MCAT Psych/Sociology, Psych/SocMCAT

How to improve self efficacy

-Mastery experiences - experiencing success -Modeling - seeing similar others succeed -Social persuasion - getting encouragement from others -Physiological states - reducing stress/fatigue

Functional fixedness

"inside the box problem solving" refers to problem solving technique where people's tendency to think/solve only in terms of typical/usual functions -can inhibit solving problems.

Kelley's covariation model

"kelleys contaminated→CDC" Says that we attribute behavior based on *Consensus: social comparison *Distinctiveness: situations *Consistency cues: time

Social behavior

All interactions taking place between members of the same species

What are the two main hormones released by the sympathetic nervous system?

Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

Iron law of oligarchy

Criticizes the hierarchal nature of bureaucracy ,stating that people at the top of the hierarchy will inevitably come to value their power over the purpose of the orgnanization

Social Stratification

3 component theory of stratification (Weberian Stratification): states that wealth, prestige, and power influence the way that individuals treat one another *Power: ability of a person to achieve their goals despite opposition from others *Prestige: The respect with which a person or status position is regarded by others *Class: or wealth and assets that an individual possesses

Visuospatial sketchpad

A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information

Reaction Formation

A defense mechanism that involves expressing the opposite of of what one really feels, when it would be dangerous to express the real feeling

Denial

A defense mechanism that involves forceful refusal to acknowledge an emotionally painful memory

Repression

A defense mechanism that involves lack of recall of an emotionally painful memory

Displacement

A defense mechanism that involves redirecting aggressive or sexual impulses from a forbidden action or object onto a less dangerous one

Monoamine hypothesis

A deficiency in the availability of monoamines (serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine) in the synapses contributes to depression

Change blindness

A failure to bring attention to changes in our environment

Fixed-interval reinforcement

A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after a specific time interval has passed after a response

Fixed-ratio reinforcement

A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after a specified # of responses

Variable-ratio reinforcement

A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after an unpredictable number of responses

Age stratified theory

Age is a way of regulating behavior of a generation

Categorical self

Occurs once babies realize they are separate. It is becoming aware that even though we're separate, we exist in the world with others. Babies first learn AGE and GENDER, then SKILLS and SIZE. They learn concepts like traits, comparisons, and careers last.

Attraction

Factors that draw members of a species together. A social behavior

The most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships:

Geographical proximity

Regression to the mean

If the first measurement is extreme, second measurement will be closer to the mean

Confirmation bias

Individuals tend to value new info that support a belief they already hold, while disregarding info that goes against preconceived notions. In groups, group members seek out information that support the majority view

Income vs wealth

Income is assets EARNED while wealth is assets already OWNED.

Chi-square

Involves categorical variables. Looks at 2 distributions of categorical data to see if they differ from each other.

what are Sanctions?

Norms are reinforced by sanctions rewards/punishments for behaviours in accord with or against norms respectively.

Folkways

Norms that are less important but shape everyday behavior

Stimulus discrimination

The learned lack of response to a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus

Existential self

The most basic part of self concept. It is the sense of being separate and distinct from others. Awareness that the self is constant throughout life.

Spreading activation

Occurs when one item brought into working memory triggers an activation of related memory

Need based theory

People are motivated by the desire to fulfill unmet needs

Cannon-Bard Theory

Theory of emotion that states that emotional feelings and physiological reactions to stimuli are experienced SIMULTANEOUSLY physiological and cognitive appraisal simultaneously--> emotion

Gender oppression

Women are not only unequal as men, but they're oppressed and abused.

Symbolic Interactionism

a micro-level theory in which shared meanings, orientations, and assumptions form the basic motivations behind people's actions

A sleepy, relaxed state of awakeness will show what type of wave on an EEG?

alpha waves

Superior colliculus

helps us coordinate head rotation(movement) with visual focus (visual system) on a specific point

framing effects in decision making

how you frame the answer choices will effect the decision as well

agraphia

inability to write

Interference of Memory

information can be lost or less accurate due to an overlap of similar information

Frontal Lobe structures and their functions

motor cortex: body movements Prefrontal cortex: executive, director Brocas: speech production

Biopsychosocial approach to health and illness

physical health & Illness is determined by multiple factors (psychological, social, biological), not just biological. Hollistic approach.

Residential segregation

physical separation groups into different neighborhoods, affecting our life chances, politics, healthcare, jobs, availability to education ect

James-Lange theory of emotion

physiological response triggers emotion see snake, HR increases, feel fear because of HR increase

Older adults show minimal decline in ________ but greater decline in __________.

recognition, free recall

manifest functions

the intended beneficial consequences of people's actions

what is deindividualization

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Latent Content (Freud)

the underlying hidden meaning of a dream

Social Constructionism

what society is rather than how it exists/changes. Everything is created from the mind of society. Agreement that something has meaning and value that it doesn't have intrinsically, ex. Money. Everything only has value because everyone agrees it has value; we construct the world around us.

spontaneous recovery is what?

when old conditioned stimulus elicits response Don't know why it happens, usually infrequently, doesn't persist for a long time, and less strong

Role strain

when you can't carry out all obligations of a status, tensions within one status. Causes individual to be pulled many directions by one status, ex. a student has to write two papers, five reading assignments, give a speech, two lab reports in one week.

Self Efficacy

your perception of your ability to complete a task

formal operational stage (Piaget)

12++teen/adult moral, abstract, hypothetical thinking

GI (Greatest) generation

1901-1924 - oldest people alive today. Born first quarter of the 20th century (Acronym: Your great grand father)

Silent Generation

1925-1945 older than baby boomers born during Great Depression (Acronym: Your silent grandfather)

neuroleptics

1st antipsychotic drugs used to treat schizophrenia and though they are effective in treating positive symptoms(i.e. hallucinations, delusions, racing thoughts, their side effects include cognitive dulling, which can exacerbate negative symptoms (i.e. apathy, lack of emotion, poor or nonexistant social functioning)

Specific phobia

A persistent, strong, and unreasonable fear of a certain object or situation

Self esteem

A person's overall value judgment of himself. Acts as a mediating factor between self-concept and experience by shaping interpretations of events. High --> positive self concept Low --> negative self concept

Cultural capital

All non-money things that give you higher social class (Power, Privilege, and Prestige) Ex. worldly knowledge/experiences, manners, education, proper speech, skills

Culture

All of the beliefs, assumptions, objects, behaviors, and processes that make up a shared way of life for a particular group/nation. "People are shaped by culture and culture is shaped by people"

Statistical regression

All variables examined are continuous. Makes assumptions about which variable is influencing the other

Correlation

All variables examined are continuous. Makes no assumptions about causation.

Neutral stimulus

A stimulus that does not elicit a behavioral response. Can eventually become conditioned response if presented immediately before unconditioned stimuli.

Role of culture in cognitive development

Children in Western cultures are generally object-focused, while those raise in Eastern cultures are more relationally focused.

Proprioception

Cognitive awareness of of balance/position of body in space.

Positive symptoms of psychosis

Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and disorganized/catatonic behavior

What is Alzheimer's disease?

Dementia that is characterized behaviorally by anterograde amnesia (can remember the past but cannot form new memories). Visual memory is also impaired, leading to confusion with regard to orientation.

Tactics

Describe how the movement implements a strategy

Gestalt Principles

Describe the top-down processing that organizes sensory information into distinct forms. Six principles: nearness, similarity, common region, closure, continuity, and figure & ground

Identity moratorium

Describes a person actively attempting to develop a unique set of values and an understanding of self in society

Identity diffusion

Describes a person with no sense of identity or motivation to engage in identity exploration. Associated with an external locus of control

Obedience

Describes behavioral changes made in response to a command by an authority figure

Reinforcement schedule

Describes how often and under what conditions a behavior is reinforced

Theory of Differential Association

Deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws

Theory of Differential Association states that what?

Deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous exposure to others whom violate norms and laws

Secondary appraisal

Assessing personal ability to cope with a threat. An individual who does not think they can handle a threat will experience greater stress than someone who appraises their ability more highly.

Quasi-Experimental Design

An experiment that does not require random assignment to conditions. This type of design describes an effect on a specific cohort of the population

Microsociology

Face to face interactions, families, schools, other social interactions. Interpretive analysis of society, looking at sample of society and how individual interactions would affect larger groups in society

Economic interdependence

Factor in globalization where corporations often conduct operations across multiple continents

This theory deals with systems such as families

Systems Theory

Punishment

In operant conditioning, a consequence of a behavior that decreases the likelihood of a behavior

Individual discrimination

Individual person acting to discriminate based on something (sex, religion, race, age etc) ex. a science professor who doesn't let women into his class. (in this example sex discrimination)

Generalized anxiety disorder

People feel tense or anxious much of the time about many issues, but do not experience panic attacks.

Obsessive compulsive personality disorder

Person does not have any true obsessions/compulsions, but may instead accumulate money and worthless objects. Person is perfectionistic, rigid, and stubborn

Cognitive appraisal

Personal interpretation of the situation that triggers stress

Polysomnography

Multimodal technique to measure physiological processes during sleep

Retroactive interference

Newly learned material that prevents successful retrieval of related older memories. Occurs when information that is newly learned is similar to that in older memories

Semantic networks

Organization of information in networks of meaningfully related memories

Incentive theory

People are motivated by external rewards, and get psychological feeling of pleasure that comes with receiving an incentive DISTINCT from operant conditioning because it focuses on the internal motivations of the individual rather than their outward behavior

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

People are much more likely to agree to a large request if they first agree to a smaller one

Mere presence

People are simply in each other's presence, either completing similar activities or apparently minding their own business

Cognitive theory

People behave based on what they predict will yield the most favorable outcome

Matrilineal descent

Preference for maternal relations in the kin group

Patrilineal descent

Preference for paternal relations in the kin group

Difference in prejudice and discrimination?

Prejudice is belief while decrimination is action

Intuition

Problem solving using personal perception or feeling rather than logic. Aka the "gut feeling". Time saving but potentially flawed.

Cohort study

Following a subset of a population with similar characteristics over a "lifetime"

sublimation (defense mechanism)

channeling threatening devices into acceptable outlets (e.g. working out) sublet-->outlet

alerting attention is affected by what?

affected by aging, norepinephrine modulates it in locus coerculus

External validity

does our results match with real world outcomes?

Scapegoats

individuals or groups blamed for wrongs that were not of their doing ex. Jews during World War II.

What do barbiturates do?

induce sleep, reduce anxiety, depress CNS Anesthesia or anticconvulsants ex-barital

Hippocampus function

key role in forming new memories. Convert STM (Short term memory)→ LTM (long term memory).

thick band of nerve fibers which connects the two hemispheres

corpus callosum when this is damaged, creates split-brain patient

perceived similarity

degree of similarity that people believe exists between them

attribution

the process of explaining one's own behavior and the behavior of others

Ideal Self

the self one aspires to be (hopes, wishes, goals)

medial geniculate nucleus

receives and transmits a great deal of general sound/auditory information.

what describes the alientation that individuals feel when social norms and social bonds are weak?

social anomie describes the alientation that individuals feel when social norms and social bonds are weak.

this theory deals with Social factors, observational learning, and environmental factors (ex. opinions/attitudes of friends and family) can influence your beliefs.

social cognitive theory

Ascribed statuses

statuses you can't change, given from birth. ex. Prince of royal family

what class of drug is MDMA?

stimulant or hallucinogen

this trait is a stable predisposition towards a certain behavior

personality trait

The genetic contribution to depression is:

polygenic

Counterbalancing

A method of controlling for order effects in a repeated measure design by either including all orders of treatment or by randomly determining the order for each subject

lexicon

A set of vocabulary items

Superego

ANGEL: The internalization of cultural ideals and parental sanctions. "Morals" Interjection/Internalization. The Superego inhibits Sexual and Aggressive impulses, and tries to replace reality with morality, striving for perfection. The Superego has subsystems: - The Conscious - what you should not be "wrong" - The Ego Ideal - what you should/want to be "right"

Secondary reinforcer

AKA conditioned reinforcers. Require learning and social context to affect behavioral decisions, but are just as effective at controlling behavior as primary reinforcers. Include money, praise, prestige, and good grades.

