to animals only after carrying out a specific behavior. Sometimes included areas of electrical shock, used for animals to learn to avoid.
What's the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?
Operant conditioning involves "changing the frequency" of a behavior, whereas Classical conditioning involves "changing the cues" that a behavior is associated with. *TIP* 4Cs: Changing Cues, Classical Conditioning *TIP* The concepts of punishment and reinforcement are associated with operant conditioning. "CORPoral punishment"
Social potency trait
The degree to which a person assumes leadership roles in social situations
Utilitarian organizations
Organization where members get paid for their efforts (ex. businesses)
Normative organizations
Organizations motivated based on morally relevant goals (ex. MADD)
Coercive organizations
Organizations where members do not have a choice in joining (ex. prisons)
Social institutions
Orginazations/systems that teach/provide/maintain/ pass on instructions for stable and/or purposeful social behaviors in society. Ex. Government/economy, Education, Religion, Family, and Medical
what regulates calcium levels
Parathyroid calcitonin and PTH
Retinal disparity
Our eyes are 2.5 inches apart, so they create slightly different images that the brain puts together to give a solid image with an idea of DEPTH.
The self as a social construct
Our identity is created by interactions with other people, and our reactions to the other people
Public conformity
Outwardly changing behaviors to align with group, but maintaining inner core beliefs
Intersectionality
Overlapping of social categories such as race, class, gender as they apply to a given individual or group. Creates interdependent systems of discrimination/disadvantage
VTA(ventral tegmental area) releases dopamine to what areas for reward pathway?
PHAN of dope prefrontal cortex: focus and attention hippocampus: memory formation amygdala: emotions nucleus accumbens: controls motor function
Acute stress disorder
PTSD symptoms that appear for a month or less
Visual processing
Parallel processing occurs at the level of bipolar and ganglion cells in the eye. Visual info is then split into two distinct pathways: one that detects motion and one that detects form, and these pathways project to separate areas of the LGN and visual cortex. From there, feature detection occurs via serial processing of the information.
Assisted marriage
Parents provide children with possible mates, out of which the child can choose
medulla oblongata
Part of the brainstem that controls vital life-sustaining functions such as heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, and digestion.
What is the most sustainable way to establish a learned response?
Partial reinforcement
Reward pathway
Pathway within the limbic system that is associated with feelings of reward in day-to-day life and the feelings of pleasure that lead to craving and addition. Activation of this pathway by addictive drugs leads to increase levels of dopamine.
Proximal stimuli
Patterns of stimuli from objects and events that actually reach your senses
Justification of effort
People may modify their attitudes to match their behaviors
Dependent personality disorder
Person feels a need to be taken care of by others and an unrealistic fear of being unable to take care of himself
Narcissistic personality disorder
Person feels grandiosely self-important, and feels desperate need for admiration. Feels envy toward/from others. Lacks empathy for others, feels entitled, arrogant, and haughty
Avoidant personality disorder
Person feels inadequate, inferior, and undesirable and is preoccupied with fears of criticism
Antisocial personality disorder
Person has history of serious behavior problems beginning in adolescence, including aggression and rule violation.
Schizotypal personality disorder
Person has several traits that causes interpersonal problems, including inappropriate affect, paranoid/magical thinking, off beliefs
Schizoid personality disorder
Person is a loner with little interest or involvement in close relationships with anyone
Paranoid personality disorder
Person mistrusts and misinterprets others' motives and actions without sufficient cause
Borderline personality disorder
Person suffers from enduring/recurrent instability in his impulses, mood, and self image. Results in instability in behavior and relationships with other. Person feels empty with an unstable sense of self, terrified of abandonment,
Behaviorist theory of personality
Personality is constructed by a series of learning experiences that occur through interactions between the individual and their environment. Individuals have learning experiences through their lifetimes that lead to predictable behaviors (behaviors make up the personality). People are born as BLANK STATES, and environmental reinforcement/punishment determine the personality. KEY: Environment shapes personality
Surface traits
Personality traits that are evident from a person's behavior
Verbal info is processed in the:
Phonological loop
Albert Bandura
Pioneer in the field of observational learning. Demonstrated the learning of aggressive behaviors in children after watching violent videos
Hippocampus
Plays an important role in the initial consolidation of declarative memory and long term potentiation.
Affirmative action
Policies that take factors like race or sex into consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or job hiring decisions. It is an attempt to limit discrimination, but has been accused of perpetuating reverse discrimination
Freud's Theory of development
Posits stages of development in terms of the impulses of the id (and overcoming these impulses) Oral - 1st year- Nursing, oral stimulation-Requires development of trust and capacity of delayed gratification Anal - 2nd year- Toilet training- Allows the development of self control Phallic- 3-6 years- Gender and sexual identification- Allows internalization of society's rules and development of superego Latent- 7-12 years- Social development & suppression o sexual impulses- Allows children to focus on other developmental tasks Genital-Adolescence-Mature sexuality & return of sexual urges
Erikson's Theory of Development
Posits stages of development in terms of the interaction between self and society experienced across society, with each stage presenting a crisis that must be resolved 1st year - Trust vs mistrust (ability to trust) 2nd year: Autonomy vs shame/doubt (ability to self-care) 3-6 years: Initiative vs guilt (ability to carry out a plan) 7-12 years: Industry vs inferiority (ability to learn new tasks) Adolescence: Identity vs role confusion (stable identity formation) Young adulthood: Intimacy vs isolation (ability to form relationships w/ others) Adulthood: Generativity vs stagnation (ability to put energy into others) Maturity: Integrity vs despair (determining how well they have lived)
Piaget's Theory of Development
Posits that all children develop cognitively by experimenting with their environment and passing through same set of developmental stages. 0-2 years: Sensorimotor -Children learn to separate themselves from the world -Learn object permanence 2-7 years: Preoperational -Children learn to use language -Children think literally and egocentrically -Children unable to take on perspectives of others 7-11 years: Concrete Operational -Children develop inductive reasoning -Understand conservation of mass 11 years +: Formal Operational -Children develop deductive reasoning -Can think theoretically and philosophically -Children at this stage are able to reach post-conventional moral reasoning
Traditional authority
Power due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice
Charismatic authority
Power due to persuasion (eg. MLK)
People in higher social class tend to have more:
Power, Privilege, and Prestige
Population projections
Predict changes in populations by examining current data
Racism
Prejudices and actions that discriminate based on race, or hold that one race is inferior to another
Compliance
Situations where we do behavior to get a reward or avoid punishment. Aka going along with behavior without questioning why. Goes away when rewards/punishments removed
Meads theory of social behavior stages
Preparatory stage(imitation) play stage(role taking) game stage (generalized other, multiple roles)
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Presence of others improves performance on simple tasks, and hinders it on difficult tasks. AKA people perform best when they are moderately aroused
Proactive interference
Previously held knowledge prevents successful retrieval of more newly learned information . Occurs when information that is newly learned is similar to that in older memories.
Primary group vs Ingroup vs secondary group
Primary group; core social group, close intimate ties Parents, peers In group- a group you are affiliated with based on identification - can be ethnicity, nationality, gender, religion, etc. Secondary: work acquaintances, acquaintances, short term
Kinship: primary, secondary, tertiary examples
Primary: immediate family, brother, sister, your parents, your spouse, your kids Secondary: in laws Tertiary: in laws kids, your brother in laws kids
Written rules and regulations
Pro - clear expectations, uniform performance, equal treatment of all employees, and sense of unity/continuity to organization (laws/structures of organization stay same as members come/go) ▪ Con - stiffens creativity, and if too much structure discourage employees from taking initiative. Goal displacement (rules become more important than goals of organization)
Means-end analysis
Problem solving method where we analyze main problem and break it down into smaller problems, and reduce differences between the problem and goal
Binding problem
Problem with feature detection theory regarding how all of different aspects of feature detection are assembled together and related to a single object. This problem is solved by visual attention.
which hormones released after organs
Prolactin: sexual gratification and relieves arousal after orgasm Endorphins: euphoria and pleasure post orgasm Ocytocin: released post orgasm for bonding feelings
Ludwig Gumplowicz
Proposed that society is shaped by war and conquest, and that cultural and ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over other groups.
Humanistic therapy
Provides an environment that will help clients trust and accept themselves and their emotional reactions, so they can learn and grow from their experiences. Personal growth through self-insight is the goal, achieved through active listening and unconditional positive regard
Negative punishment
Removal of a desired stimulus in response to an undesired behavior. AKA removes stimulus to reduce likelihood of behavior
Libido
Psychoanalytic concept--> it is the life instinct that drives behaviors focused on survival, growth, creativity, pain avoidance, and pleasure
This theory deals with Concepts involving defenses, such as displacement
Psychodynamic Theory sublimation occurs when a person channels unacceptable urges, like a craving to smoke, into something more acceptable, like helping others to quit. Reaction formation occurs when you express the opposite of your true motivations or desires. For example, if the leader really wanted the participants to keep smoking, she would emphatically discuss how they should quit. Intellectualization is the use of cognitive processes to separate oneself from the real problem and avoid emotions and impulses that may arise. If the program leader was using intellectualization, she might focus on statistics about relapse and quitting instead of thinking about why she's craving cigarettes. Rationalization happens when a person uses false but logical reasons to explain a feeling or desire. For example, the leader might say that she's only craving cigarettes because everyone else is talking about quitting, when, in reality, her cravings started before she began leading the program.
Somatoform disroders
Psychological disorders characterized by bodily symptoms
what sleep stage is dreaming primarily in ?
REM
which sleep does alcohol disrupt?
REM, so it inhibits the formation of memories
Racial formation theory
Race and Ethnicity are a social construct, with no basis in actual genetic differences looks at social/economic/political forces that result in racially constructed identities.
this person is a strict behaviourist, associated with concept of operant conditioning. Uses rewards/punishment to increase/decrease behaviour, respectively.