Associative learning

AKA conditioning. Refers to learning that involves associations between certain stimuli and specific responses

Partial reinforcement

AKA intermittent reinforcement. Reinforcement of a behavior by delivering a response only part of the time. Four types: Fixed-ratio, Variable-ratio, Fixed-interval, and Variable-interval

Function of sleep cycles

Allows the individual to enjoy benefits of both light and deep sleep.

What is required for associative learning of non-instinctual behaviors?

Appropriate cognitive processes (higher level brain function)

Operationalization

Approximating the true variables of interests with one that can be measured or tabulated

Acquiescence bias

Aqui"YES"ence selecting responses to please the researcher

Reticular formation

Area of the brainstem involved in alertness and arousal

Who did the "Looking glass self"

Charles Cooley

What are the 3 ossicle bones of the middle ear?

1. Malleus 2. Incus 3. Stapes

People under 20 make up approximately ________ of the US population.

25%

Unconditioned response

A behavioral response that is innate (not learned)

Instinct

A biological, innate tendency to perform a central behavior that leads to the fulfillment of a need

Parallel processing

Cognitive process involving devotion to multiple inputs at once

Attribution theory

Conscious and unconscious processes both contribute to the formation of ideas about what caused another person to behave in a particular way

Stage 4 Sleep

Deep sleep. Characterized entirely by delta waves on an EEG

Context effects

Describes how the context in which a stimulus occurs can contribute to how people perceive that stimulus

Decay

Describes the fading of a memory. Fate of information in working memory that is not encoded into long term memory. Neurologically, represents wearing of connections that make up the neural network holding a memory.

Long term potentiation

Describes the increase in likelihood that presynaptic input will trigger an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron. Repeated stimulation by the presynaptic neuron leads to increase in strength of the excitatory postsynaptic potential--> makes the postsynaptic neuron more likely to fire in response to stimulation by the presynaptic neuron. Can take place via additive influence of multiple inputs.

Latent learning

Describes the manifestation of previously unseen behavior. Somethings s learned by not expressed as can observable behavior until it is required

ABC Model

Describes three major components of attitudes Affective component- person's feelings about the thing Behavioral component- The influence that attitudes have on behavior Cognitive component- Beliefs/knowledge about a specific object of interests

George Herbert Mead

Developed Symbolic Interactionism. Believed development of individual was a social process as were the meanings individuals assigned to things

SES factors

Education, Income, Occupation Status Socioeconomic factors "Old McDonald had a farm, eio" NO SOCIAL CAPITAL is Included with this according to AAMC

Instrument bias

Errors due to systematic malfunctioning of a mechanical instrument

Primary appraisal

Evaluating a situation for the presence of any potential threat. If present, a secondary appraisal is generated

Anxiety disorders manifest physically as:

Excessive sympathetic nervous system activation

Social norms

Expectated social behavior that is acceptable within a group. Norms helps define a culture

Gender differences

Expectations for gender are passed down from generation to generation.

this person is known in connection to the trait perspective of personality. He argued that three key types of traits contribute to personality: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits.

Gordon Allport

Which region of then brain is particularly important in positive conditioning?

Hippocampus

unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

Informational influence

In group discussion, the most common ideas to emerge are the ones that favor the dominant viewpoint. Looking to group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct

Secure attachment

Infants will play in the presence of their primary caregiver, but will become distressed when the caregiver leaves the room. Upon the caregiver's return, the child will seek contact with her and is easily consoled

Short-term memory

Information that is held as items in conscious awareness. Info can be manipulated rather than stored passively (can be applied to real world).

Long-term memory

Information that is maintained outside of conscious awareness and can be called back into working memory when needed. HAS NO LIMIT OF STORAGE

task similarity

It's harder to multitask with similar tasks

temperament is what?

It's their characteristic emotional reactivity, intensity, - their shyness and their sociability. Persistent through age

who proposed the psychosexual theory of development

Freud fixation occurs and has 5 stages

Who Developed Symbolic Interactionism.

George Herbert Mead Developed Symbolic Interactionism. Believed development of individual was a social process as were the meanings individuals assigned to things

fixation (problem solving)

Getting stuck on a wrong approach to a problem.

Cyclothymic disorder

Similar to bipolar disorder but the moods ar else extreme

Socioeconomic status (SES)

Social Stratification based on income, occupation, education Low vs High (high has more power, resources, better start in life)

Social dysfunction

Social process that has undesirable consequences, reducing the stability of society

Mirror neurons

Specialized nerve cells which fire both when a person is completing an action and when the person observes someone else completing the same action. Critical for observational learning (learning by imitation), and responsible for vicarious emotions

Traditionalism

Tendency to follow authority. Shown to be common in twins

operational span testing

Test of working memory tasks, patients are asked to read and verify a simple math problem (is 4/2 -1 = 1?) then read then read a word, with a recall test following some number of those verify/read pairs. The maximum number of words that can be recalled is the "operation span".

Mead's "I", "Me", and "Other"

Me: social self view I: the response to me, attitudes towards others

social mobility

Movement of individuals or groups from one position in a society's stratification system to another Open stratification: achieved status can allow for mobility Closed stratification: no mobility, cast system, ascribed (born with) status Marx

What stage of sleep does sleep apnea affect?

N3(slow-wave sleep) Fatigue in the morning

what stage does sleepwalking/sleep talking happen in?

N3, slow wave sleep children do it more, partly because they have more N3

Source monitoring

Occurs when a person attributes a memory to a particular source. May not always be accurate. Memory construction may follow, where a person converts their inference into memory. Also can lead to incorrect construction of memories that never actually happened.

Non associative learning

Occurs when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus

Big 5 Model of Traits

Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism (OCEAN)

Cultural universals

Patterns/traits that are common to all people. Tend to pertain to basic human survival and needs (eg. securing food and shelter)

Belief perseverance

People hold on to their initial beliefs even when rational argument would suggest they are incorrect

Appraisal view of stress

People make two appraisals which determine their overall emotional reaction to the event.

Mere exposure effect

People prefer repeated exposure to the same stimuli (aka familiarity breeds fondness)

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

People understand the world through language and language shapes how we experience the world

Aggregate

People who exists in the same space but do not interact or share a common sense of identity

Social reproduction

People with rich parents end up wealthy themselves, leads to transmission of social inequality from one generation to the next

Interposition

Perception that one object is in front of another. An object that is in the front is closer.

Trait theory of personality

Personality consists of a set of traits which are characteristics that vary between people and are STABLE over the course of the lifetime. Key: NO ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES. Very little personal control over personality, and personality is hereditable.

Primary Group vs In Group difference?

Primary group the is your core social group. Parents, close friends from childhood. Long term relationships formed which have a great social impact on the individual. ▪ In group- a group you are affiliated with based on identification - can be ethnicity, nationality, gender, religion, etc.

Learning occurs more quickly through what type of stimuli?

Primary stimuli ---> learning is quicker if it's biologically relevant

Primary versus secondary deviance

Primary: no big consequences Secondary: more serious consequences

Reflexive movements

Primitive, involuntary movements of infants that serve to prime the neuromuscular system and form the basis for more complex movements later in life.

negative priming

Prior exposure to a stimulus unfavorably = influences the response to the same stimulus.

this is a personality disorder characterized by a need for social isolation, anxiety in social situations, odd behavior and thinking, and often unconventional beliefs.

Schizotypal personality disorde

Hidden curriculum

School curricula transmits cultural ideals beyond the stated goal of the institution. Encompasses the unspoken aims of education (teaching children to conform to social expectations)

Foraging behavior

Set of behaviors through which animals obtain food. A social behavior. Animals optimize this to maximize the energy available through food and to minimize the energy expenditure involved in obtaining it.

Dementia

Severe loss of cognitive ability beyond what would be expected from normal aging.

Personality

The characteristics that make a person different from others and may be predictive of behaviors. Considered the individual pattern of thinking, feeling, and behavior associated with each person.

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

We have a tendency to agree to small actions first. Eventually over time comply with much larger actions. Basic concept of how people are brainwashed too. Door is eventually pushed completely open over time. Society behaviors strongly feed into your attitude.

Stranger anxiety

The fear a child feels for faces that are not recognized by their developed schemas

Principle of closure

We perceive whole shapes even when they are not actually present in the stimulus

Selective attention

The focus of attention on one particular stimulus or task at the expulsion of other stimuli. Limitation: potentially important information may be discarded and missed

The hippocampus is critical in:

The formation of NEW memories (and emotional, flashbulb memories)

maladaptiveness vs distress criterion of abnormality

The maladaptiveness criterion takes into account whether behavior interferes with persons life The distress criterion takes into account whether the behavior demonstrates unusual or prolonged levels of stress

Attenuation Model

The mind has an attenuator which is able to turn down unattended sensory input rather than eliminating it.

Self-concept

The most personal aspect of identity. The knowledge of oneself as a person both separate from other people and constant throughout changing situations. AKA a person's view of his/her own personality. Developed and refined through interactions with others

Interposition

The overlapping of objects signifies positioning relative to one another. A monocular cue

Social identity

The perception of oneself as a member of certain social groups. Characteristics that are associated with the group come to be seen as part of the self. Cognitive component: categorization of oneself into a certain group Emotional component: individual's emotional attachment to the groups w/ which they identify

Constancy

The perceptual problem of distinguishing between information received by the retina and chances in the surrounding. Two types: Size--> allows a single object to be perceived as being the same size regardless of whether it is moved closer/further from the eye Shape--> allows us to know an object has the same shape regardless of how light reflects onto it

REM rebound

The phenomenon that occurs when someone misses REM sleep in a night. Causes an increase in REM sleep the next night

Instinctual drift

The phenomenon whereby established habits learned using operant techniques, eventually are replaced by innate food-related behaviors

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of lessened response

Rehearsal

The repetition of a phonetic representation. A process used to maintain information in working memory.

Recall

The retrieval of memory from scratch. A harder form of retrieval.

Peer pressure

The social influence exerted by one's peers to act in a way that is acceptable or similar to their own behaviors

instinctual drift

The tendency for an animal to drift back from a learned operant response to an innate, instinctual response to an object.

Perception

The use of sensory information and pre-existing knowledge to create a functional representation of the world

Spearman's Intelligence

Think "Mans ability" because all the S facotors are associated men stereotypical ability 1st: g factor (general ability) 2nd: s factor higher anarchy (specific abilities) ie. spatial, mechanical, verbal, numerical

Self-referencing

Thinking about new information and how it relates to you personally. Form of encoding

The occipital lobe is associated with:

Visual information

who proposed the Sociocultural Cognitive development theory

Vygotsky Believed children learned actively through hands-on processes, and suggest parents/caregivers/cultural beliefs/language/attitudes are all responsible for development of higher function of learning. o Child internalizes information w/ interactions with others. This social-interaction is important development of cognition.

Adaptive associations

biological advantage (those who have a biological advantage) are learned faster than learning with no biological value. Learning is not simply classical and operant conditioning

Values

a culture's standard for evaluating what is good and bad

Confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that may have produced an effect in an experiment, bu your not sure

Social anomie

a feeling of disconnection from moral boundaries in society. Thus, individuals feeling this way could perceive greater crime rates than what is actually occurring due to the fact that they do not feel that society reflects values that they hold important.

taste aversion

a learned avoidance of a particular food limitations to aversion shown that it doesn't work in lab experiment with rats

Symbolic Interactionism is what?

a micro-level theory in which shared meanings, orientations, and assumptions form the basic motivations behind people's actions society is a product of everyday interactions of individuals. Looking at how people behave in normal everyday situations and helps us to better understand and define deviance.

Dysthymia

a more subtle form of depression. This mood disorder may cause feelings of sadness and perhaps pessimism

Modernization Theory

all countries follow similar path of development from traditional to modern society. With some help traditional countries can develop similarly to today's developed countries did. o Looks at internal social dynamics as country adapts to new technologies o Looks at political and social changes that occur during adaptation as well.

Directed attention

allows attention to be focused sustainably on a single task, in this case a single orientation of the Necker cube.

General paresis

also known as general paralysis of the insane or paralytic dementia, is a neuropsychiatric disorder affecting the brain, caused by late-stage syphilis.

mesolimbic pathway, what areas of the brain are involved?

amygdala and hippocampas

dependency ratio

an age-based measurement takes people <14 and >65 who are not in the labour force, and compares that to # of people who are (15-64) o Higher the ratio, more dependent people there are. o Living longer = older residents can contribute to workforce for longer time

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. -Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory -example of synaptic plasticity -The greater the postsynaptic potential, the more ion channels will open in the neuron. This will result in a stronger neural response.

Test Validity

an indicator of how much meaning can be placed upon a set of test results

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

analytical, creative, practical

Dementia is characterized by ____________ amnesia.

anterograde

Why injury to one side of brain often results in damage to other side?

because all the somatosensory pathways cross to the other side.

Psychophysical discrimination testing

directly assess our perception of stimuli in relation to their true physical properties

mirror neurons are involved with these things (name 3)

empathy, repeated behaviour, theory of mind Theory of mind (involves being able to take another person's perspective)

what are the 2 types of cues that can direct our attention

exogenous and endogenous

Type 1 error (alpha) in problem solving

false positive Rejecting null hypothesis when it is true

Joint attention

focusing of attention on an object by two separate individuals.

Cohort studies

following a subset of population over a lifetime. A cohort is a group of people who share a common characteristic (ex. people born and exposed to same pollutant/drug/etc.) in period of time.

what makes up the cerebral cortex?

frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe

informal norms

generally understood but not precisely recorded and have no specific punishments

Communism

classless, moneyless community where all property is owned by community a political theory derived from Karl Marx, advocating class war and leading to a society in which all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs.

Where is the cerebral cortex of brain located?

cor"tex" imagine TEXAS hat covering outermost part of your brain the bumps part

flashbulb memory

people claimed to remember detail of what they were doing when they received news about an emotionally arousing even (9/11)

habituation is what?

person tunes out the stimulus

anterograde amnesia

inability to encode new memories.

what is anhedonia

inability to experience pleasure

Nativists perspective

inate part of biology, born with it

Conflict Theory

is also a macroperspective - the idea society is made of institutions that benefit powerful and create inequalities. Large groups are at odds until conflict is resolved.

Delirium tremens

is an acute episode of delirium that is usually caused by withdrawal from alcohol.

Ethnocentric:

judging someone else's culture from the position of your own culture o Viewing our own culture to be superior to that of others o Can lead to cultural bias and prejudice o Using one's own cultural standards, such as norms and values, to make judgements about another culture.

meditation and brain waves/activity

more alpha waves than normal relaxation in light meditation deep mediation, more theta waves regular practice: increased activity in prefrontal cortex, right hippo campus, and right anterior insula, increased attention control good for ADHD and aging

activity theory

looks at how older generation looks at themselves. Certain activities or jobs lost, those social interactions need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged and maintain moral/well-being

Expansive pyramids

lots of deaths and lots of births. Lots of young people not many old people

Concurrent validity

measures the test against a benchmark test and high correlation indicates that the test has strong criterion validity

Coercive Organization

members don't have choice about membership, ex. people in a prison, or the military (you need to be discharged to leave).Usually highly structured and have very strict rules

schemas

mental models: Frameworks for us organize and interpret new information To develop these, you need to be able to grow/change them - which happens through assimilation and accommodations.

cerebellum functions to..

motor task execution

what structures does the basal forebrain make up?

nucleus accumbens, nucleus basalis, medial septal nuclei

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Subculture

the values and related behaviors of a group that distinguish its members from the larger culture; a world within a world

social identity theory

theory in which the formation of a person's identity within a particular social group is explained by social categorization(race, job ect.), social identity, and social comparison

what do benzodiazepines do? what's is its mechanism of action?

used to induce sleep, reduce anxiety, reduce seizures enhances brains response GABA, opens GABA-activated chloride (Cl-) channels to negatively charge neuron ex. -zelam, -zolam

overextension

using a term/word for one class of objects to other objects with superficial resemblance (for example child saying, "doggie" for a cow).

"PAID" are organizations where members are compensated for their involvement. Employees of a particular company share membership in a __________ organization type

utilitarian organization.

The primary sense of humans is:

vision

occipital lobe structures and their funtion

vision, striate cortex(striated cells)

iconic memory

visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second

Visual and spatial info are processed in the:

visuospatial sketchpad

bureaucratization

process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy. Ex. customer service, now move through 12 menu options before reaching someone to help you.

what is Vigilance attention and signal detection

processes that attempt to detect a signal or target of interest. This allows responses to be primed and quick actions undertaken in response to the signal or target of interest, i.e. a pothole in the road is detected and avoidance actions are undertaken.

projecting own feelings of inadequacy on another

projection

Psychoeducation

providing knowledge about a topic to participancts in research or to patients about research findings and therapy procedures relevant to their situation

Hyperglobalist Perspective

sees globalization as a new age in human history - countries become interdependent and nation states themselves are less important. Countries become one global society. Theorists don't agree if this good or bad. Driven by a legitimate process.

Informational support

sharing information with us or giving us advice. Can come from family/friends or even articles online.

Group produced reduction of individual effort is a result of _____________.

social loafing groups experiencing social loafing are less productive, put forth less effort, and perform poorly. Perhaps to guard against being the person who is doing all the work, or because you know that your individual contributions are not evaluated.

Symbolic interactionism

social theory that's a microperspective, focuses on the individual and significance they give to objects, events, symbols, etc. in their lives.

token economy

system of behavior modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behavior, reinforcers are "tokens" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers (ex. Prizes).Rewarding individuals with secondary reinforcers that can be exchanged for appetitive stimuli is typical of a token economy

Cochrane reviews

systematic reviews of primary research in "human health care and health policy" Highest standard in evidence-based health care. They investigate the effects of interventions for prevention, treatment and rehabilitation.

The reward system structures in the brain

*Amygdala *Hypothalamus *Nucleus Accumbens *MCAT question VTA Substantia Nigra Prefrontal cortex Thalamus Dorsal striatum

Structures involved in the reward pathway

-Prefrontal cortex -VTA -Nucleus accumbens

Affect

A person's VISIBLE emotion in the moment

What machine measures brain waves?

EEG: electroencephalogram

Type II error

False negative

Type I error

False positive

Echoic memory

Fleeting memory for sound

Strategy

General plan describing the goals of a movement

Looking glass self

Identity develops through interpersonal interactions with others in society and the perceptions of others. People shape their self-concepts based on their understanding of how others perceive them

Gender inequality

Central to all behavior. Women subordination is viewed as an inherent feature in our patriarchal society.

Information processing takes place in the:

Cerebral cortex

The most evolved portion of the brain is the:

Cerebral cortex

False memories

Using imagination to create inaccurate memories

what part of the brain stops responding to serotonin during stress?

anterior cingulate

door-in-the-face technique

asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment

Face Validity

at a glance, does an average person agree with experimental measures

Reciprocal altruism

behavior that benefits another with the expectation that those benefits will be returned in the future

Evolutionary Perspective

behavior that is a result of our natural selection or genetic inheritance from our ancestors

which perspective/view did Hans EysencK belong to

biological perspective

Functionalism

comes from macrosociology - looks at society as a whole and how institutions that make up the society adapt to keep society stable and functioning

linguistic determinism

Language has an influence on thought. weak: thought based on how the language is structured strong: language determines thought completely

Learning theory of language development

Language is a form of behavior and is learned through operant conditioning--> continuing interaction with environmental reinforcement

this brain area/system plays a major role in emotions, memory, and motivation

Limbic system includes the hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and several other structures

According to humanistic theory, what causes psychological distress in an individual?

Occurs when the actual self, ideal self, and perceived self (self concept) are different from one other

Side-effect discrimination

One institution can unintentionally influence another institution negatively.

According to Freud, adult personality is largely determined by what three psychosexual stages?

Oral, anal, phallic

Dependency theory

Periphery countries export resources to core countries, and don't have means to develop

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological- food, sex, etc. Safety- physical/emotional security Belongingness- Socialness Esteem- Approval and recognition Self-actualization- Equation, hobbies, religion

Arousal

Physiological/psychological tension

Word association testing

Projective test in which the interviewer says a word and the respondent must mention the first thing that comes to mind

Death instinct

Psychoanalytic concept--> drives aggressive behaviors fueled by an unconscious wish to die or to hurt oneself/others

Gold Standard for clinical trial

Randomized Controlled Trial people studied randomly given one of treatments under study, used to test efficacy/side effects of medical interventions like drugs

Negative reinforcement

Removal of an unpleasant stimulus in response to a desired behavior. AKA takes away stimulus to increase likelihood of behavior

Chunking

Reorganizing large number of items into a smaller number of "chunks". A process that allows a larger amount of info to be maintained in working memory

Trial and error

Repeated, unsystematic attempts to solve a problem until the desired outcome is achieved

Availability heuristic

Rule of thumb where we use examples that come to mind to apply to a new problem.

Intragenerational mobility

SES class mobility of the same individual moving up

Hyperglobalist perspective

Sees it as a new age in human history: countries become interdependent and nation-states themselves are less important

Sense organs differ in __________.

Sensitivity

Religiosity

The extent of influence of religion in a person's life

Reciprocal determinism

The interaction between a person's behaviors, personal factors (individual motivational forces), and environment. Posits that people both shape and are shaped by their environments.

The blind spot

The location on the retina where the optic nerve connects. It has no cones or rods, so images projected there are not visible.

Endogamy

The practice of marrying within a particular group

Misinformation effect

The tendency to misremember information

Social facilitation

The tendency to perform better when a person knows he is being watched. Usually most pronounced for tasks at which the performer is highly practiced or skilled

Social stratification

The way that people are categorized in society

Place theory

Theory of hearing. Our perception of sound depends on where each component frequency produces vibrations along the basilar membrane

tyranny of choice

Too many choices can also negatively impact our cognition and behavior Results in information overload, and can lead people to decision paralysis and increased regret over choice made.

reticular formation is what and functions to do what?

a nerve network in the brainstems midbrain that plays an important role in controlling things motivation, alertness, things like respiration, digestion, and lower/higher functions.

Agreeableness measures what?

kind vs. cold, appreciative vs. unfriendly

context effects

memory is aided/influenced by environmental factors/physical location where encoding took place

what does LSD do neurochemically? what class of drug is it?

modifies serotonin neurotransmission, especially the 5-HT2 receptor family hallucinogen(aka psychedelics)

Counterculture

cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society Ex. Mormons believe in polygamy Ex. Amish

what are the 4 main categories of psychoatic drugs

depressants, stiumulants, hallucinogens, opiates/opiods

In operant conditioning studies, the subject's motivational state is most typically operationally defined by what?

depriving the subject of some desirable stimulus item for a period of time

retina

detect light rays and convert them into signals for the brain to process retina contains photoreceptors (rods and cones), which detect light and transduces light to energy. The energy eventually becomes an action potential and the signal travels through the optic nerve and travels to the primary visual cortex.

parallel processing

detect/focus all information (color, form, motion) at same time

Esteem support

expressions of confidence/encouragement. Things people say to let you know they belief in you. Can come from family+ friends but also therapists, teachers, coaches.

semantic memory

general knowledge, facts

Semicircular canal helps with what?

head rotation

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster part of macula (which is part of retina) completely covered in cones, NO rods "fOvea Only cOnes" fovea is directly involved in color sensation and its distribution of receptors varies across different species

Social potency trait is what and what is its tendency in twin studies?

the degree to which a person assumes leadership roles and mastery of roles in social situations. Common in twins reared separately.

Cultural imperialism

the deliberate imposition of one's own cultural values on another culture.

Racialization

the formation of a new racial identity by drawing ideological boundaries of difference around a formerly unnoticed group of people

central executive

the part of working memory that directs attention and processing

whats the region of the egg that the sperm binds to?

zona pellucida

what different things can makes up a hormone?