Skinner
Dependency Theory
Reaction to Modernization theory. Uses idea of Core + Periphery countries to look at inequalities between countries. Periphery countries (3rd world countries) export resources to Core countries (first world). This is not because they are in an earlier stage of development but because they have been integrated into the world economy as an undeveloped countries. They don't have means to become a developed nation. They will remain poor and dependent on wealthier nations.
Self-actualization
Realizing one's human potential
Primacy effect
Recall of items at the beginning of the list is strongest
Recency effect
Recall of items at the end of the list is strongest
Negative symptoms of psychosis
Reduced/absent emotional expression, reduced quantity/fluency of speech, reduced initiative or will to do things (avolition)
factor analysis is good for what?
Reduces variable and detects structure between variables. We get a final classification of personality after the factor analysis a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.
agents of socialization is what?
Refers to parts of society that are important for socialization (the process of learning the norms and values in a society) popular culture, family, and religion ect.
Procedural memory
Refers to unconscious abilities to remember how to perform a particular task
Circadian rhythm
Regulates the body's functions on a predictable schedule. Regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus.
The hypothalamus is associated with:
Regulating the autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic)
Is reinforcement or punishment a more effective form of conditioning?
Reinforcement---> punishment does not have a long lasting effect
Prospective memory
Remembering to do things in the future
Endogenous Cues / Internal Cues are what?
Require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it Ex. A mouse arrow, would need internal arrow of what an arrow is to follow it and to know it's not just a random line. Endogenous attention is driven by top-down or internal events, i.e. the cocktail effect.
variable-interval schedule
Responses are reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, regardless on amount Ex. bonus can come randomly on different days.
Diffusion of responsibility
Responsible for bystander effect. People in a large, anonymous crowd are less likely to feel accountable for the outcome of a situation or to feel responsibility to take action
Dishabituation
Results when a repeated stimulus is removed
State-dependent cues
Retrieval cues that are related to the state you were in when you learned the information.
Sanctions
Rewards and punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms
Bourgeoisie
Rich middle class, including merchants, industrialists, and professional people The term "bourgeois" refers to individuals of a social class that have wealth, power, or influence Karl Marx that believed society evolved through several stages: feudalism -> capitalism -> socialism.
Representativeness heuristic
Rule of thumb where people look for the most representative answer, such as if a person matches a prototype. Essentially seeing the most likely/probable answer as the correct answer
Trait versus state controversery
The degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality or due to the situation itself.
Intergenerational mobility
SES class mobility your offspring, different generation than you is part of another class
Social class
SSociety Stratification (categorizes in groups) of people based on social power-status/position (SES) of persons within a community, category, geographic region, or social unit. Western societies: typically 3 main social classes: Upper class, middle class, and lower class
Norms are reinforced by _________.
Sanctions
Schachter-Singer theory
Scary stimulus→↑HR→ Hmm..........Oh.. →FEAR!! states that there is a physiological reaction and a cognitive label.
what did the Harlow Monkey experiment show?
Shows that attachment basis to mother is due to comfort, not food! ▪ Cloth mother acts as a secure base - eventually monkey is comfortable enough to explore world/cage on its own, because it knows cloth mother will still be there. • If monkey became anxious, it would come back to cloth mother.
Attention
Selects sensory information for perceptual processing and conscious awareness. Any information not paid attention to will only be processed unconsciously.
General Adaptation Syndrome
Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion. -Alarm stage: represents the initial reaction to the stressor, when the body interprets a threatening situation and begins to respond -Resistance stage:the body has responded to the stressor but is still on guard if the stressor has only been reduced -Exhaustion Stage: no longer feel able to manage their stress, no longer have the resources or the energy to manage their stress
Treisman's Attenuation Theory
Sensory register → attenuator → perceptual process →→ Conscious have an attenuator - weakens but doesn't eliminate input from unattended ear. Then some gets to perceptual processes, so still assign meaning to stuff in unattended ear, just not high priority. Then switch if something important.
Deutch & Deutch's Late Selection Theory
Sensory register → perceptual process → selective filter → Conscious Places Broadband selective filter after perceptual processes. This means that you DO register and assign everything meaning but then selective filter decides what you pass on to conscious awareness. Some problems - This whole process has to occur quickly, but given limited resources of attention and knowing are brains are super-efficient it seems wasteful to spend all that effort assigning meaning to things first which you won't ever need.
Broadbent's Early Selection Theory
Sensory register → selective filter → perceptual process → Conscious. Some problems - if you completely filter out unattended info, shouldn't be able identify your own name in unattended ear → but, you can as explained by Cocktail party effect.
Educational stratification
Separation of students into groups on the basis of academic achievement
Somnambulism
Sleepwalking
Health disparity
Social inequality causes difference in health outcome that is closely related to (SES) social and economic factors.
Ethnicity
Socially defined concept referring to whether or not people identify with each other based on shared social experience or ancestry
means-end analysis heuristic(problem solving)
Solve Biggest → Smallest Problem. Current State → Goal State Ex. Planning a trip to a new country, biggest problem would be to get to the new country - so you book a plane ticket to a new country.
Conversion disorder
Somatoform disorder where a person experiences a change in sensory/motor function that has no discernible physical or physiological cause, but seems affected by psychological factors
Somatization disorder
Somatoform disorder where a person experiences a variety of physical symptoms over an extended period of time. The person needs to have many somatic symptoms (pain, GI stress, sexual stress, and neurological)
Body dysmorphic disorder
Somatoform disorder where a person is preoccupied with a slight physical anomaly or imagined defect in appearance
Pain disorder
Somatoform disorder where a person suffers clinically important pain whose onset or severity seems significantly affected by psychological factors
Mindguarding
Some members of the group prevent dissenting opinions from permeating the group by filtering out information and facts that go against the beliefs of the group
Egalitarian family
Spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in negotiation when making decisions
Diffusion
Spread of an invention or discovery from one place to another
Spacing
Spreading out studying to shorter periods for greater encoding of information
partial report technique
Study by Sterling found that iconic memory has a large capacity after asking participants to recall 3 rows of 4 letters based on a different tone for each line.
Malthusian theory
Starvation is the inevitable result of population growth, because the population increases at a geometric rate while food supply can only increase arithmetically
Master status
Status that dominates the others and determines the individual's general position in society
Ethnography
Study of particular people and places the scientific description of the customs of individual peoples and cultures.
The effects of alcohol on the nervous system
Stimulates GABA and dopamine systems--> creates feelings of reduced anxiety and minor euphoria
what is Distal stimuli
Stimuli that lie in the distance (that is, in the world outside the body).
Cannon-Bard theory
Stimulus → FEAR! + ↑HR→RUN! For example, seeing a snake might prompt both the feeling of fear (an emotional response) and a racing heartbeat (a physical reaction)
James-Lange theory
Stimulus→↑HR→FEAR! Stimulus, then 1st experiences a physiological sensation, then perceive this sensation as a type of emotion
Self-handicapping
Strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly
Histrionic personality disorder
Strongly desires to be center of attention, and seeks to attract attention through personal appearance and seductive behavior. Dramatic emotional affect with shallow actual emotions, with vague speech
Vygotsky's Theory of Development
Studied the role that social interaction plays in development of cognition. Current developmental level: tasks that a child can perform w/o help from others Zone of proximal development: range of abilities b/t current & potential developmental level. Consists of all of the skills that can be accomplished with help Potential developmental level: The most advanced takes that a child can do with guidance from more knowledgable people
Prospective analysis
Study watches for outcomes, such as the development of a disease, during the study period and relates this to other factors such as suspected risk or protection factor(s). The study usually involves taking a cohort of subjects and watching them over a long period.
State capitalism
System in which companies are privately run, but work closely with the government in forming laws and regulations
Token economy
System of behavior modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behavior. Reinforcers are "tokens" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers
Welfare capitalism
System where most of the economy is private with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society.
Mortality
The death rate within a population. 3 factors contribute to total growth rate: fertility(babies), migration, mortality(death)
The parietal lobe is associated with:
Tactile information (somatosensory information)
Teacher expectancy
Teachers treat students differently according to preconceived ideas about their capabilities. Influences students' achievements
Systematic desensitization
Teaching an individual to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation. Works great with phobias
Twin studies
Tease out the effects of the genetic and environmental influences of a trait, by determining the degree to which genetic inheritance influences it
Shadowing
Technique where a participant is asked to repeat a word or phrase immediately after its heard
Neural plasticity
The ability of the brain's networks of neurons and their synapses to change. Allows adaptation to chaining life circumstances as well as memory formation (memory can be stored as changes to networks of neurons)
Deductive reasoning
The ability to apply general concepts to specific situations
Fluid intelligence
The ability to think logically without the need for previously learned knowledge. Peaks in young adulthood and then declines
Intelligence
The ability to understand and reason with complex ideas, adapt effectively to the environment, and learn from experience
Optimism bias
The belief that bad things happen to other people but not to us
Ethnocentrism
The belief that one's group is of central importance. Includes the tendency to judge the practices by other groups by one's own cultural standards
Class consciousness
The beliefs that a person holds regarding their social class or economic rank in society, the structure of their class, and their class interests.
Race
The biological, anthropological, or genetic origin of an individual
Information-processing model
The brain receives a stimulus input, process the stimulus, and selects and output function.
Principle of continuity
The brain will perceive an ambitious stimulus according to the simplest possible continuous forms
Conjunction fallacy
The co-occurrence of two instances is more likely than a single one.
Working memory
The combination of storing and activity using short term memory. Info is encoded here through auditory representation (you hear the info you may have initially processed as visual info).
Situational approach to explaining behaviors
The concept of enduring personality traits is fatally flawed because of variations in behavior that occur across different situations. Still allows stability in personality, however, because people behavior according to their interpretations of situations.
Cognitive dissonance theory
The conflict between internal attitudes and external behaviors. People have an inherent desire to avoid the internal discomfort associated with a mismatch b/t the two. ASSUMES people have a self-concept of consistency and honesty --> will not occur in people who do not view themselves as honest and consistent
Bottom-up processing
The construction of perceptions from individual pieces of information provided by sensory processing
Sensation
The conversion of physical stimuli into electrical signals that are transferred through the nervous system by neurons. This is a PHYSICAL process.