•Protein/polypeptide: Small→ large (100) •Steroid: from cholesterol (lipid - not charged and can pass freely thru mem) •Tyrosine derivative: from tyrosine. Thyroid hormones and catecholamine's (adrenal medulla produces this)

Examples of maladaptive behaviors for coping

•dissociation •sensitization •safety behaviors •anxious avoidance •escape (including self-medication).

blind spot structure for eye

optic disc Where optic nerves converge and exit the eye

psychosexual development stages

oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latency stage, genital stage

drive theory

peoples behaviors/motivations are influenced by reducing their drives (aroused tension state, biological/physiological needs) also called Drive Reduction Theory of motivation

devil effect/reverse halo effect

perceive people with an overall negative impression or if one attribute is very negative (ex: a kid that often acts up in class and is considered a "bad kid" can never do right)

semicircular canals

perceive rotation of the body or head

Central tendency Bias

rater uses middle range, avoids extreme choices

Sexual dimorphism

refers to biological differences based on gender.

lexical access

refers to identifying a word and connecting it to its meaning, which has been stored in long-term memory.

Simple innate behaviors example

reflexes reflexes or taxis when bugs fly towards a light

ANOVA

similar to t-test, compare distributions of continuous variable between groups of categorical variable, but can be used for 3+ groups

Clonus

rhythmic contractions of antagonist muscle. Ex. Foot goes involuntarily up and down. Cause is hyperflexia, because if doctor pulls on foot activates muscle stretch reflex, so triggers antagonist muscles. upper motor sign

Emotion is:

Adaptive

Extrinsic motivation

Motivation driven by external rewards.

function of limbic system

emotion and memory

Criterion validity

is test valid, can variable predict certain outcome

Pheromones

Chemical messengers employed by animals to communicate with each other

Positive control

Treatment with known response

Vestibular helps with what?

balance and linear acceleration

formal norms are what?

established, written rules

Xenocentrism

judging another culture as superior to one's own culture

What is dispositional attribution?

(internal characteristics/personalities of people)

libido

-Sex drinve natural energy source - fuels energy of mind for motivation for survival, growth, pleasure,

Factors Associated with Performance on Multitasking

-Task similarity -Task difficulty -Task practice

In-group

A group with which an individual shares identity and toward which she feels loyalty

Orexin

A neurotransmitter associated with narcolepsy

Self Discrepancy Theory

A theory that behavior is motivated by standards reflecting ideal, actual and ought selves

what hormones does the posterior pituitary gland make?

ADH Ocytocin

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Average is defined at 100. Every 15 points above or below this score represents 1 SD above or below the man.

this person is more closely related to the behaviorist perspective of personality, where he studied the ability of operant conditioning to modify personality over time

B.F. Skinner

which psychologist talked about incentive theory

B.F. Skinner

Operant Conditioning details and who created it?

B.F. Skinner: Rewards and Punishment influence behavior: Stimulus present (Positive) or not (Negative), increases (reinforcement) or decreases (punishment) Behavior

paradoxical sleep

BATS-Drink Blood Beta, Alpha, Theta, Sleep-spindle/k-complex Delta Beta) REM when muscles are deeply relaxed but there are high levels of brain activity

what person is associated with Social Cognitive theory?

Bandura Bobo doll

Mating behavior

Behavior surrounding propagation of a species through reproduction. Natural selection plays a role in this.

Private conformity

Changing internal behaviors/opinions to align with the group

Schizophrenia

Chronic, incapacitating disorder by which a person is out of touch with reality

Somatosensory communication

Communicate through touch and movement. Ex. mating dances. Movement can also convey food location (bees), pair/group bonding

The amygdala is associated with:

Emotional reactions of fear and anger

Evolutionary psychology

Gene associated with certain psychological traits that improve an individual;s chances for successful reproduction tend to be conserved

High neuroticism corresponds to:

High levels of emotional instability, anxiety, and moodiness

Flashbulb memories

Highly vivid memories that are tied to emotions. Can be subjected to reconstruction.

Professions

Highly-esteemed white collar occupations that require a great deal of education

Bilateral descent

Kin groups that involve both maternal and paternal relations

who did moral dilemas?

Kolhlberg 6 stages in 3 phases EX. Mr Heinz Dilema

Transformationalist perspective

National governments are changing, with world order (new world order) forming

Myopia

Nearsightedness

Distal stimuli

Objects and events out in the world around you

Dreaming occurs during ________ sleep.

REM

Syntax

Sentence structure

Inductive reasoning

The ability to use specific situations to forming general concepts

Observer bias

When an observer intentionally/unintentionally records a distorted measurement

False consensus bias

When we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not

Formal norms

Written down rules that are precisely defined, publicly presented, and often accompanied by strict penalties for those who violate them

list the "other" neurotranmitter

acetylcholine (ANS) + motor neurons.

Social capital

benefits/resources provided by social networks

cranial nerves are attached to what part of the brain?

brainstem

primacy bias

first impression is more important than later data.

term for Both Broca's Aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia are damaged. .

global aphasia

Fertility

is natural ability of human beings to have babies, which add to the population.

Objectification

practice of treating people as objects, less important

Anomia Aphasia

problems difficulties in naming objects or in retrieving words.

latent functions

unintended and unrecognized consequences of an aspect of society

cultural capital

"High Social Status" Person's assets (education, knowledge, skills) that provides social mobility: advantages in achieving a higher social-status in society Examples: things like knowledge, skills, and education required to practice medicine are associated with high social status in the United States

what is the "I" and "Me" represent from one of the theories regarding sociology?

"I" Independent response, creative, free will, within social norms "Me" socialized self, internalized set of societal values and attitudes

what are the 4 different theories of emotions?

"James shot a Cannon at a Lazy Singer" 1. James Lange 2. Cannon Bard 3. Lazarus 4. Schachter Singer James-Lange: physiological -> emotion, Cannon-Bard: physiological + emotion, Schachter-Singer: physiological + cognitive -> emotion, Lazarus: cognitive -> emotion + physiological

Difference threshold

"Just noticeable difference"--> the smallest difference that is sufficient for a change in a stimulus to be perceived. The more sensitive the sensory system, the smaller the threshold.

Observational learning stages

"MAMA": (Social Cognitive theory aligns with this theory of learning) Attention to the behavior Memory of the behavior Ability or capability to behave similarly Motivation or drive to behave similarly

Gardner's Multiple Intelligence Theory

"My gardener has multiple personalities" Interpersonal, intra-personal(within one person), bodily kinesthetic, natural, spatial, logical/mathematical, verbal/linguistic, musical ,and existential

Material culture

"Objects" Physical stuff (food, house) and technology (computor, cell phone) aspects involved in a certain way of life

Mixed Methods study

"Quantitative" component (the statistical analysis of the total claims) and a "Qualitative" component (the in-depth analysis of a subset of cases)

Prestige

"Respect" with which a person or status position is regarded by others

social capital

"Social Resources" the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively Social Network: types include: ▪ Peer network ▪ Family network ▪ Community network

Nonmaterial culture

"Symbolic culture" NON-physical Includes shared ideas, knowledge, assumptions, values, and beliefs that unify a group of people.

Primary deviance

"accepted" deviance from norm by others, no social aggressive backlash from others Also, if a person is only violent and aggressive when shopping on one day of the year, and his actions do not produce any long-term effects on his self-image or interactions with others

cognitive dissonance

"conflicting inner struggle about contradicting belief/knowledge" discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting cognitions (ideas, believes, values, emotional reactions). feelings of discomfort which we want to alleviate. We want to reduce the discomfort by minimizing the dissonance/inconsistencies/ CONTRADICTIONS

Cross-sectional study

"correlational, NOT causal" look at a group of different people at one moment in time

Lateral Geniculate nucleus (visual pathway) facts

"entrance to brain" 1st stopping location, to brain for visual path of visual sensory information

intrusion errors

"false memories" a memory error in which one recalls elements that were not part of the original episode because memories are reconstructive, they are prone to be not 100 percent accurate

Superstructure of society(Marxism)

"ideas and institutions" or main culture structure (religious beliefs, educational systems, philosophies, the arts, and such) compatible with and produced by the material substructure of the society.

Achieved Status vs. Ascribed Status

-achieved status is a social role that is obtained through voluntary action or achievement. -ascribed status is a status that can't be voluntarily changed (or that one is born with), like sex or age

what are the 4 main types of brain waves, and what main activities are you doing when each one is active?

Beta(12-30Hz: alert Alpha(8-13Hz): daydreaming Theta(4-7Hz): light sleep Delta(0.5-3Hz): deep sleep or coma

Exurbs

Beyond suburbs, prosperous areas outside the city where people live and commute to city to work, like suburbs. o Ex: Rochester outside Detroit, Michigan and Woodlands near Houston, Texas

World Systems Theory

Importance of world as a unit, dividing world into CORE (Western Europe/US), PERIPHERY (Latin America, Africa), and SEMI-PERIPHERY (India, Brazil)

Retrieval

The return of information stored in long-term memory into working memory for the purpose of problem-solving and guidance of behavior

Ethology and what is it, what is it's purpose?

The scientific study of how animals behave, particularly in natural environments. Innate behavior, learned behavior, and complex behaviours.

Divided attention

The splitting of perceptual resources between multiple stimuli or behaviors. Results in the stimuli receiving less attention than if they were focused on individually.

cultural diffusion

The spread of ideas, customs, and technologies from one people to another Can occur in many ways. o Exploration, military conquest, missionary work, mass media, tourism, internet. •Ex. McDonalds in Asia.

Acquisition

The stage of learning over which a conditioned response to a new stimulus is established

Stress

The strain that is experienced when an organism's equilibrium is disrupted and it must adapt

Memory consolidation

The strengthening of the neural network that represents a memory

Self-fulfilling prophecies

The stress and lowered expectations regarding a situation contribute to making beliefs into reality

Behaviorism

The study of external observable behaviors (as opposed to internal motivaitons/thoughts)

Sociobiology

The study of how biology and evolution have affected human behavior. Applies Darwin's theory of natural selection to social behavior, suggesting there is a biological basis for many behaviors. Additionally, argues that biological predisposition is influenced by social factors, and that the origins of culture lie in human evolution.

Naroclepsy

The takeover of waking life by REM that occurs without warning

Conformity

The tendency of individuals to CHANGE their attitudes, opinions, and behaviors to align with group norms. Necessary for the smooth functioning of social communities

Causation bias

The tendency to assume a cause and effect relationship

Self serving bias

The tendency to attribute one's success to internal factors and one's failures to external factors. Functions to support self esteem -Invoked by members of individualistic cultures more Here we are JUDGING OURSELVES

Halo effect

The tendency to believe that people have inherently good/bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics. Our overall impression of a person is influenced by how we feel/think about his character

Self-reference effect

The tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves and consistent with one's self-schemas

Belief bias

The tendency to judge arguments based on what one believes about their conclusions rather than on whether they use sound logic

Stimulus generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

Gardner's Theory of Intelligence

Theorizes that everyone has a variety of intelligences that are used in combination to solve problems and perform tasks. Intelligence has multiple domains: Linguistic Musical Logical-mathematical Spatial Bodily-kinesthetic Interpersonal

Sternberg's Theory of Intelligence

Triarchic theory of intelligence that emerges from a person's adaptive abilities Analytical intelligence Creative intelligence Practical intelligence

fluid intelligence

ability to think on one's feet, be adaptable, and solve problems using deductive and inductive reasoning.

binocular cues vs monocular cues: quick way to differentiate between them

binocular cue has: "point of focus" retinal disparity and convergence Monocular has everything else Form: big/small, interposition(overlapping objects), higher/lower, shadows Motion Parallax

list monamine neurotransmitters

biogenetic amines: amino group and aromatic group connected by 2 carbons seratonin, histamine, dopamine, epinephrine, norephinephrin

exchange theory

application of rational choice theory to social interactions. Exchange theory addresses decision making via cost-benefit analyses

safety behaviors are what?

are demonstrated when individuals with anxiety disorders come to rely on something, or someone, as a means of coping with their excessive anxiety.

this theory suggests important components of personality are inherited, or determined in part by our genes.

biologic theory

how do optiates work neurochemically? examples of opiates?

binds to opiod receptors mimicking endorphins heroine, codine, morphine, vicodin, oxycodin, oxycodone

Meritocracy

is one in which selections, appointments, and advancement are made on the basis of merit - skills, credentials, achievements, etc. assumes that "opportunity" is based on a combination of Talent and Effort

halo effect

is tendency people have inherently good/bad natures, rather than looking at individual characteristics. Ex. the physical attractiveness stereotype - believe attractive people have more positive personality traits.

reciprocal determinism is what?

is the interaction between a person's behaviours, personal factors (motivation/cognition), and environment are all determined by one another

Fecundity

is the potential reproductive capacity of a female.

what is Sense of agency/ effective agency

is the sense that you feel in control of your life, in control of your thoughts and behavior, and able to handle a wide range of life problems successfully

Demographic transition

is the tendency for both birth and death rates in developed countries to decline over time

Secularization

is the weakening of social and political power of religious organizations, as religious involvement declines.