Consolidation
The conversion of working memory into long term memory
Recognition
The correct identification of information that is presented. An easier form of retrieval.
The aging of the U.S. population is most likely to increase? A. the dependency ratio. B. the social gradient in health. C. the life course perspective. D. the intersectionality of medicine.
The dependency ratio ratio of the number of economically dependent members(too old or too young) vs number of economically productive members(18-65) of the population The economically dependent are those considered too young or too old to work, whereas the economically productive are the working-age population (approximately between the ages of 18 and 65)
elaboration likelihood
The elaboration likelihood model explains how attitudes are formed and changed based on the message and source characteristics like content(research based) or superficial features(attractive, shiny)
Ego depletion
The idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it, it can get used up and you'll have less to use in the future
what is Shaping in Operant Conditioning
The reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response.
Conduction aphasia
The inability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted
conduction aphasia
The inability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted Makes it difficult for people with this to repeat things even when they understand what is being said. Associated with damage to the arcuate fasciculus.
Expressive aphasia
The inability to produce language ( despite being able to understand language)
Infantile amnesia
The inability to remember memories before age 3.5
Receptive aphasia
The inability to understand language (despite being able to hear it and produce it)
Sensitivity bias
The individual's tendency toward or against accepting evidence of a signal. It is a cognitive appraisal of input by sensory system, and can occur consciously or unconsciously.
Replacement level fertility
The number of children that a woman/couple must have in order to replace the number of people in the population who die
Life expectancy
The number of years that an individual at a given age can expect to live at present mortality rates
Groupthink
The phenomenon where a group's members tend to think alike and agree for the sake of group harmony. May cause individuals to self-censor ideas and opinions that go against group norms, or may be pressured by other group members to keep silent on these opinions.
Multiculturalism
The practice of valuing and respecting differences in culture. Believes that the harmonious coexistence of separate cultures is a valuable goal, rather than encouraging all cultures to blend together through assimilation
Cortisol is:
The primary stress hormone, which increases blood glucose
Gatekeeping
The process by which a small number of people/corporations control what info is presented to the media
Cultural assimilation
The process by which an individual or group becomes part of a new culture. Can occur through a variety of means (language acquisition, gaining knowledge of social norms)
Socialization
The process by which people learn customs and values of their culture. It is the way that children learn the culture into which they have been born
source monitoring
The process of making attributions about the origins of memories.
James-Lange Theory
Theory of emotion that states that an external stimulus elicits a physiological response, and that emotional experience depends on recognition and interpretation this physical reaction Physiological and behavior response---> cognitive awareness--> emotion
World-Systems Theory
Theory originated by Immanuel Wallerstein and illuminated by his three-tier structure, proposing that social change in the developing world is inextricably linked to the economic activities of the developed world.
Gender schema
Theory that explains how individuals should be gendered in society. How sex-linked characteristics are maintained and transmitted to other members of a culture. What constitutes men/female characteristics and how stereotypes become ingrained in the society. Cognitions regarding what constitutes a sex identity is a gender schema.
Elaboration Likelihood Model
There are two routes to attitude formation: peripheral route processing and central route processing. Each route is defined by the likelihood that the person who receives an argument will elaborate on it by generating his/her own thoughts and opinions in response
Motion parallax
Things farther away move slower, while things closer to us move faster
Skeptical perspective
Third world countries aren't being integrated into global economy with same benefits
People with longer dopamine-4 receptor gene are more likely to be:
Thrill seekers
Group polarization
Through the interactions and discussions of a group, the attitude of the group as a whole toward a particular issue becomes stronger than the attitudes of its individual members
Central traits
Traits such as honesty, sociability, and shyness. Less dominant traits
Cardinal traits
Traits that are characteristics that direct most of the person's activities (the person's dominant traits that influence all of our behaviors)
Secondary traits
Traits that are more preferences/attitudes
social reproduction
Transmission of social inequality from one generation to the next, People with rich parents end up wealthy themselves They have Social and Financial Capital
Schacter-Singer theory
Two components of emotional response: physiological arousal and situational cues. Must evaluate BOTH before cognitive appraisal of emotion physiological arousal--> cognitive appraisal of situation--> emotion
Vehicular control
Type of experimental control that determines what experimental group does without the directly desired impact
what does conditioned and unconditioned mean in classical conditiong?
Unconditioned means it's innate, already do naturally, and not learned. While conditioned means it's a learned behavior.
Latent functions
Unintended or less recognizable consequence of a social structure. Can be considered beneficial, neutral, or harmful
Upper vs lower class families
Upper class families have concerns related to continuing a larger family tradition and properly training children, while lower class families are focused on completing the everyday tasks necessary for survival. Upper class parents are more permissive/authoritative, while lower class parents are more authoritarian.
Hypothesis of Relative Deprivation
Upsurge in prejudice when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to
Drives
Urges to perform certain behaviors in order to resolve physiological arousal when that arousal is caused by the biological needs of the organism
Elimination disorder
Urination/defecation at inappropriate times
Behavioral therapy
Uses conditioning to shape a client's behaviors in the desired direction. Commonly used to desensitize anxiety patients to phobias or anxiety-provoking stimuli
Psychoanalytic therapy
Uses various methods to help a patient become aware of his/her unconscious motives, in order to help the patient be more able to choose behaviors consciously. Therapy sessions usually focus on patients talking about their lives and reducing anxiety through self insight through analysis and interpretation.
Mnemonic device
Using unrelated stimuli or words to help you remember information. Encoding strategy
Identification
When people act/dress a certain way to be like someone they respect. Will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual
Frustration-aggression principle
When someone is blocked from achieving a goal, the frustration can trigger anger, leading to aggression
which reinforcement schedule is the most effective
Variable-Ratio, used for slot machines
whats the difference in Chompsky and Vygotsky view on language acquisition?
Vygotsky's view, stresses the role of others and interactions with others in language acquisition • language and thought are both independent, but converge through development. Chomsky's view, individuals have an innate "born with" language acquisition device
Feature detection theory
We activate different areas of the brain when looking at different features of an image. Allows for parallel processing of a visual stimulus.
Actor-observer bias
We are victims of circumstance, but others are willful actors. Form of fundamental attribution error.
Inattentional blindness
We aren't aware of things not in our visual filed when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field
Defensive attribution hypothesis
We blame the victim, not situation, because we are afraid to admit that things out of our control due to chance, random When we defend "random acts", meaning they aren't to blame
Resource model of attention
We have a limited pool of resource son which to draw when performing tasks. Practicing a task diminishes task resource demand
Frustration Aggression principle
When someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger and lead to aggression
According to humanistic theory, when is an individual's personality healthy?
When the individual's actual self, ideal self, and perceived self (self-concept) overlap (are the same)
social constructs
a social mechanism, phenomenon, or category created and developed by society; a perception of an individual, group, or idea that is 'constructed' through cultural or social practice
Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development
What is known-"I can do already" ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (Skills too difficult for a child to master on their own, needs guidance and encouragement from a knowledgeable person) What is unknown-"Never could I do that!"
Subject bias
When a study participate intentionally/unintentionally reports distorted measurements
Extinctive burst
When an individual no longer receives regular reinforcement, its original behavior will sometimes spike (increase dramatically)
Role Exit
When an individual stops engaging in a role previously central to their identity and the process of establishing a new identity. Example: When an individual retires from a long career and must transition from the role of worker with deadlines and responsibilities to a leisurely life or when an individual becomes a parent and has to change their lifestyle.
Global aphasia
When both production and understanding of language is damaged
Projection bias
When we assume others share the same beliefs we do
Informational social influence
When we conform because we feel others are more knowledgable than us, because we think they know something we don't
selective attention
When you divide your attention on one task between 2 (ex: watch TV and studying together) It's like a flashlight on your attention -you can move it around at any spot.
Perceived control and stress
When you have a higher perceived control of your environment, your stress level will go down. If you feel like you have little control over your environment, you will become stressed or depressed Studies that show: •Robert Sapolsky-baboons social hierarchy •White-Hall Study-rank of humans in workplace
Construct validity
Whether a tool is measuring what it is intended to measure
External validity
Whether the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people. Protected for by randomization of sample and control of situational variables
Cognition
Wide range of higher level internal mental activities (eg. logical reasoning, language) that influence external behaviors
Modeling
Witnessing another person's actions, retaining info on that person's behavior, and later re-enacting what was learned
Is conformity necessary for a society to function smoothly?
Yes
are we born with emotions?
Yes: 1. newborns react same way emotionally as adults 2. blind people have same facial expressions as those who see
recency bias.
Your most recent actions are also very important, and people place a lot of emphasis on your recent actions/recent performances, more than ones before - the recency bias. Ex: you're only as good as your last game, last match.
Recency bias
Your most recent actions are important--> people place emphasis on your more recent actions/performances
labeling theory of deviance is what?
a behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant. Depends on what's acceptable in that society. o Ex. steroids can be labelled as deviant. Not labeled as right or wrong, it is possible that in some situations steroids are necessary. In professional sports - steroid use can be labeled as wrong or unfair and can be considered deviant and subject to critic by others. Deviance is determined by the team members, sporting league, or greater society label.
Social group
a collection of shared experiences that create a group identity among a set of individuals within a population
representiveness heuristic
a heuristic where people look for the most representative answer, and look to match prototype - a given concept to what is typical/representative
life course approach to health
a holistic perspective that calls attention to developmental processes and other experiences across a person's life
What is overt orienting?
a person turns all or part of the body to alter or maximize the sensory impact of an event
myers briggs test and what are its components?
a personality test that taps 4 characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types ESTJ: extraversion (E), sensing (S), thinking (T), judgment (J)- (Acronym: East ST. Johns High school) INFP: introversion (I), intuition (N), feeling (F), perception (P) (Acronym: I Need the Feeling of Pain)
authoritarian personality
a personality that is disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance of outgroups and those lower in status obedient to superiors, oppressive, inflexible use prejudice to protect their ego and avoid confronting aspects of themselves because they're always focussed on others.
well-defined problem
a problem with clear specifications of the start state, goal state, and the processes for reaching the goal state
self-serving bias
a readiness to perceive oneself favorably
variable-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
fixed-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses ex. car salesman gets bonus every 5 cars he sells
Stereotype threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
Looking Glass Self (Cooley) deals with what?
a self-image based on how we think others see us, forming concept of "selves" based our perceptions on how we think others see us
Oligarchy
a small group of people having control of a country, organization, or institution
Master Status
a status that has special importance for social identity, often shaping a person's entire life supersedes other identifying traits; for example, if a woman feels that her role as a mother is more important than her role as a woman, a daughter, etc., she is more likely to identify herself as a mother and to identify with other women who label themselves as such.
what is the looking-glass self
a term coined by Charles Cooley to refer to the process by which our self develops through internalizing others' reactions to us 1) How do I appear to others? 2) What must others think of me? (are we: shy, intelligent, funny, or awkward) 3) Revise how we think about ourselves (based on correct OR incorrect perceptions on others evaluations).
elaboration likelihood model
a theory of how persuasive messages lead to attitude changes with central and peripheral routes The target characteristics are the most important in this model, but all play a factor (message and source characteristics as well). Determines when people will be influenced by the content of a speech vs. more superficial features.
Signal Detection Theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.
dramaturgical approach
a view of social interaction in which people are seen as theatrical performers front, back stage
what is dissociation
ability of the mind to separate and compartmentalize thoughts, memories, and emotions. This is often associated with post traumatic stress syndrome.
What is the cocktail party effect?
ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd. Or when someone calls your name (endogenous cue..meaning of name draws attention)
Self-Stigma
acceptance of prejudice and discrimination based on internalized negative societal beliefs or stereotypes
Fixation
according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved Ex. someone fixated at oral stage (first stage) might have oral personality characteristics, such as smoking habits/overly talkative when they grow up.
which neurotransmitter is associated frontal lobe to cerebral cortex
aceytocholine nuclei(basilis and septal nuclei)
which neurotransmitter is associated with muscle contractions
acytelcholine
Accommodation
adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
Cultural Transmission:
addresses how culture is learned. Culture is passed along from generation to generation through various childrearing practices, including when parents expose children to music.
Emotional support examples
affection, love, trust, caring. The type that involves listening and emphasizing. Can include physical support (hugs/pats on back). Provided by those closest to you (family/close friends)
ABC model of attitudes
affective component, behavior component, cognitive component Example 1: "I love yoga because I get to mediate and I believe it helps me relax so I will go to class each week." - 'I love yoga' is emotional,' I believe it helps me relax' is cognitive, and behavioural is 'I will go to class each week' • Example 2: "I am frightful of rollercoasters and believe they are stupid so I will be on the carousel." Affective - 'I am frightful', behavioural is 'I will be on the carousel', and cognitive is 'I believe they are stupid'
Amygdala function
aggression/conductor of emotion center. If you stimulate amygdala, produces anger/violence and fear/anxiety response
Life Course Theory
aging is a social, psychological, and biological process that begins from time you born till time you die. a holistic perspective that calls attention to developmental processes and other experiences across a person's life
working memory
aka short term memory -Working memory is memory that is stored while it is held in attention. -7 (why phone numbers are 7 digits)
whats the most common depressant drug?
alchohol, and it is a CNS depressant that is absorbed through the cell membrane
what are the 3 categories of depressants
alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines
effort justification
an idea and paradigm in social psychology stemming from Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance. Effort justification is people's tendency to attribute a greater value (greater than the objective value) to an outcome they had to put effort into acquiring or achieving.
Norms
are standards for what behaviours, set by groups of individuals, are acceptable, and which are not. Rules that dictate how person should behave around certain group of people - and are defined by that group and usually guided by some sort of moral standard or ethical value that is easily understood and internalized by all members of the group. Provide structure and standards of how people can behave.
what is Proximal stimuli
are the patterns of stimuli from these objects and events that actually reach your senses (eyes, ears, etc.). It is the light that is actually falling on the retina.
Ghettoes
areas where specific racial, ethnic, or religious minorities are concentrated, usually due to social or economic inequities
Social constructionism
argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions/agreement - it's something constructed, not inherent. theory that knowledge is not real, and only exists because we give them reality through social agreement - nations, books, etc. don't exist in absence of human society.
Prejudice
attitudes that prejudge a group, usually negative and not based on facts. Make same assumptions about everyone in a group without considering their differences. Ex. CEO doesn't think women are capable of running a team.
universally attractive
attractive across cultural backgrounds. Things like youthfulness, skin clarity/smoothness, body symmetry. For women, low waist-hip ratio and full breasts. For men, muscular chest and V-shaped torso (broad shoulders, narrow waste)
anthropomorphism
attributing human characteristics to non-human animals. We can interpret and describe meaning to action of animals but we can't be certain if we are correct about these interpretations because we can't speak to the animals.
echoic memory
auditory sensory memory, retained for up to several seconds
availability vs representative heuristic
availability = actual memories in mind, representativeness = not thinking of exact memories, thinking of a prototype of idea (general typical concept)
Taboos
behaviors completely forbidden/wrong in any circumstance, and violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more. Often punishable by law (with serious legal consequences) and result in severe disgust by members of community. Considered very immoral behavior. Ex. Incest (sexual relationships between family members) and cannibalism (eating human flesh)
A weak argument will be effective in changing attitudes through a) central route b) peripheral route or c) both
b--> weak arguments only work through peripheral route
what structure is considered the major cholinergic output of CNS?
basal forebrain area, it makes acetylcholine
crystallized intelligence
based on fact, experience, prior learning and accumulates as one ages.
why do Researchers always try to look at identical twins for research studies
because used to tease out environmental vs. genetic characteristics - same genetic makeup. aka: We look at identical twins because they have the same genetic makeup. We look at twins who grew up in different environments and they still had similar personalities - similar traits
categorical self
becoming aware that even though we're separate/distinct objects/beings, we also exist in the world with others.
Cultural relativism
being aware of and judging a culture by its own standards, biases, norms, values, ect. instead of by yours - o No absolute right or wrong except violation of human rights no matter what culture they're from.
list the monoamine subgroup catecholamines
benzene w/ 2 hydroxyl groups) dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine
Hearing pathway to the brain(taken from MCAT practice exams)
bones: (HAS: Hammer→Anvil→Sturip) Pathway: 1. Organ of Corti (detects physical vibrations, makes them electrical signals, amazon gets order, picks and ships)→ 2. auditory nerve(delivers to brain, delivery semi truck)→ 3. inferior colliculus(local mail truck) → 4. medial geniculate nucleus(loading dock)→ 5. auditory cortex (processing)
social anomie
breakdown of social bonds between an individual and their community A situation in which society does not have the support of a firm collective consciousness. Social anomie can also result in social groups disbanding, and alienation from social groups. To resolve social anomie, social norms must be strengthened and groups must redevelop sets of shared norms. Can lead to uncertainty in social situations. Means that there is a weakened sense of morality and criteria for behavior.
how do you avoid group think?
bring in outsiders/experts, have the leader of the group not disclose opinion, discuss what should be done in smaller groups
name of area of brain associated for speaking, and specific location
broca's area left, frontal lobe
Tracts of the Spinal Cord
bundle of parallel axons within CNS, "white matter"
which psychologist is associated with humanistic theory
carl rogers developed Abraham Maslow was first theorist Central feature of our personality is self-concept
Mediating Variable
causal link to why IV and DV relate to each other Ex. "older"IV drivers are "better"DV drivers "older"IV drivers are "wiser"MV" causing them to be "better"DV drivers
what are causes of korsakoff's syndrome?
caused by lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine. Caused by malnutrition, eating disorders, and especially alcoholism. These groups don't process or absorb all the nutrients they need. -Most cases Not caused by brain injuries -Thiamine is important because converts carbohydrates into glucose cells need for energy. Important for normal functioning of neurons
privately conform
change behaviours and opinions to align with group. ▪ Ex: If you privately conformed to the shock color, you would leave the situation with a genuine belief that the best way to train a dog is with a shock color.
Demographic transition theory
changes in both birth rate and the death rate ande economic development/industrialization Typical pattern: Drop in the death rate, leading to population growth, followed by a drop in the birth rate, leading to population stabilization
Riots
characterized by large # of people who engage in dangerous behavior, such as vandalism, violence, or other crimes
Primary groups
closest members of the group to you. Close intimate long-term relationships. Parents, close friends from childhood
attributional bias
cognitive bias that refers to the systematic errors made when people evaluate or try to find reasons for their own and others' behaviors. People constantly make attributions regarding the cause of behaviors; however, attributions do not always accurately mirror reality. Rather than operating as objective perceivers, people are prone to perceptual errors that lead to biased interpretations of their social world.
Which theory connects the observable (behavioral) to mental approach (psychoanalytic) approach?
cognitive theory a bridge between classic behaviourism and other theories like psychoanalytic
long tracts are what?
collections of axons connecting cerebrum and brain stem
independent samples t-test
compares mean values between 2 groups to a specific value
Tailed Test (T-Test)
compares mean values of a continuous variable (dependent) between 2 categories/groups, ex. comparing mean of a group to a specific value. Can also compare means of 2 groups. Two-tailed = possibility of relationship in both directions, One-tailed = one direction.
Skeptical Perspective
critical of globalization, considers it as being regionalized instead of globalized. Third world countries aren't being integrated into global economy with same benefits as first world countries. Current economy is not leading towards global capitalism. Transnational corporations still tied to their home countries and national borders remain important. CRTIICAL.