Secondary reinforcers are what?

learned to be reinforcers, such as previously neutral stimuli

latent learning

learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful

Cross-sectional study

looks at a group of different people at one moment in time

Ecological validity

looks at the testing environment and determines how much it represents external environment, whether it influences behavior

Retrospective analysis

looks back at previous events data on set of population looking for correlations, a kind of psychological autopsy -Large sample to have statistical power -Sample of population needs to represent bigger population

Constrictive pyramid

low birth and death rates. More old people than younger pyramid. (in very developed countries)

when does Stereotype threat occur? give an example

occurs when individuals perceive that they are expected to perform in a certain way based on a stereotype, such as gender norms about academic performance.

Likert Scale

participants to rate their agreement with statements about "attitudes, feelings, and beliefs" on numbered scale of 1-5, or 1-10 -Most common type of scales used in research -Weaknesses: Self-reporting bias, aka response bias: (Social desirability bias, Acquiescence bias, Central tendency Bias)

A strong argument will be effective in changing attitudes through a) central route b) peripheral route or c) both

c--> both

Autocommunication

can give information to themselves. Ex. bats and echolocation and this allows them to gain information about the environment

Conscientiousness measures what?

careful vs. careless, disciplined vs. impulse, organized or not

Inclusive fitness

concerns the # of offspring an animal has, how they support them, and how offspring support each other. Inclusive fitness is thinking about fitness on a larger scale - evolutionary advantageous for animals to propagate survival of closely related individuals and genes in addition to themselves.

Role conflict

conflict/tension between two or more different statuses, unlike role strain. The different status compete for someone's time. Ex. someone who's is a parent, friend, husband, and worker

how are conformity and obedience difference?

conformity has a cognitive component and obedience has no thought process, they just follow orders

Stereotyping

creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike

Binet's idea of mental age

how a child at a specific age performs intellectually compared to average intellectual performance for that physical age in years

Impersonality

how individuals and officials conduct activities in unbiased manner ▪ Pro - equal treatment ▪ Con - alienation, discourage loyalty to the group

Unintentional discrimination

how policies can discriminate unintentionally

primary reinforcers are what?

innately satisfying/desirable, like food, water, sexual activity

Self-monitoring

is a long-term strategy that usually involves self-reflection and taking regular notes on your behavior, thoughts, and attitudes over time.

stigma

is extreme disapproval of a person based on some behavior or quality of that person Typically, a culture (or sub-culture) will stigmatize a person based on overt physical deformations (physical disability), deviant personal traits (drug addiction), or deviation from accepted norms of the ethnic group (being a "loose" woman in a traditional Latino subculture).

Relapse prevention

is often used when the target behavior carries with it high risk for relapse or a maladaptive coping mechanism. The program incorporated peer support and taught coping skills

Power Analysis

stats calculation that determines the minimum number of participants you need to have in your study that will best detect the true effect of the independent variable

master status

status that serves as one's primary identifying characteristic, is the most important aspect of one's social identity, and shapes everything in one's life.

Achieved status

status you earn yourself after working for it, ex. Olympic athlete

Hidden curriculum in education

we learn how to stand in line, wait our turn, and treat our peers. We internalize social inequalities, when boys and girls are treated differently by their teachers.

name of area of brain associated for understanding, and specific location

wernicke's area left temporal lobe

Gender script

what we expect men and females to do. Gender Script: organized information regarding the order of actions that are approximate to a familiar situation.

Polyandry vs. Polygyny

- Two types of polygamy - *Polyandry*: woman takes 2+ husbands - *Polygyny*: man takes 2+ wives

Religion

A system of beliefs that affects how people make sense of their experiences and provides a framework for questions about life, death, and the purpose of existence

Church

A type of religious organization that is well-integrated into the large society. Membership teds to occur by birth, but most churches allow people to join. Can be tied to the state or independent of it.

Emile Durkheim

Functionalism: dynamic equilibrium between social facts and institutions, systems and integral parts Does not address individuals, social change, conflict

Kinship/kin

How we think about who we are related to. Considered a cultural group rather than biological

Blue-collar work

Occupations that require skilled or unskilled manual labor

General fertility rate

The annual number of live births per 1000 women of childbearing age

STRONG social constructionism

The whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits. All knowledge is social construct and no brute facts. There are no facts that just exist.

Gender bias

Women and men receive different treatment for the same disease or illness. In healthcare, often due to research being conducted only on male subjects

Structural oppression of women

Women's oppression and inequality are due to capitalism, patriarchy and racism. Women are exploited because of capitalism model, but not all women express oppression in the same way. Men are associated with the mind, while women are associated with the body.

Health/medicine as a social institution

organized healthcare, with beliefs about diseases and approaches to healing varying between societies and cultures

Socioeconomic status (SES) can be defined in terms of:

power, property, and prestige

Demographics

statistical characteristics of human populations (i.e. income, age, gender, nationality, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, SES, immigration status, education level)

Spatial inequality

unequal amounts of qualities/resources and services depending on the "space" area or location i.e medical

Social inequality

unequal distribution of goods, wealth, opportunities, rewards, and punishments, treatment for different individuals/groups

Random error

Error that is due to chance and is not standardized. Decreases precision.

substructure of society(Marxism)

"material base/subculture" or mechanism of a society determines the nature of all social relationships, as well as religions, art, philosophies, literature, science, and government. consists of 3 components: -The means of production (natural resources). -The forces of production (technology, equipment). -The relationships of production (who does what, who owns what, and the effects of such divisions).

Intersectionality

"multiple forms of discrimination can exist simultaneously" Intersectionality calls attention to how identity categories intersect in systems of social stratification. Example: an individual's position within a social hierarchy is determined not only by his or her social class, but also by another personal identifier (race/ethnicity, age, gender, or sexual orientation. T

conformity

"peer pressure" how we adjust our behaviour/thinking (cognition) to match group (like primary group-peers) to align with group norms (to get you to use alcohol) Powerful method in social situations. o This is why it is important for people to have positive peers. If group behavior is positive, then there will be peace, harmony, happiness o Negative peers = negative behaviors, which can be catastrophic

list peptide neurotransmitters

"peptides pain" opiods (endorphin). Perception of pain

Where is melatonin produced?

"pins and needles in a melon" pineal gland

proletariat

"proletariat" refers to individuals from a working class, where their worth is determined by their ability to perform manual labor. Marx's term for the exploited class, the mass(majority) of workers who do not own the means of production Karl Marx that believed society evolved through several stages: feudalism -> capitalism -> socialism.

Repertory Grid Test

"psychological test" that reveals the respondent's way of construing the world

Social scripts

"schema-knowledge structure" society/culturally provided instructions for how to act in various situations violent video games, movies, tv, social media, ect..

counterconditioning is what?

"stimulus substitution" is a form of respondent conditioning that involves the conditioning of an unwanted behavior or response to a stimulus into a wanted behavior or response by the association of positive actions with the stimulus.

Independent Variable

(X-axis) variable: researcher manipulate Comes before the dependent

Dependent Variable

(Y-axis) variable: the changes or not changes made after the experiment has been manipulated Comes second to Independent

what are two reasons why you would agree/conform with the group?

*Informative influence: look to group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct. *Normative influence: even if you know what's right, do what group's negative actions to to avoid social rejection.

Sleep Waves(examples of stages with what sleep wave)

*Pre-Sleep/Sleepy: "Alpha" waves are detected when an individual is awake, but fatigued and less than fully alert. *Stage 1: sleep is characterized by "theta" *2.sleep spindles *Stage 3 sleep: bedwetting and night terrors *REM sleep: is characterized by waves similar to "beta" waves, but with a "less regular" distribution. *Awake: "Beta" waves are emitted when an individual is awake and fully alert.

Erikson's Stages: Infant, Toddler, Preschool, Children(school), Adolescence, Young adult, Middle-aged, Elderly

*these are all vs, but this is shortened" Infant: Trust Toddler: I can do it by myself Preschool: Self starter School age: Industrious Adolescence: Identify Young adult: Intimacy Middle adult: Generativity (contribute next generation) Elderly: Integrety (meaningful life or not?)

Systematic error

Error that shifts all measurements in a standardized way. Decreases accuracy. Can result in bias

What is situational attribution?

Individuals attribute behaviour to external situational clues

Choroid (eye) facts

-Absorbs excess light, So a problem in this area would make you bright light sensitive -contains connective tissue and blood vessel, located behind retina

implicit (non-declarative)

-All memories formed by conditioning -formed unconsciously. -All habits are procedural memories, a type of implicit memory. -Memories that inform unconscious motor skills are procedural memories, a type of implicit memory. ▪ Procedural memory is long-term memory for actions or habits such as how to kick a ball or washing hands before eating. Procedural memory is type of implicit memory. ▪ Habits/Implicit memory is stored in the basal ganglia.

Factors Affecting Attitude Change

-Behavior change -Characteristics of the message -Characteristics of the target -Social factors

5 Considerations of Gender

-Biological--> XX vs XY -Identity --> What gender they identify -Expression--> What gender they express -Attraction--> Not dependent on gender of a person (is not limited to sexual attraction, can be romantic) -Fornication --> sexual attraction

3 Main Assumptions of Rational Choice Theory

-Completeness (every action can be ranked) -Transitivity (Since A is preferable to B, A is also preferable to C) -Independence of irrelevant alternatives (if I have a 4th option, it won't change order of how I ranked first 3 options)

George Herbert Mead's I vs Me

-Description of a restricted influence of other people on our perceptions of self -Generalized other: society as a whole and its expectations on an individual -Me: our social self (how we believe society sees us) -I: response to the social self (our personal responses to what society thinks) -Our actual self balances the I and the Me

Weber's 5 main characteristic of an ideal bureaucracy

-Division of labor -Hierarchy of organization -Written rules and regulations -Impersonality -Employment based on technical qualifications

Industry vs inferiority

-Erikson psychosocial crisis -Resolved age 7-12 years -Ability to learn new tasks

Identity vs role confusion

-Erikson psychosocial crisis -Resolved in adolescence -Ability to form a stable identity

Initiative vs guilt

-Erikson psychosocial crisis -Resolved in age 3-6 years -Ability to carry out a plan

Integrity vs despair

-Erikson psychosocial crisis -Resolved in mature adulthood -Determining how well one has lived

Generativity vs stagnation

-Erikson psychosocial crisis -Resolved in middle adulthood -Ability to put energy into others

Intimacy vs isolation

-Erikson psychosocial crisis -Resolved in young adulthood -Ability to form relationships with others

Collective behavior

-Happens when large numbers of individuals rapidly behave in ways that are not in line with societal norms -Time limited -Involves short social interactions -Have loose norms

collective behavior

-Happens when large numbers of individuals rapidly behave in ways that are not in line with societal norms -Time limited -Involves short social interactions -Have loose norms

Stage 1 Sleep

-Light sleep -The brain emits alpha waves--> consistent with a relaxed state of wakefulness

Brute facts vs Institutional Facts

-Part of WEAK social constructionism -Brute facts: cannot be defined nor explained by something else, most fundemental facts -Institutional facts created by social conventions attaching meaning/value, do rely on other facts

The components of Emotional Intelligence

-Perceiving emotions -Using and reasoning with emotions -Understanding emotions -Managing emotions

3 Stages of Self Consciousness Development

-Prepatory stage--> imitation of others -Play stage--> pretend play, focused on perspectives of other people (role taking) -Game stage--> understanding of generalized other, starting to understand that people can take multiple roles in society

what cognitive abilities decline with age?

-Recall -Episodic memory (personal memories like past residence or fishing trip) -Processing speed -Divided Attention

Anxiety is characterized by:

-The experience of unwanted fear -A physical manifestation of excessive sympathetic nervous system activation -The frequent experience of excessive responses to stress -Concerns about the future and hypothetical situations

brain stem functions to..