Meta-analyses
data from multiple studies combined and re-analized
Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)
debilitating disorder characterized by impulsivity, unstable affect, and difficult interpersonal relationships Substance use is a diagnostic criterion of BPD. For that reason, BPD and Substance Use Disorder (SUD) have a high comorbidity
Operationalization
defining your variables in practical/measurable terms to represent the data Methods/experimental setup
What is an exurb?
describes community beyond suburbs who are very prosperous
Demand characteristics are what?
describes how participants change behaviour to match expectations of experimenter. Conformed because that's what experimenter wanted them to do.
Social control
describes the ways in which society can prevent and sanction behavior that violates social norms.
autonomous motivation
desire to reach one's goals creates a drive that individuals are motivated to fulfill
what is it called when norm is violated?
deviance Not negative, just individuals behaving differently from what society feels is normal. Deviance is relative (just like norms are). Deviance is dependent on context, individuals, group, and country. Deviance standards can change based on these factors. o Ex. most Americans eat meat, but someone who's vegetarian is deviant in US (their behavior is different than what majority considers as normal)
mass media
dissemination of information AND how information is transmitted within a culture
categorical perception
distinction between sounds (hearing children must be able to do this for language development) distinction between hand movements (non-hearing children must be able to do this for language development)
what is Ecological validity
do the conditions of the study mimic those of the real world. If they don't, we can only make limited conclusions. A line in lab (in this experiment) is not same as conformity in the real world.
Construct validity
does our data/outcomes match our goals/theory, how well is the test constructed
Transformationalist Perspective
doesn't have specific cause or outcome. Believe national governments are changing, perhaps becoming less important but difficult to explain change so simply. They see the world order is changing. Just a new world order is being developing. Many factors that influence change of world patterns but outcome unknown. CHANGING
which neurotransmitter is associated with VTA and substancia nigra (motor planning)
domapine
Ecclesia
dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, ex. Lutheranism in Sweden and Islam in Iran.
Hierarchy of organization
each position is under supervision of higher authority. Not all people of an organization are equal. ▪ Pro - clarify who's in command ▪ Con - deprive people of voice in decision making (especially of those lower in chain of command) and shirk responsibility, especially in unethical tasks ("I was just following orders"). Also allows individuals allows them to hide mistakes (often serious mistakes because no one person interacts with all members).
example of social institutions
education, family, religion
Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment showed what
effects of power and authority on individuals
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development "language" and "thought" are both independent, but "converge" through development. heavily stresses the role of people and interactions in language acquisition, which would involve mirror neurons
Pluralism
encourages racial and ethnic variation. A theory of government that holds that open, multiple, and competing groups can check the asserted power by any one group.
cortical reaction is what?
enzymes prevent any other sperm from binding to the egg
Remembering past personal events, such as state of residence in childhood and residential history since birth requires retrieval of ....................... from memory
episodic information (personal memories)
Normative social influence
even if you know what's right, do what group's negative actions to to avoid social rejection. ▪ Ex: you are an expert group trainer and you know it's easier to train the dog with treats than treat it with a shock color. Even though you know training the dog with a shock color is incorrect you may still decide to go along with the group to avoid being a social outcast. You fear social rejection that can come with disagreement with the group, so you conform to even a wrongful act.
Iron rule of oligarchy
even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by select few. Why? Conflict theory explains it. Once person gains leadership role in organization they might be hesitant to give it up. (those with power have vested interest in keeping it) Also those who achieve power might have skills that make them valuable.
Sherif's Robbers Cave Study examined what?
examined the intergroup - 2 groups of 11-year-old boys against each other at summer camp (Eagles vs. Rattlers) - after competitions / be relations emerged, task-oriented cooperation was used to improve relations
Sick role
expectation in society that allows you to take a break from responsibilities. But if you don't get better or return, you're viewed as deviant and harmful to society.
social cognitive perspective is based on what?
expectations of others
Learning (Behavorist) Theory of language
explains language acquisition as being controlled by operant conditioning and reinforcement by parents and caregivers
what are the 2 main categories of long-term memory?
explicit (declarative) implicit (non-declarative)
What is change blindness?
fail to notice changes from a previous to a current state in environment. (Different from inattentional blindness, a subtle but importance difference) ex: don't notice when your mom gets a haircut. Ex. Famous study done where a person asks a stranger in a big city to give directions. The person is swapped with another person and the direction giver does not notice that this was a different person that they were now giving directions too
Type II error (beta)
false negative failing to reject a false null hypothesis
3 factors contribute to total growth rate
fertility, migration, mortality
Tangible/Instrumental support
financial assistance/support, material goods, or services. Taking some of your responsibilities so you can deal with other problems. Can come from a bank, people who bring you dinner when you're sick, or lend you money between jobs
complex innate behavior example
fixed action patters like mating dance, migration
Which term is used to describe a memory report that is inaccurate, but expressed with extreme confidence?
flashbulb memory
Endolymph
fluid within the labyrinth of the inner ear -stimulates the receptor cells, which in turn translate their movement into nerve impulses that the brain perceives as sound
Huministic Theory
focuses on healthy personality development, and humans are seen as inherently good. The most basic motive of all people is the actualizing tendency (self-actualization), innate drive to maintain and enhance oneself. Person will grow towards self-actualization as long as there are no obstacles.
longitudinal study
follows same group of people that are restudied and retested over a long period Gives more insight into risk factors and protective factors than single point in time, but still not 100% causal
Secondary groups
formal, impersonal, temporary, and business-like relationships, based on a limited purpose/goal. Usually short-term, and only see them sometimes. Do a few goal-directed activities with these people ex. You do things like attending a lunch meeting to talk business. You are only part of the group to accomplish a task or for example, earn money (means to an end) "formal impersonal groups"
What are examples of innate behaviors traits and what are characteristics?
genetically programmed behavior. present at birth and requires no experience with the environment. Have the following characteristics: o Inherited - innate behaviours are encoded by DNA o Intrinsic - present even if you're raised in isolation. Ex. Pooping, peeing, etc. o Stereotypic - performed the same way each time. o Inflexible - not modifiable by experience. o Consummate - fully developed right away, at first performance. Not influenced by experience. ▪ Subject to change through mutation and recombination, natural selection etc (just like all other physical traits) ▪ Ex. Nausea in women during pregnancy helps them avoid toxic foods/novel-strongly flavored food in critical period of development. Thought of as programmed.
Cost signalling
giving signals to others that person who's giving has resources. People have increased trust in those they know have helped others in the past. Signals that the person is open to cooperation
which neurotransmitter is associated with reticular activation system
glutamate, it increases arousal
assimilation
goes for "any" assimilation (cultural assimulation, childs development) where individual or minority/smaller group is absorbed and blended into the majority/main population we use new information/experiences in terms of our current understanding/schemas to do so
which matter gray or white contains most of neuron somas?
grey matter
Confirmation bias is what?
group members seek out information that support the majority view. Ex: majority of the group agrees that training the dog with treats is the best way to go about it. Some people chastise those who say the collar is the best way to train the dog. The individuals leave the discussion that training the dog with treats is amplified
Employment based on technical qualifications
hiring in bureaucracy is based on qualifications on person has and not favouritism/personal rivalries Pro - decrease discrimination ▪ Con - decrease ambition (only do what is necessary to secure job and do nothing more).
which neurotransmitter is associated with hypothathalus to cerebral cortex
histamine
Accuracy
hitting the bullseye
Universal emotions
happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, anger
Innate learning
hardwired things that you are born with the ability to do
Tinnitus
high frequency hairs cells(20,000Hz) get damaged, hear "ringing noise"
Past-In-Present discrimination
how things done in the past, even if no longer allowed they can have consequences for people in the present. Ex. After Brown vs. Board verdict, but girl in integrated school still doesn't feel welcome in her classroom
Assimilation
how we describe new information/experiences in terms of our current understanding/schemas. Acronym: assimilation has "ss" - same schema
attribution theory is what?
how we explain behaviours of others around us. Explain the behavior of other people by breaking down our understanding/explanation of their behaviours to factors about them, and factors related to their environment/surroundings.
accomendation
how we later adjust our schemas to incorporate new experiences -to remember. Acronym: accommodation has "cc" for change or create
Content Validity
how well construct is accurate test comprehensively, ever aspect, does our test cover full scope of outcomes that could present
Predictive validity:
how well our test matches time dependent or situational outcomes
Population validity
how well the sample used can be extrapolated to a population as a whole. Generalizability.
Galton's idea of hereditary genius
human ability is hereditary
The autonomic nervous system is regulated primary by the:
hypothalamus
id, ego, superego
id (one's largely unconscious set of primal urges) superego (one's sense of moral purpose) ego (the logic-based, more conscious balance between the two). psychoanalytic therapy Sigmund Freud, the "father of psychoanalysis," unconscious desires. psychoanalytic therapy
ego depletion is what?
idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it, it can get used up, and less of it to use in the future which can affect a later unrelated task that also requires self-control. This is true because self-control requires lots of energy and focus. Muscle is used as a metaphor for self-control. Can be strengthened with practice, but can also be fatigued/depleted with overuse
what is internalization?
idea/belief/behaviour has been integrated into our own values. We conform to the belief privately. Stronger than other types of conformity. Iternalization refers to the normal process where children learn and absorb (internalize) knowledge and rules about the world from social context, rather than through being specifically told. This is how children learn how to alter their behavior in response to the situation that they are in (home, school, church, playground, etc. Ex: start going to gym to comply with friends, but then might internalize that exercise is good for you and continue the behavior
priming
implicit memory where the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
Conformity, Group Polarization and Group think are all processes when individuals come together in a group. When can this be positive?
if the group is open minded, positive, and willing to consider more than one opinion.