Basic Alive Stuff: breathing, swallowing, heart rate, blood pressure, consciousness-ALERT, and whether one is awake or sleepy

what memory is stable with aging?

-implicit memory (aka procedural memories ex. riding a bike) -recognition memory (being able to pick something out of a list)

reinforcement schedule; interval vs ratio, fixed vs variable

-interval: time -ratio: fraction of a whole -fixed: frequency stays the same, same time or same amount every time -variable: unpredictable

Threshold of conscious perception

-min. intensity at which a stimulus is consciously perceived

which memory declines with aging?

-recall becomes more difficult (although recognition is stable), -episodic memories impaired (forming new episodic memories is difficult, old memories stable), -processing speed (older people have a harder time outputting a response) -divided attention (becomes harder to switch attention between task and become easily distracted). Also prospective memory (remembering to do things in future) is decreased.

what memory improves with aging?

-semantic memories improve till around age 60, so older adults have better verbal skills (they are great at crossword puzzles!). -Also crystallized IQ is improved (ability to use knowledge and experience. Typically tested by analogy tests and reading comprehension). -Also better at emotional reasoning.

Sensorimotor Stage (Piaget)

0-2 years old senses - children gather information about the world via sight, smell, taste, hearing, touch etc. + motor = active "peek a boo game"

Erikson's Psychosocial Development Conflicts

0→1 trust v mistrust 1→3 Autonomy v shame 3→6 Initiative v Guilt 6→12 Industry v Inferiority 12→20 Identify v Role Confusion 20→40 Intimacy v Isolation 40→65 Generativity v Stagnation 65→death: Integrity v Despair

How to improve self-control?

1) Change environment - make object of your temptation harder to get while making better/healthier options easier to get. ex. Moving unhealthy snacks to more difficult to reach shelf than the healthy snacks. [This surprisingly head a great effect] make good choices easier to reach. 2) Operant conditioning - reinforcing good behaviours with rewards. Positive/negative reinforcement or punishment. Ex. Watch an episode on Netflix for each segment of dissertation completed (positive reinforcement) or preventing a beeping on your computer as you typed into MSWord (negative reinforcement) to increase work to get a reward/avoid an annoying stimuli. Punishment - turn off internet to decrease behavior of watching Netflix. Reward good behavior + Punish bad behavior 3) Classical conditioning - ex. eat healthy snack every time you crave chocolate and over time you might start craving healthy snacks. Refocus desires to something more in line of long term goals. 4) Deprivation? - Removing the object of temptation completely is problematic. Can make you want it more, and leads to ego depletion (takes lot of effort to deprive of yourself something completely). This is probably why those on strict diets are likely to fall to temptation.

Three ways that behavior may be motivated by social influence

1) Compliance 2) Identification 3) Internalization

Factors that influence conformity

1) Group size (the larger, the better) 2) Unanimity 3) Cohesion 4) Status 5) Accountability 6) No prior commitment

Two reasons why group polarization occurs

1) Informational influence 2) Normative influence

What are 3 main characteristics that impact on how we are persuaded for/against a message:

1) Message characteristics - message itself, clarity, was it logical, how well thought message it. Also includes how well written it was, does speaker have good grasp of grammar, appropriate vocabulary, length of talk, etc. 2) Source characteristics - the environment around the message and the speaker's background. What is their level of expertise of speakers around us - do they seem knowledgeable, trustworthy, and is information credible or not. Where does the information come from - internet poll, street poll, or a psych journal. Physical environment, venue of event (campus or a bar). 3) Target characteristics -characteristics of listener such as mood, self-esteem, alertness, intelligence, etc. How we receive a message.

"father of psychoanalysis,"

Sigmund Freud unconscious desires. psychoanalytic therapy id, ego, superego

social movement stages

1- idea 2- incipient stage= public takes notice of situation deemed a problem 3- people organize a group 4- succeed in change or fail and adapt, no longer active

what are the (3) stages of stress, the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) by Hans Selye

1. Alarm Phase: heart raises, ready state 2. Resistance: fight or flight engaged 3. Exhaustion: if no recovery after resistance, body is damaged (sick) same as long term stress

Hawthorne Effect

Individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed

what are the 2 theories of how Hypnotism works?

1. Dissociation theory: divided consciousness 2. Social Influence Theory: people do and report whats expected of them, like actors in a role more alpha waves in this state

Fundamentalists

Individuals who adhere strictly to religious beliefs

what are the 3 things intentions are are based on according to the theory of planned behavior? of how do our attitudes influence behavior.

1. Our attitudes towards a certain behavior (ex. I like/favor studying), ▪2. Subjective norms - what we think others think about our behavior (ex. My friends think studying is a waste of time) ▪3. Perceived behavioural control (how easy/hard we think it is to control our behavior) ex. I also have to work 40 hours this week on top of studying. ▪ In this example: Our attitude is positive, but our behavior of studying is low!

What are the 3 biases?

1. Overconfidence - Can overestimate ability to produce answers when you need too. 2. Belief perseverance - ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts, ex. During elections learned about and then ignore facts about someone you like. 3. Confirmation bias - actively seek out only confirming facts. Ex. Only read stories about how wonderful candidate was.

What are the 3 levels of moral reasoning?

1. Pre-Pre-Morality: Preconventional: preadolescent (obedience vs punishment) 2. Conventional social norms and law and order 3.Postconventional: social contract and universal ethics

5 ways to encode memory (temporary to long term memory)

1. Rote rehearsal: flashcards, repeating over and over. Least effective 2. chunking: categorical listing of information 3. mnemonic devices: crazier, the better(accronyms, imagery, word associations, loci method) 4. self-referencing: personal relevance 5. spacing: breaks in between learning (5 hours to study, so 5x1hour study sessions)

3 different components of self-concept

1. Self-image: what we believe we are. The view we have of ourselves. 2. Self-esteem/self-worth: how much value we place on ourselves 3. Ideal-self: what we wish/aspire to be all according to Carl Rogers (humanistic theory)

Argument for medical model includes..

1. Those with mental health issues can assume the "sick role," allowing them to focus on treatment. 2. Highlighting dysfunctional behavior allows clinicians to focus treatment on the most salient behaviors. 3. Allows clinicians to use diagnostic criteria to communicate dysfunction to other clinicians.

morula is what?

32 cells. The cells become tighter (cells get closer together and the outside cells become different). Differentiation is occurring. The outside is trophoblast and the inside is an embryoblast.

3 main types of innate behavior

1. reflexes (sensory and motor nerve loop w/o thinking) 2. orientation behaviors (regulating specially in our environments) 3. fixed action patterns (FAPs) sequence of coordinated movement performed w/o interruption

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

1. sensorimotor 2. preoperational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational

Sensorimotor stage

1st stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development -Ages 0-2 years -Children learn to separate themselves from the world -Object permanence is learned here

Whats the difference in absolute and relative poverty?

2 different ways of thinking about poverty - does it threaten survival of person, or does it exclude them from society? Absolute poverty: Minimum level of resources a human being needs to survive. Relative poverty is not about survival, its people whose incomes are so low in their own society they're being excluded from society

which neurotransmitters are associated with inhibition in CNS

2 g's GABA-brain Glycine-spinal cord

What percentage of adults in America suffer from a diagnosable psychological disorder?

26%

Pre operational stage

2nd stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development -Ages 2-7 years -Children learn to use language -Children think literally and egocentrically here--> unable to take on perspective of others

Concrete Operational stage

3rd stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development -Ages 7-11 years -Children develop inductive reasoning -Children learn about conservation of mass

covariation model

3 cues of Kelley's covariation model: consistency (time), distinctiveness (situation), consensus (people)

Formal Operational stage

4th stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development -Ages 11+ -Children develop deductive reasoning -Children start to think theoretically and philosophically -Children can begin to develop post-conventional moral reasoning (Kohlberg's theory!)

How much information can be held in working memory?

5-9 pieces of information (7 +/- 2)

What percent of the American population will have a serious mental illness?

6%

preoperational stage (Piaget)

6/7 yrs old pretend stage, egocentric, non conservation

concrete operational stage (Piaget)

7-12 understands conservation, empathy, math

Population Pyramid

A bar graph representing the distribution of population by age and sex.

Labelling Theory

A behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant

episodic buffer

A component of working memory -connecter for information to be stored in long-term memory.

Episodic buffer

A component of working memory where information in working memory interacts with information in long term memory (eg. relating information you are processing to a previous memory)

Phonological loop

A component of working memory where we repeat verbal information to help us remember it

Social construct

A concept or practice that is construct of a group. Everybody in society agrees to treat a certain aspect a certain way regardless of its inherent value in nature.

Learned helplessness

A condition that occurs after a period of negative consequences where the person begins to believe they have no control. uncontrollable bad events can lead to a perceived lack of control, which leads to general helpless behavior.

Feminist Theory

A contemporary approach of looking at world from macro-perspective, developed from feminism movement originating from conflict theory by focussing on stratifications/inequalities in society. It examines women's social roles/experience in education, family, and workforce. It looks beyond more common male-based perspective to focus on gender inequalities in society.

Habituation

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations

Projection

A defense mechanism that involves attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts/feelings to another person

Sublimation

A defense mechanism that involves channeling aggressive/sexual energy into positive, constructive activities

Rationalization

A defense mechanism that involves explaining and intellectually justifying one's impulse behavior

Regression

A defense mechanism that involves reverting to an earlier, less sophisticated behavior

Variable-interval reinforcement

A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after an unpredictable time interval has passed since the response

Out-group

A group with which an individual does not identify and toward which she may feel competition or hostility

Leptin

A hormone released by white adipose tissue to reduce hunger

Melatonin

A hormone secreted by the pineal gland that stimulates the drive for sleep as part of the sleep-wake cycle

what is attitude

A learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. To evaluate people, issues, events, objects.

Social facts

Basic structure for any society to exist laws, morals, values, religions, customs, rituals, and rules that make up a society.

Polygyny

A man married to more than one woman

The later sleep cycles are ____________.

A mixture between REM and non-REM sleep.

method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

Spotlight model

A model of visual attention. Shifts in attention precede the movement of our eyes

Stigma

A negative social label that changes a person's social identity by classifying the labeled person as abnormal/tainted

Mood

A person's sustained INTERNAL emotion that colors his/her view of life

Identity

A person's view of who they are in terms of both internal factors and social/external factors. Places a larger emphasis on the individual's own perception of self, which contrasts from a "personality".

REM sleep

A period of high brain activity and rapid eye movements that occur during stage 1 sleep. The brain lives the massive amount of stimuli experienced during the day and consolidates important info into memory and discards less important info. The body is immobilized during this stage.

Dissociative fugue

A person goes on a journey, during which he cannot recall personal history prior to the journey. During the journey, the person may be disoriented, confused, or violent. Usually involves the assumption of a new identity/occupation. Journey usually ends suddenly with recovery of prior memories but amnesia for the episode

Depersonalization disorder

A person has a recurring or persistent feeling of being cut off or detached from his body or mental processes, as if observing themselves from the outside. May feel that the external world is unreal

Identity foreclosure

A person has a sense of identity but has failed to identify an identity crisis (unquestionably adopts the values and expectations of others)

Dissociative amnesia

A person has had at least one episode of suddenly forgetting important personal information. Person usually wanders aimlessly during the episode. Disorder usually ends suddenly with full recovery of memory

Panic disorder

A person has suffered at least one panic attack and are worried about having more of them. Can be cued by certain situations, but are more often spontaneous

Self-regulation

A person's ability to control their behavior in the absence of rewards or punishments; in association with observational learning

Locus of control

A person's belief about the extent to which internal or external factors play a role in shaping his/her life

social class

A person's economic position in a society, based on birth and individual achievement

Cognitive behavioral therapy

A person's feelings/behaviors are seen as reactions not to actual events, but to the person's thoughts about those events. Helps the client become aware of their irrational thoughts and substitute rational/accurate beliefs and thoughts through reconditioning, desensitization, and reversal of self-blame.

Biological theory of personality

A person's genome contributes to the formation of personality, and that personality traits differ in the event to which they are influenced by heredity versus environmental factors

Motivation

A psychological factor that provides a directional force or reason for behavior

Primary punisher

A punishing stimulus that is based on a physiological need (eg. exposure to extreme temperature). Harness physiological needs and the drive for survival.