Extensor Plantar Response
if you take a hard object and scrape along bottom of foot, normal response is flexor - toes will come down on the object. But with extensor, toes extend up. Upper motor sign
social facilitation
improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
retrograde amnesia
inability to recall info previously encoded
source amnesia
inability to remember where, when or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge.
hypertonia
increased tone of skeletal muscles. Increase muscle tension, reduce muscle stretch. upper motor sign
openness trait measures what?
independent vs. conforming, imagining vs. practical
optimum arousal theory
individuals are motivated to maintain an optimum level of internal arousal
differential association theory
individuals engage in criminal choices because they are exposed to it, while individuals who don't commit crimes have not been exposed to this type of behavior So a strategy to reduce crime according to this perspecive, A child in a high-crime area being adopted by an affluent family
what is primary appraisal and its 3 categories
initial decision regarding whether an event is harmful 1. Irrelevant: see it, but not important 2. Benign/Positive: stressor can't affect you 3. Stressful/Negative: stressor is actually threatening you
bootstrapping
initial stage(s) of grammatical (i.e., syntactic) development
The strong negative effect that losing a long-term employee can have on a hospital is most likely due to the effect on what?
institutional memory of the organization
what memory construct explains why its better to study right before bed to remember things better the next day?
interference When people study new material, any new information introduced between the initial learning (i.e., encoding) and retrieval, such as viewing a movie, will interfere with memory consolidation
cultural assimilation
interpenetration and fusion of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture.
what is the fastest route of entry for drugs?
intramuscular quick for epi pen, but slow for vaccines however, most abused drugs are delivered intravenously
what is Executive attention?
involved in goal-directed behavior, monitoring conflicts between internal processes, and anticipating the effects of behavior. Dopamine from the ventral tegmental area is associated with executing attention.
theory of mind
involves being able to take another person's perspective
what is Orienting attention
involves the capacity to change the focus of attention from one stimulus to another stimulus. This network is predominantly modulated by acetylcholine produced in the basal forebrain.
Crystallized intelligence
involves the use of previously-learned knowledge, skills, and experience
Depersonalization is what?
is a symptom of serious mental illness (although it can happen to anyone, repeated instances are suggestive of a dissociative disorder) in which a person feels like she has stepped outside of herself and is watching herself act, with no sense of control over her behavior. when leaner/victim is made to seem less human through stereotypes/prejudices, people are less likely to object against them
social loafing
is a tendency to put forth less effort in group task if the individual contributions aren't evaluated. Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to put forth less effort when part of a group.
REM sleep facts
is characterized by waves similar to beta waves when alert and awake, but with a less regular distribution. Combination of alpha, beta, and desynchronous waves Acronym for REM brain waves: BATS-Drink Blood (Beta Alpha Theta Sleep-spindle/K-complex Delta Beta) paradoxical sleep: because brain is active and awake but body prevents it from doing anything Most dreaming occurs during REM sleep, so paralysation inhibits actions. Waking up during REM sleep allows you to remember your dream Most important for memory consolidation. Formation of episodic memories. REM sleep more before you wake up
what does the hypothalamus do in regards to limbic system?
it regulates the Autonomic nervous system (ANS) - (fight or flight vs. rest and digest). Temperature control. Controlling endocrine system by triggers hormones like epinephrine/norepinephrine.; responsible for hunger, sleep, thirst, sex
what does the behaviourist theory says personality is the result of?
learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment - it's deterministic, in that people begin as blank states and the environment completely determines their behavior/personalities. Do not take thoughts and feelings into account. Environment → BEHAVIOR Focuses on observable and measurable behaviour, rather than mental/emotional. The psychoanalytic theory would be the most opposite of this theory (focuses
Superior olive
localizes sound
for benzodiazepines (benzos), what symptoms do you prescribe the long vs short acting
long: treat anxiety short: insomnia
cross-sectional study
look at a group of "different" people at a "single" moment in time
what is Informative influence?
look to group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct. ▪ Ex: You have never interacted with a dog before and you are uncertain about how to train a dog and you are uncertain if it's an appropriate method to use a shock color. You look for the group for guidance and you assume they are correct.
Korsakoff's Syndrome symptoms
main symptom is severe memory loss, accompanied by confabulation (patients make up stories, sometimes to fill in memories) Precurser to Korsakoffs is Wernicke's encephalopathy --Damage to certain areas causes poor balance, abnormal eye movements, mild confusion, and/or memory loss.
vestibule system functions to
maintaining balance, linear acceleration
Delivery of healthcare
massive inequalities in terms of access. We take care of elderly through Medicaid and Medicare, and children through health child insurance. But people in between are left behind - those who populate working force (when they get sick they can seriously effect society). Affordable Care Act is trying to fix this but too early to tell. Spend a lot of $ on healthcare without desired outcomes, because we invest a lot more in helping people when they are sick instead of developing preventative medicine
what neurotransmitter controls circadian rhythms?
melatonin, produced in pineal gland
Utilitarian Organizations
members are paid/rewarded for their efforts, ex. Businesses and government jobs, and universities (receive diploma in exchange for your time).
Normative Organizations
members come together through shared goals, ex. religion groups or MADD (Mothers against Drunk Driving). Positive sense of unity and purpose.
Brainstem consists of what?
midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata
what class of drug is cannabis (marijuana)
mix of all. can be a hallucinogen and also depressant or stimulant
Stress-diathesis
model posits that underlying biological characteristics can be activated provided there is sufficient stress. An example of a stressor could be conflictual communication.
Moderating Variable
modulates intensity between IV and DV Ex. There may be a relationship between socioeconomic status and how often women perform self-exams on their breasts. Age is possibly a numerical moderating variable
Suburbanization
movement away from cities to get a larger home (American dream), but commute for work can be long and harder to get quick medical help. However, suburbs form their own economic centres and become independent to cities they border. Ex. Silicon Valley created on outskirts of San Jose by tech-companies
Back stage
more private area of our lives, when act is over. You can be yourself. You can do what you feel makes you comfortable. Private area of your life.
secondary deviance (labeling theory)
more serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that produces a stigmatizing label and results in more deviant behavior. Ex. Teammates of an athlete label players behavior as deviant and they exclude him from practices and call him a terrible player. Reaction will be he needs to continue to use steroids to be a better player. Reaction might be to use steroids more frequently or try more dangerous forms of drug. Repeated deviance gives him a reputation of deviance and the stigma of deviance stays with him for the rest of his career
Socialism
motivated by what benefits society as whole, common ownership of production that focuses on human needs and economic demands
drive-reduction theory
motivation based on the need to fulfill a certain drive, like hunger or thirst. approach to motivation that assumes behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal
Ethics principle guidelines for research should include what?
must be or have... -social and clinical value(answering something important) -scientifically valid -fair subject selection, based on relevance of scientific goal -favorable risk-benefit ratio -Independent review:board approved -Informed consent needed: agree to any risks or pain/discomfort involved -Respect participants(Privacy, confidentiality, monitoring patients welfare)
Reticular Activation System (RAS)
nerve pathways in the brainstem connecting the spinal cord, cerebrum, and cerebellum, and mediating the overall level of consciousness. (alertness)
Retroactive interference
new learning impairs old info. Refers to later information interfering with memory for earlier information. -ex. Writing new address makes it difficult to recall your old address
Primary Deviance (Labeling Theory)
no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild and does not affect person's self-esteem. Individual is able to continue to behaves in same way without feeling immoral/wrong. Ex. All athletes of team use steroids, so the act of a player is not labeled as deviant and his actions go unnoticed
unconditioned stimulus (US) is what?
no one had to teach this in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.
The earlier sleep cycles are predominantly ____________.
non-REM sleep
which neurotransmitter is associated with pons area locus coeruleus to cerebral cortex
norephrine
Mores are what?
norms based on some moral value/belief (dependent on group's values of right and wrong). Generally produce strong feelings. Usually a strong reaction if more is violated. Ex. Truthfulness (tell the truth because it's the right thing to do, when public figures are not truthful it causes outrage because the figure has done something wrong). Don't have serious consequences. Acronym: MOREALS ▪ Ex: friends takes of shirt who has painted baseball team's logo on chest. You feel strongly about modesty so you think its wrong that your friend took of shirt and is exposing skin. No serious consequences of your friend's behavior other than your disapproval.
Law norms are what
norms still based on right and wrong, but have formal/consistent consequences. Ex. Public figure lies under oath, done something morally wrong but also violate laws of court. There is a punishment for the crime. Violation can be simple (J-walking) or severe (murder). There is not always outrage when a law is violated - depends on the law. ▪ Ex: friends takes of all clothes and decides to go streaking across the field. Broken law and you will receive a punishment. Perhaps not outrage or disgust - crowd might be laughing or cheering.
4 things we do to reduce that discomfort. according to cognitive dissonance
o 1. Modify our cognitions - ex. smoker might say, I really don't smoke that much. o 2. Trivialize - make less important, ex. evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer. o 3. Add - adding more cognitions, ex. I exercise so much it doesn't matter o 4. Deny - denying the facts, ex. smoking and cancer are not linked.
What is neglect syndrome?
occurs when damage to the brain causes a change or loss in the capacity of the spatial dimension of divided attention.
when does Attentional capture occur?
occurs when attention is attracted by the motion of an object or stimulus.
this type of learning (aka social learning/vicarious learning) is learned through watching and imitating others - such as modeling actions of another.
observational learning
Case-Control Studies
observational study used for "epidemiology, emerging disease use" Where you gather specific "cases" of outcome interest and compare them with others who don't have the interest "controls" Ex. comparing people with the disease with those who don't but are otherwise similar.
Fundamental attribution error
occurs when a person assigns too much weight to internal causes rather than external factors when looking for causes of another person's behavior.
divided attention
occurs when an individual must perform two tasks which require attention, simultaneously attention is limited resource, can't split very well
what is groupthink?
occurs when maintaining harmony among group members is more important than carefully analyzing problem at hand. Happens in very cohesive, insulated groups. Often have important/respected leaders, and in the interest of group "unity" individuals suppress/sensor their own opinions. First suggestion proposed by the leader is adopted. Especially if there is little hope of finding a better solution. Not the most effective way to make a decision and can explain what's wrong with Congress in the US.
Dishabituation is what?
occurs when previously habituated stimulus is removed.