Secondary punisher

A punishing stimulus that requires learning and social context to affect behavioral decisions, but is just as effective at controlling behavior as primary punishers. Includes fines, scolding, ostracism, and bad grades.

acrosome is what

A region at the head of a sperm cell that contains digestive enzyems which, when released during the acrosome reaction, can facilitate penetration of the corona radiata of the egg, and subsequently, fertilization

Primary reinforcer

A reinforcing stimulus that is based on a physiological need (ex. food, water, shelter). Harness physiological needs and the drive for survival.

what is a trait?

A relatively stable characteristic of a person that causes individuals to consistently behave in certain ways. Combination and interaction of traits forms the personality

Sect

A religious organization that is distinct from that of the larger society. Formed from breaking away from larger religious institutions. Membership may be by birth or through conversion.

Cult/New religious movement

A religious organization that is far outside society's norms and often involves a very different lifestyle. Many major world religions originated as cults.

Exogamy

A requirement to marry outside a particular group, with it being the norm in almost all cultures to prohibit sexual relationships between certain relatives

Conditioned response

A response that is learned (elicited through a conditioned stimulus). Is similar to the original unconditioned response that is used to create a conditioned stimulus

Hypnic jerks

A sensation of falling as you enter stage one sleep

Family

A set of people related by blood, marriage, adoption, or some other agreed-upon relationship that signifies some responsibility to each other. Serves five functions: -Reproduction and the monitoring of sexual behavior -Protection -Socialization -Affection and companionship -Social status

reference group

A social group that you evaluate/compare yourself against These groups influences our social decisions - our own beliefs, attitudes and behaviors.

social stratification

A society's categorization of people into socioeconomic strata based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social status, or derived power (social and political).

Physical attractiveness stereotype

A specific type of halo effect where people tend to rate attractive individuals more favorably for personality traits and characteristics

Reference group

A standard measure that people compare themselves to

Hypnosis

A state of relaxation, focused attention and increased willingness to relinquish control over one's actions. Induced through cooperation with a hypnotist or later as self-hypnosis. CANNOT be done against someone's will.

Ascribed status

A status that is assigned to a person by society regardless of the person's own efforts (ex. gender, race)

Algorithm

A step by step procedure that leads to a definite solution. It is an exhaustive technique but is not always the most efficient

Nicotine

A stimulant that disrupts sleep and suppresses appetite. Also causes muscles to relax and release stress-reducing neurotransmitters.

Caffeine

A stimulant that inhibits adenosine receptors, disrupting sleep.

Conditioned stimulus

A stimulus that has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a learned response

Unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that results in an innate behavioral response (a response that is not learned)

Analogies

A strategy where a new problem is reduced to a previously known problem, and prior knowledge of how to determine the solution can be applied

naming explosion

A sudden increase in an infant's vocabulary, especially in the number of nouns, that begins at about 18 months of age.

Mental set

A tendency to fixate on solutions that worked in the past but might apply to a current situation.

False consciousness

A term used by Karl Marx to describe an attitude held by members of a class that does not accurately reflect their objective position. owners can promote this false consciousness by controlling classes, making it more difficult for workers to see their oppression.

Methadone

A treatment that activates opiate receptors slowly than other opiates, dampening the high that addicts get. Eases withdrawal.

systematic desensitization is what? and when is it used?

A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.

Shaping

A type of operant conditioning where successive approximations of a desired behavior are reinforced in order to gradually achieve the desired behavior

Feral children

Individuals who were not raised with human contact or care

Cocktail party effect

Ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd

Hyperreflexia

Abnormally increased reflexes resulting from nervous system damage upper motor sign

this person is better known for his involvement with the humanistic perspective of personality, where he formed the hierarchy of needs to describe the physiological and psychological needs humans require to be fulfilled.

Abraham Maslow

Absolute poverty vs relative poverty

Absolute: basic surviving level, does NOT change Relative: based on median in that area you live in, DOES change

Relative Deprivation Theory

Actions of groups that are oppressed/deprived of rights that others in society enjoy. ex. Civil Rights Movements

Confederate

Actors that are told what to do during an experiment

Role taking

Adopting the role of another person either by imitating behaviors associated with specific social roles or by taking the other person's POV in a social interaction

what is the endocrine response to stress?

Adrenal glands - • The adrenal medulla release catecholamine's (epinephrine/adrenaline and norepinephrine/noradrenaline). Catecholamine's are tyrosine derivatives. Developed from ectoderm. • The adrenal cortex release glucocorticoid (cortisol) - steroid hormone redistributes glucose energy in body and suppressing immune system. Developed by endoderm. Acronym: COTisol is released by the CORTex • Play a role in development of muscles/bones

Advantages and Disadvantages to IQ Tests

Advantages -Simple to administer -Provides scores that are easy to compare -Correlates with academic performance Disadvantages -Less able to predict later career success/advancement -Shows a cultural bias against minorities -Single number score is misleading

Alertness

The default state of consciousness--> most people are generally alert when awake

Life Course theory

Aging is a social, psychological, and biological process that begins from the time you are born until you die.

who did the Bobo Doll Experiment?

Albert Bandura Cited when people debate if they should ban violent video games. It's a blow-up doll you can punch.

who performed and what did the "Bobo doll" experiments show?

Albert Bandura which showed that children can display observational learning for aggressive behavior when they watch adults exhibit such behavior.

Nonverbal communication

All communication between individuals that does not involve words (eg. body language, touch, appearance, facia l expressions)

The most prevalent form of dementia is:

Alzheimer's disease

What region of the brain is particularly important in negative conditioning?

Amygdala

Emotional Regulatory Centers of Brain

Amygdala--> conduction and identification emotions Hypothalamus--> creates physiological aspects of emotions Prefrontal cortex--> controls behavioral aspects of emotions

Habit

An action that is performed repeatedly until it becomes automatic

Principle of aggregation

An attitude affects a person's average behavior, but not necessarily each isolated act

principle of aggregation

An attitude affects a person's average behavior, but not necessarily each isolated act

Working Memory "Baddeley" Model

An explanation of the memory used when working on a task (lanuage, visual, episodic) and their relationships to storing things in long-term memory

Sensitization

An increase in the responsiveness to a stimulus due to either repeated application of a stimulus or a particularly aversive/noxious stimulus

Operant conditioning

An individual becomes more or less likely to carry out a certain behavior based on its consequences. Think: BEHAVIOR ---> RESPONSE. Discovered by B.F Skinner.

Classical conditioning

An individual develops a response to a previously neutral stimulus by associating the stimulus with another the already elicits the response. Think: STIMULI ---> BEHAVIOR. Discovered by Ivan Pavlov and his dogs.

Central route processing

An individual thinks deeply and even elaborates on argument presented ( occurs when a person is deeply invested in a situation/has not knowledge). If a person is using this route, is more likely to change attitude if argument is strong and persuasive

Coercive organization

An organization by which its members do not have a choice

Utilitarian organization

An organization where people are paid/rewarded for their efforts

Social phobia

An unreasonable, paralyzing fear of feeling embarrassed or humiliated while one is watched by others

Crude birth rate

Annual number of live births per 1000 people

Neuroleptic agents

Antipsychotic medications that have an added side effect of enhancing negative symptoms. The "original" drugs

Atypical antipsychotics

Antipsychotics that do not have significant side effects common to older antipsychotics

Prevalence of psychological disorders in adults

Anxiety disorders -20% Mood disorders- 10% Schizophrenia - 1% Personality disorder - 9% Dissociative disorders- 19% Eating disorders -1-6% Somatoform disorders- up to 2%

episodic memory

Any Memories(facts/details) you formed from an "event/situation" because you witnessed them personally

Exchange Theory

Application of rational choice theory to social interactions. Looks at society as series of interactions between individuals. Used to study family relationships, partner selection, parenting, etc. Interactions are determined by weighing rewards and punishments of each action.

Food deserts

Areas (low-income urban neighborhoods) that are difficult to find/transport to affordable, healthy food options, only fast food/highly caloric/snacks (obesity)

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Arises when person feels intense fear, horror, or helplessness while experiencing, witnessing, or otherwise confronting an extremely traumatic event

Hair cell are what? functions to do what?

Arrangement of hair in different parts of the cochlea ----allows us to hear "different frequencies" This is how cochlear implants work, to be receptive to sound pitches

Institutional discrimination

As opposed to discriminatory acts committed by individuals, there are institutional policies that disadvantage certain groups and favor others- i.e. governments, banks, schools etc. Example: Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954. In this court case, overturned separate schools for whites and African-Americans. Brown said these schools aren't equal, and Africans were being mistreated.

Caste system

Ascribed status (born status) into role/position without ability to advance in society -can only marry same caste people -high social stability, low social mobility Ex. The Hindu caste system

Dispositional attribution

Assigning the cause of an inherent quality or desire (internal locus of control)

Stage 2 Sleep

Associated with bursts of brain wave activity that indicate a full transition into sleep

State 3 Sleep

Associated with the appearance of delta wave brain emissions, reflecting the transition into deep sleep. Alpha waves are still around, but are less prominent

Dramaturgical approach

Assumes that people are theatrical performers and that everyday life is a stage, where people choose what kind of image they want to communicate verbal and nonverbally to others. Critics say this research may not be objective, ad that theory is focused too narrowly on symbolic interaction.

Medical Model

Attempts to link societal factors with how people manage issues of health and illness, disease and disorders, and health care. For example, the stigmatization of mental illness has a demonstrable effect on patients and the kind of care they will seek out.

What determines which sensed stimuli continue to the level of perception?

Attention

What is the gatekeeper of consciousness?

Attention

Stereotype

Attributing a certain thought/cognition to a group of individuals and overgeneralizing

The temporal lobe is associated with:

Auditory/ olfactory information, emotion and language, and memory formation

Describe these Parenting styles : authoritarian, permissive, or authoritative

Authoritarian parenting: very strict, break will of child. Punishment. ▪ Authoritative: (BEST) also strict, consistent and loving but more pragmatic and issue-oriented and listen to children's arguments. Balance responsibility with rights of child. Discipline. ▪ Permissive parenting/Indulgent parenting: non-directive and lenient. Few behavioral expectations for child.

Avoidance conditioning

Avoidance of unpleasant stimuli by learning new behaviors to help avoid the unpleasant stimuli before it occurs.

Escape conditioning

Avoidance of unpleasant stimuli by learning new behaviors to help terminate the occurring unpleasant stimuli.

escape conditioning

Avoidance of unpleasant stimuli by learning new behaviors to help terminate the occurring unpleasant stimuli. negatively reinforced

Consciousness

Awareness of oneself, one's surroundings, one's thoughts, and one's goals

What person said that our learning is through observation of others, and observation of behavior of others.

Bandura Social-Cognitive Theory view behaviours as being influenced by people's traits/cognitions and their social context. Talking about interactions between individual and situation they're in.

Prototype willingness model of how do our attitudes influence behavior.

Behavior is a function of: past behavior, attitudes, subjective norms, our intentions, our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior, and prototypes/models. Argues that a lot of our behavior is carried out from prototyping

Prototype willingness model

Behavior is a function of: past behavior, attitudes, subjective norms, our intentions, our willingness to engage in a specific type of behavior, and prototypes/models. Argues that a lot of our behavior is carried out from prototyping

Deviance

Behavior that violates social expectations or fails to conform to social norms

tell me some things about Behaviorist theory

Behaviorism is related to the theories of B. F. Skinner. It is a school of psychological research that focuses on individual behavior alone, ignoring mental states such as beliefs and identities.

Innate behaviors

Behaviors that are developmentally fixed (cannot be modified through experience)

What is necessary for an individual to be capable of observational learning?

Biological processes (mirror neurons)

Bipolar I vs Bipolar II

Bipolar I: Person experiences one manic/mixed episode Bipolar II: Person experiences less extreme manic phases

Bipolar disorder: differences in 1 and 2

Bipolar1: manic episodes, and depressive spells Extreme weight fluctuations, hallucinations and delusions Bipolar2: cycling of depression to severe depression

Stationary pyramid:

Birth rates and death rates are low. Lots of everybody

What point in the human lifespan has the highest amount of neurons?