Disengagement Theory
older adults and society separate, assumes they become more self-absorbed as they age. Separation allows for self-reflection. But considers elderly people still involved in society as not adjusting well, which is debatable.
ideal self
one's perception of whom one should be or would like to be
Self-efficacy
one's sense of competence and effectiveness
discriminating stimuli
operant conditioning stimulus that is used to consistently signal the specific response/behavior of either reinforcement(reward) or punishment.
what is the difference in opiates and opioids and give examples of each
opiates: 'T= tree natural" Morphine, codeine opioids: synthetic: oxycodone/hydrocodone, heroin *these work on endorphins. NOT a depressant!"
Disassortative Mating (Non-Assortative Mating)
opposite of assortative mating - situation where individuals with individuals with different or diverse traits mate with higher frequency than with random mating.
Emigration:
opposite of immigration. Movement of a person out of a country. # ppl moving out/1000 ppl.
Impression management
our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage. Do this because we want to be viewed in a positive way.
this person is associated with classical conditioning, ex. Pavlov dog experiment. Places a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to trigger an involuntary response. Ex. ringing a bell in presence of food causes dog to start salivating.
pavlov
symbolic interaction theory
people act based on the "meanings" of cultural symbols that are derived from "social interaction". Based on the Desire to construct a new cultural identity
Symbolic interaction theory:
people act based on the meanings of "cultural symbols" that are derived from "social interaction." Desire to construct a new cultural identity
Negative controls
receive NO treatment or intervention received -Looks to see if interventions/treatment actually works -Placebo or sham may be used
Yerkes-Dodson Law states
people perform best when they are moderately aroused (bell shape curve) •The relationship between long term memory and fear follows a Yerkes-Dodson curve. •Extreme emotional responses usually impact memory negatively. •Moderate emotions, like mild fear, are associated with optimal memory recall.
Randomized Controlled Trial
people studied randomly given one of treatments under study, used to test efficacy/side effects of medical interventions like drugs
Continuity Theory
people try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives overtime. As they age people make decisions that preserve that structure and use it to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging.
incentive theory
peoples behaviors are motivated by external factors (like community values) to get rewards or avoid punishment
Humanistic theory
peoples behaviors are motivated by individual growth (actualization/meaning of life)
Status / Prestige:
person's prestige, social honor, or popularity in a society
culture shock
personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life Ex. Moving countries, move social environments, or travels to another type of life (urban to rural).
personality theorist; asserted that personality is largely determined by genes, used introversion/extroversion
personality theorist; asserted that personality is largely determined by genes, used introversion/extroversion
Regression to the mean
phenomenon in which, over time, scores become more average, representing the mean. 1st score reported may be skewed, but subsequent scores trend towards the mean
What is group polarization?
phenomenon where group decision-making amplifies the original opinion of group members. A stronger version of the decision is adopted.
Schachter-Singer Theory of emotion
physiological + contextualizes stimulus (cognitive reasoning of event/overthink) = form experience of emotion. If we become physiologically aroused, we don't feel a specific emotion until we're able to label/ identify/contextualize/context of stimulus reason for situation.
Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion
physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the same time Cannon termed the phrase "fight or flight"
which brain structure is considered the master gland?
pituitary
McDonaldization
policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. Primarily, Principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, uniformity and control - These principles have come to dominated everything, from medicine to sporting events to entertainment,
Weber's Law
postulates that there is a linear relationship between the intensity of a stimulus and its detection The law states that the perceivable change in stimulus intensity (I) is a constant, or mathematically, (If - Ii) /Ii = constant
Kohlberg's stages of moral development
pre-conventional (level 1) obedience and punishment orientation self-interest orientation conventional (level 2) interpersonal accord and conformity authority and social-order maintaining orientation post-convential (level 3) social contract orientation universal ethical principles
what are secondary traits?
preferences or attitude. Ex. love for modern art, reluctance to eat meat.
George Mead's social theory deals with what?
presents the part of the self which is called the "me" as the:collection of attitudes taken from society. "I" Independent response, creative, free will, within social norms "Me" socialized self, internalized set of societal values and attitudes 4Stages: imitation, play, game, and the generalized other.
Cerebellum function
receives plan for Balance and coordination (aka little brain) also receives position sense information (muscle stretch fibers) "bell" think of a person walking on a tight rope with 2 bells they are trying to balance
example of coercive organization
prison, military Organizations use power to control through force or threats
Capitalism
private ownership of production with market economy based on supply and demand.
what are 2 different ways a person can conform?
privately conform- change behaviours and opinions to align with group. publically conform - you're outwardly changing but inside you maintain core beliefs. You only outwardly agree with the group.
Illness experience
process of being ill and how people cope with illness. Being ill can change a person's self-identity. Diagnosis of chronic disease can take over your life where every decision revolves around the disease. Stigmas associated with certain diseases like mental illness or STDs that can affect how others perceive you. . How ▪ People experience of disease varies too if they have access to resources like palliative care.
Globalization
process of forming social, cultural, and economic links among distant regions of the globe, of which increased immigration is an important constituent.
weak social constructionism
proposes that social constructs are dependent on brute facts, which are the most basic and fundamental facts Ex. brute facts are what explain quarks (or what makes the quarks) in atoms, not the atoms themselves (something that is not defined by something else)
Theory of intersectionality
proposes that we need to understand how all these discriminations (double or triple jeopardy) can simultaneously exist
fundamental attribution error
put more blame on the persons dispositional or internal qualities in order to explain behavior rather than the situation/context of situation thinking that people are the way they act
defense mechanism where someone says or does exact opposite of what they actually want/feel),
reaction formation
Fundamentalism
reaction to secularization, go back to strict religious beliefs. Create social problems when people become too extreme.
Perceived behavior control
refers to a person's ability to carry out intentions to perform a certain behavior. • Important element of social cognitive theory is personal control. Are we controlling or are we getting controlled by the environment around us. Is our locus of control: Internal or external
ecological validity
refers to how findings from an experimental setting can be generalized to the environmental considerations in the real world. looks at the testing environment and determines how much it influences behavior "Stanford Prison Experiment"
transformationalist grammer
refers to the different ways that words can be arranged to convey the same information.
Incongruence (Rogers)
refers to the gap between a person's real "actual" self and "ideal" self
defense mechanism where one regresses to position of child in problematic situations
regression
what does reinforcement, punishment, positive, and negative mean?
reinforcement (increase a behavior) punishment (decrease a behavior) Positive (adds something) Negative (take away something) Positive reinforcement = something is being added to increase tendency of behavior, ex. a gas gift card for safe driving o Negative reinforcement = taking something away to increase tendency behavior will occur again. Ex. taking loud buzzing noise away only once you put your seatbelt on. Taking away sound of buzzer when you put on seatbelt is negative reinforcement, because taking something away in effort to increase behavior (putting a seatbelt on) o Positive punishment = Positive punishment means something is added to decrease tendency something will occur again. Ex. giving a speeding ticket (adding) to decrease behavior of speeding (behavior). o Negative punishment = something taken away in effort to decrease tendency it'll occur again. Ex. taking away your license.
Oedipal complex is what?
relates to how a boy perceives his relationship with his mother.
Webers Law
relation between the actual change in a physical stimulus and the perceived change
Thalamus function
relay station for sensory impulses, pain
Systematic Reviews
researchers studies literature on topic and critically assess the outcomes of various studies often combined with meta-analyses
Social desirability bias
respond to be more socially successful They also may want to portray themselves as being "more empathetic" or "less negative or emotional", which could be a more socially acceptable but less honest way to respond
Urban renewal
revamping old parts of cities to become better. But can lead to gentrification, which means when redone they target a wealthier community which increases property value. People there before are pushed out because they can't afford property anymore and it leads to great inequality in cities.
Psychoanalytic theory
says personality is shaped by childhood experiences person's unconscious thoughts/desires, feelings, and past memories (particularly experiences in childhood).
Culture shock
sense of "disorientation" as a person experiences an unfamiliar culture. Typically, culture shock is thought of as consisting of 4 phases: 1.HONEYMOON 2.Negotiation 3.Adjustment 4.Adaptation.
which neurotransmitter is associated ralphe nuclei
serotonin, Released by lots of nuclei from all over the brainstem (midbrain, pons, and medulla) called raphe nuclei to cerebral cortex release serotonin. Raphe nuclei also send serotonin to other parts of the nervous system.
whats the difference in sex, gender, sexuality
sex: biological traits that society associates with being male or female gender: cultural meanings attached to being masculine & feminine, which influence personal identities Sexuality: sexual attraction, practices and identity which may or may not align with sex and gender
Avoidance
signal is given before aversive situation. The behavior is to avoid the situation, which results in continued avoidance because it is reinforced by the removal of the pain/undesirable stimuli. Ex. A fire alarm allows you to avoid the fire and you are able to "Avoid" the situation.
complience
situations where we do behaviour to get a reward or avoid punishment. Tendency to go along with behaviour without questioning why. Compliance goes away once rewards/punishments removed. "Compliance refers to a change in behavior that is requested by another person or group; the individual acted in some way because others asked him or her to do so (but it was possible to refuse or decline.)
The more sensitive the sense organ, the __________ the Weber fraction required for detection of the stimulus.
smaller
This theory of behaviour change that emphasizes interactions between people and their environment
social cognitive theory
these traits are factors underlying human personality (fewer and more abstract).
source traits
parietal lobe structure and their funtions
somatosensory cortex: touch, pressure, pain spatial manipulation: think 3d
Proactive interference
something you learned in past impairs learning in future. Earlier information interferes with later information. ▪ ex. New password learning - prior pw learning impairs ability to learn new one.
temporal cortex structures and their funtion
sound wernicke's area
Extroversion measures what?
talkative or quiet, fun loving or sober
Neuroticism measure what?
stable vs. tense, calm vs anxious, secure vs. insecure
hidden curriculum
standard behaviors that are deemed acceptable that are subtly taught by teachers. the informal and unofficial aspects of culture that children are taught in school
incentive theory of motivation
states that incentives and rewards are the driving forces behind people's choices and behaviors calls attention to how factors outside of individuals, including community values and other aspects of culture, can motivate behavior.
Strong social constructionism
states that whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits; all knowledge is social construct and there are no brute facts. We created idea of quarks and everything we know to explain it. No facts that just exist.
Age Stratification Theory
suggests that age is a way of regulating the behavior of a generation
this trait is a personality traits that are evident from a person's behavior
surface trait
autobiographical memory
system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual's life, based on a combination of episodic (personal experiences and specific objects, people and events experienced at particular time and place) and semantic (general knowledge and facts about the world) memory.
Side-effect discrimination
talks about how one institution/organization/sector can influence another negatively. (Institutions - economics, politics, law, medicine, business and are all interrelated, and discrimination in one area can effect another- it is an side effect)
Evolutionary game theory
tells us those with best fit to environment will survive and pass on to offspring, and those genes will become more common in successive generations.
term for innate disposition, our mood/activity level, and is consistent throughout our life?
temperament
Sects
tend to be smaller and are established in protest of established church. They break away from churches. Ex. Mormon/Amish
what is Traditionalism and what is its tendencies in twin studies
tendency to follow authority also shown to be common in twins.
cognitive bias
tendency to think in certain ways. Cognitive biases often cause deviations from a standard of rationality or good judgment.
Generalization
tendency/ability of a stimulus similar to conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response, and more similar the stimulus is to original conditioned stimulus - the greater the conditioned response Generalization allows us to make appropriate response to similar stimuli. Ex. meeting someone new who smiles, reminds us of other smiles (both exhibit feelings of joy).
what is Covert orienting
the act of bringing the spotlight of attention on an object or event without body or eye movement
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response We're primed to respond to our name. Why it's a strong prime for pulling our attention
Hawthorne effect is what?
the alteration of behavior by the subjects of a study due to their awareness of being observed.
Just World Hypothesis
the belief that people get what they deserve in life and deserve what they get
Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky)
the difference between what a child can do on his own and what can be accomplished with some assistance part where most sensitive instruction/guidance should be given. Ex. between ability of not being able to do something and being able to do something. ZPD is the link between the zone of can't do and can do. Allows learner to use their skills they already have and expand learning to things they can't do.
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old info "past affected"
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of past learning on the recall of new information "older people call me Jason, instead of Justin"
culture lag
the gap of time between the introduction of material (physical) culture and nonmaterial (symbolic culture, so no physical objects like iphones) culture's acceptance of it
place theory
the idea that different sound frequencies stimulate different locations on the basilar membrane
Theory of Planned Behavior
the idea that people's intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviors, which are determined by their attitudes toward specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control
what did the Zimbardo experiment show us?
the influence situation can have on our behavior - might be due to situational attribution (due to situation), not dispositional attribution (internal characteristics/personalities of people) o It becomes much easier to behave badly towards individuals who suffer from deindividualization (loss of self) - In this case prisoners forced to dress same, and addressed as number. o Bad behavior caused cognitive dissonance - guards knowing their behavior was inappropriate, tried to reduce their mental distress by cognitive dissonance reduction - overly justified their behaviors - everything happened because prisoners were whims or they deserved it. They changed their cognition. o Also role of internalization - participants internalized their prison roles. Prisoners incorporated their roles into beliefs, and let it influence their attitudes/cognitions/behaviours.
folkways
the mildest type of norm, just common rules/manners we are supposed to follow on a day to day base. Traditions individuals have followed for a long time, ex. opening the door, helping a person who's dropped item, or saying thank you. Not engaging results in a consequences that is not severe/consistent. No actual punishment. ▪ Ex: Friend's pants zipper is undone. Tell your friend your zipper is undone (common courtesy) but not telling friends leads to no consequences.
JND, just noticeable difference aka Difference Threshold
the minimum difference we can detect between two stimuli
dominant response
the most common response in a given situation
Yerkes-Dodson Law says what?
the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases
identification
the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos when people act/dress a certain way to be like someone they respect. Will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual.
Urbanization
the process of a country transitioning to city life
Modeling is what?
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
manifest content (Freud)
the remembered story line of a dream
Foraging
the search for food in animal's environment. Can't survive or reproduce without it
Actual Self
the self one thinks one actually is
Ought Self
the self one thinks one's significant others wants one to be (duties, obligations)
Behavior
the sum coordinated responses of organisms to the internal and external stimuli that they experience
conjuction fallacy
the tendency for people to think two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event
Actor-Observer Bias
the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities
Medicalization
the transformation of a human condition into a matter to be treated by physicians occurs when human conditions previously considered normal get defined as medical conditions and are subject to studies, diagnosis, and treatment. Ex. mental health type issues (sadness/attention), and physical issues like birth. People are over diagnosed (depression/ADD). Sad =/= depressed and can't focus =/= ADD. Birth - women and doctors plan C-section instead of natural births. ▪ "concept of medicalization refers to the process in which something, usually a behavioral problem (such as, for example, alcolism) becomes described and treated as a medical condition when it was not previously conceived in that way.
Companionship support
the type that gives someone sense of social belonging. Companionship while you engage in an activity.
Sociologists have identified 3 types of collective behavior, what are they?
these are behaviors that are not in line with societal norms 1. Fad: fleeting behavior like the "cinnamon challenge" 2. Mass hysteria: groups with fear/anxiety at same time, real or perceived 3. Riots: groups that engage in dangerous behaviors
Stage 1 sleep is dominated by:
theta waves
how do biases effect our decision making?
they prevent us from making correct decision or from changing decisions once they are made
Deindividuation is what?
those in group are more likely to act inappropriately because crowd conceals person's identity. Good example is behavior of some on Black Friday. Presence of large group there is violence (shoppers trample employees, shot shoppers, stolen goods from stores). Presence of large group decreases their inhibition/guilt, hence increases antisocial/deviant behavior. Another example is the internet - anonymous platform causes people to express opinions they typically would not express. (ex. Youtube comments people are nasty, cyber bullying)
fixed-interval schedule
time is constant receives pay check every 2 weeks - in this case, time is constant. Pay doesn't change if he sells 1 car or 100 cars. Less incentive to sell cars. Response rate is slower.
what are cardinal traits?
traits are characteristics that direct most of person's activities - the dominant trait that influence all of our behaviours, including secondary and central traits.
Altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others and acting to help them
encoding
transferring information from the temporary store in working memory into permanent store in long-term memory
explicit memory (declarative aka facts)
type of long term memory that focuses on recalling previous experiences and information. Explicit memory can be divided into two categories, episodic and semantic.
example of Utilitarian Organization
university, government job members are paid/rewarded for their efforts, ex. (receive diploma in exchange for your time)
Cognitive dissonance
unpleasant mental experience of tension resulting from two conflicting thoughts or beliefs can be induced when a person is forced to recognize the inconsistency between his or her beliefs and behaviors.
what is Inattentional blindness - aka Perceptual Blindness
we aren't aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field. "miss something right in front of you" inability to recognize an unexpected object, event, or stimulus that is in 'plain sight'. This is due to a psychological lapse in attention, rather than a defect or deficit in sensory perception. Ex: you can't say where the nearest fire extinguisher is because you fail to notice it because your attention is typically elsewhere. This is true even though fire extinguishers are brightly colored and essential to survival (which should bring them to your attention)
example of educational segregation
we fund schools through property taxes, which is why different districts are funded differently. Residential segregation of education.
Chi-square test
when all variables are categorical, looks at if 2 distributions of categorical data differ from each other. Null hypothesis vs. alternative hypothesis.
nonassociative learning is what?
when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus, ex. habituation and sensitization.
social isolation
when community voluntarily isolates itself from mainstream, based on their own religious/cultural/other beliefs.
associative learning
when one event is connected to another, ex. classical and operant conditioning.
Front stage
when people are in a social setting. Ex. someone watches baseball with friends even if he doesn't like baseball.
Informational Social Influence is what?
when we conform because we feel others are more knowledgeable than us, because we think they know something we don't. ▪ Ex: when you move to a new place. You would ask people around you (who lived in this place for a longer period) of things to do /places to eat and go along with their suggestions.
which matter gray or white contains myelinated axons?
white matter
tell me the locations, in versus out, for white and grey matter in the brain and spinal cord
white: in middle of spinal cord(axons go down tracts in the middle of spinal cord), outer in brain grey: in brain, outer in spinal cord
public declaration
you're more likely to follow through if you've told everyone
publically conform
you're outwardly changing but inside you maintain core beliefs. You only outwardly agree with the group. ▪ Ex: you agree to the shock color in the group situation but you also know that the treats is a more effective route. You are not convinced. When you are alone you train the dog with a treat.
For a view point to influence a groups final decision making...
• All the view do not have equal influence. • Viewpoint is shared by majority of members of the group • Arguments made tend to favour popular/majority group view • Any criticism is directed towards minority view
Irving Janis symptoms of group think. There is alot, so try to pick out 1 key word from each.
•"Invulnerability" Illusion, TOO optimistic, like superman •Collective rationalization: disregard warnings •Moral reasoning •Stereotyping outgroups •Direct pressure on dissenters •Self censorship: tendency of members to restrain their own views if they fear they may be dissenting. •Illusion of unanimity •"Mindgaurds" put in place to stop outside views/opinions from coming in
Definitions of high culture, normative culture, and popular culture
•High culture: refers to patterns of experiences and attitudes that exist in the highest class segments of a society. This tends to be associated with wealth and formality. • Normative culture: refers to values and behaviors that are in line with larger societal norms (like avoidance of crime). • Popular culture refers to patterns of experiences and attitudes that exist within mainstream normative society - like attending a game or watching a parade.
with regards to theories of emotions, what are the 3 components that emotions are made up from?
•cognitive: subjective experiences, how you interpret •physiological: how your body reacts (hypothalamus) •behavioral: how you express those emotions