Birth!

Birth rate, what ratio for increase, decrease

Births/1000 people per yr • >2 = increase in population • = 2, no increase/decrease in population. • <2 = decrease the population

Three types of kinship

Bloodline, marriage, adoption

Activation Synthesis Hypothesis

Brain gets a lot of neural impulses in brainstem, which is sometimes interpreted by the frontal cortex. Our brain tries to find meaning from random brain activity--> explanation that dreams may not actually have meaning.

Activation Synthesis Hypothesis

Brain gets a lot of neural impulses in brainstem, which is sometimes interpreted by the frontal cortex. Our brain tries to find meaning from random brain activity--> explanation that dreams may not actually have meaning.

Alpha waves

Brainwaves detected by an EEG during Stage 1 sleep that represent a relaxed state of wakefulness

Delta waves

Brainwaves detected by an EEG during Stage 3 and Stage 4 sleep that are stronger than alpha waves; signify a person is in deep sleep

Beta waves

Brainwaves detected by an EEG that represent a state of fully alert wakefulness

Anomie

Breakdown of social bonds between an individual and community

Iconic memory

Brief and fleeting photographic memory

Warning colors

Bright colors meant to advertise to predators that an organism is toxic or noxious

Top-down processing

Brings the influence of prior knowledge into play to make perception more efficient.

Sleep spindles

Bursts of waves on an EEG distinctive for stage 2 sleep

linked personality to brain systems in reward/motivation/punishment, such as low dopamine correlating with higher impulsivity. (acronym: Clone-iger cares about them brain systems - Clone the Brain)

C. Robert Cloninger (acronym: Clone-iger cares about them brain systems - Clone the Brain)

Brain Scan Types/Facts

CT (CAT): "brain structures" tumor, injuries MRI: "brain structure & soft tissue" tumor, injuries,grey, white, cerebrospinal fluid PET: "brain activity" radioactive glucose→Metabolism tumor/cancer scansactive cancer Metabolism fMRI: "brain activity" blood flow changes via cognitive thought process Most research studies (memory, sexual studies, image presentation) EEG: "sleep vs aroused/alert/seizure activity"

Perceiving depth

Cannot be represented on the 2D surface of the retina, so the brain compensates by comparing images seen by each eye--> the differences in the two versions of the same stimulus from slightly different locations allows the brain to estimate depth of object being viewed

Perceiving motion

Cannot be represented on the brain based only on pattern of information received by retina. Visual cortex integrates information gathered by retina and by eye movements to develop correct inferences about motion.

What aspect of cognition is unaffected by aging?

Capacity for retrieving general information

Gordon Allport: studies of personality, trait theory 3 traits: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. Describe what each trait is.

Cardinal traits are those around which people organize their entire lives. Central traits are defining characteristics of a person that can be easily inferred from that person's behavior. Secondary traits are those that only occur sometimes, particularly when a person is in a certain social situation.

Humanistic theory of personality

Carl Rogers. People continually seek experiences that make them better, more fulfilled individuals- motivated by enhancing the organism. The individual shapes his or her own personality through free will. Conscious decisions make people who they are.

Global inequality

Certain countries hold a majority of the resources. Access to resources among countries seriously impacts social factors such as mortality. The burden of inequality is placed on certain segments of the population.

Specialized movement stage

Children learn to combine fundamental movements and apply them to specific tasks.

How is the law of effect different from classical conditioning?

Classical conditioning involves involuntary responses, while the law of effect involves voluntary actions.

Panic attack

Classified as a person experiences intense dread, SOB, chest pain, choking sensation, cardiac symptoms

Principle of nearness

Clusters of objects will each be perceived as a distinct group

What do these stimulants do neurochemically? cocaine, amphetamine, caffeine, nicotine, and THC

Cocaine: blocks dopamine reuptake Amphetamines: block dopamine re uptake and stimulate presynaptic dopamine release Caffeine: inhibits the enzyme that breaks down cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) THC: works on anandamide. Increases dopamine and GABA activity.

what science related method is the Highest standard in evidence-based "health care".

Cochrane reviews

this is an organization type in which members are forced to join. Prison is a classic example.

Coercive organizations

The components of emotion

Cognition: Personal assessment of the significance of particular situation Physiological: Activation of the autonomic nervous system Behavioral: Urges to act in a certain way NOTE: these components can act in ANY order

This theory focuses on thoughts and behaviors.

Cognitive behavioral theory

Serial processing

Cognitive process involving considering each input one at a time

T-test

Compares mean values of a continuous variable between 2 categories/groups.

ANOVA

Compares mean values of a contributes variable for multiple categories/groups

Front stage self

Component of the dramaturgical approach. Encompasses the behavior that a player performs in front of an audience. The player know they are being watched and that their behavior is subject to judgment by an audience

Back stage self

Component of the dramaturgical approach. Encompasses the behavior that a player performs when with other players, but no audience is present. Can include behavior that would be unacceptable when performed in front of the audience.

Aggression

Conflict and competition between individuals. A social behavior

The prefrontal cortex is associated with:

Conscious regulation of emotional states, and CRITICAL in temperament and decision making

Class system

Considers both social variables and individual initiative in social stratification

Social cognitive theory of personality

Considers learned experiences and observable behaviors as shaping personality, but also considers the contributions of an individual's mental life and personal choices. Posits reciprocal interaction between behavior, personal factors, and environment in shaping personality/ Includes process of observational learning. Individual have personal control over personality by choosing experiences

Agents of socialization

Consist of the groups and people who influence personal attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. Include family, friends, neighbors, social institutions, consumption of mass media, and environments

Three factors impacting attribution of behavior

Consistency--> is the person's behavior typical Distinctiveness--> is the person's behaviors towards everything, or just one thing? Consensus--> are they the only person with that behavior

What is the most rapid way to establish a learned response?

Continuous reinforcement

Beliefs

Convictions or principles that people hold in a culture

this theory states that people pay attention to "intentional behavior" rather than "accidental ones"

Correspondent inference theory Jones and Davis The actor (person who performs the action) is fully aware of the consequences of the actions, and deliberately performed the action He/she is able to perform the action. When actors action either directly harms or helps you (the person making the attribution) The correspondent inference theory helps us properly understand the internal attribution. Internal attribution is easily understandable because of the correspondence we see between motive and behavior.

Biological basis of Alzheimer's disease

Cortical disease (affects outermost tissue of brain) due to formation of neuritic plaques (hard formations of beta-amyloid protein) and neurofibrillary tangles (clumps of tau protein). Some evidence of acetylcholine activity abnormality in the hippocampus

Social class in America is largely determined by ________.

Financial wealth

whats the difference in culture and society?

Culture = learned, reshaped/adapted/passed on cumulative rules that guide way people live how to live. ex. Knowledge, beliefs, values, language, and customs Society = structure/institutions that provides organization for "groups people". ex. family, education, politics, which all meet basic human needs

Culture lag

Culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations, resulting in social problems

Social support

Finding help through social connections. A social behavior

Id

DEVIL: Innate. Reservoir of all psychic energy Id seeks to discharge tension arising from internal needs or external stimulation

The most recent edition of the guidebook for diagnosis of psychological disorders is the:

DSM-V

Situational attribution

Deciding that environmental forces were in control (external locus of control)

stage 4 sleep facts

Deep sleep, bedwetting, night terrors, Delta waves, sleep walk

Primacy bias

First impressions are important-- extra emphasis on information that reinforces first impression

pragmatics

Dependences of language on context and pre-existing knowledge. ▪ Pragmatics are affected by prosody - the rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices.

Insight learning

Describes when previously learned behaviors are suddenly combined in unique ways.

Mate choice

Determined by a number of factors, including genetic qualities, overall health, and potential parenting skills of prospective mates

Why is the problem with characterizing mental illness?

Determining what classifies ""abnormal" psychological conditions is ARBITRARY. Imposes categories on traits that exist on a continuum

Discrimination

Differing your treatment resulting in harmful actions against minorities "race, age, religion, etc" Can be at individual or at the organizational/institutional level

Operant extinction

Disappearance of a behavior through removal of reinforcers (ex. if a dog learns to sit down in order to receive a treat, and treats are no longer given, the "sit down" behavior will eventually disappear)

Classical extinction

Disappearance of a conditioned response through disassociation of the conditioned and unconditioned response

Reverse discrimination

Discrimination against the majority. Used to describe the negative consequences of affirmative action

Biomedical approach to health and illness

Disease is studied by examining only the biological factors of illness, neglecting contributing factors of psychological life and sociological context.

Role exit

Disengaging from a role that that has become closely tied to one's self-identity to take on another

Dishabituation and Disinhibition

Dishabituation: respond to an old stimulus as if it were new again (habituation stimuli is removed) Disinhibition: lack of restraint (disregard of social conventions, impulsivity, and poor risk assessment) from altered perception (binge drinking, alcohol abuse)

Neurodevelopment disorders

Disorders that involve distress/disability due to abnormality in development of nervous system. Include intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders, and ADHD

residential segregation

Groups of people separate into different neighborhoods. o Can mean race or income. o Where we live affects our life chances, because it affects our politics, healthcare, availability to education, etc.

Exogenous /External Cues are what?

Don't have to tell ourselves to look for them in order for them to capture our attention Ex. Bright colors, loud noises, "pop-out effect") • Exogenous attention is driven by bottom-up or external events, i.e. pop-out.

Neurotransmitter associated with additive behaviors

Dopamine

Hallucinogens

Drugs that alter sensory and perceptual experience. Most act as agonists.

Barbituates

Drugs that are used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety. Act as depressants.

Opiates

Drugs that are used to treat pain and anxiety. NOT depressants--> act on endorphins.

Antagonists

Drugs that bind to neurotransmitter receptors without activating them, thereby blocking the binding of the associated neurotransmitter and undermining its normal effects.

Depressants

Drugs that cause a decrease of activity in the CNS.

Reuptake inhibitors

Drugs that interfere with the reuptake of neurotransmitters in the synapse so that a greater amount remains in the synapse

Agonists

Drugs that mimic chemically similar, naturally occurring neurotransmitters

Enzyme inhibitors

Drugs that prevent the breakdown of neurotransmitters that have been taken up by the presynaptic neuron

Stimulants

Drugs that raise the level of activity in the CNS. Many act by increasing the amount of monoamine neurotransmitters (epinephrine/dopamine) in the synapse.

Sleep terrors are most likely to occur:

During NREM sleep

EEG and Alertness

EEGs show particular types of brainwaves called beta waves when a person is alert

Autonomy vs shame/doubt

Erikson psychosocial crisis resolved in the second year of life. Ability to self-care.

Role of Emotion in Memory Retrieval

Emotions act as retrieval cues, in that retrieval of memory is strongest when the emotional state during retrieval is similar to that of memory formation. Additionally, memories of higher emotional significance are more readily available for retrieval.

Interactionist theory of language development

Emphasizes interaction between biology and environment in developing language. The human brain develops so that it can be receptive to new language input and development. Children are motivated to practice the language in order to communicate/socialize

Serial position effect

Encompass the primacy and recency effects that come with trying to remember a list of items

name the germ layers and where they differentiate to

Endoderm: GI tract tube (forms esophagus, small intestine, large intestine)+ lungs + liver + pancreas • Mesoderm: form inner layers of skin, muscles, bones, cardiac muscles, kidneys, and bladder, ovaries/testes • Ectoderm: outer layer of skin, sweat glands, hair skin, nervous system

Retrieval cues

Environmental stimuli or pieces of information that are associated in some way with a memory being sought. Typically present at the time the memory was originally formed

Environmental justice

Equal green spaces(i.e. parks) and prevention of pollution (hazardous waste) for minorities

who proposed the Psychosocial development theory.

Erikson Proposed personality/identity development occurs through one's entire lifespan. Each stage depends on overcoming a conflict, and success/failure at each stage affects overall functioning of theory. 8 stages

Trust vs Mistrust

Erikson psychosocial crisis resolved in the first year of life. Ability to trust.

Social comparison

Evaluating our opinions by comparing them to those of others. Facilitates the development of a distinct self of self in terms of similarity/difference from other people

secondary appraisal

Evaluation of the individual's ability to cope with the situation. What is the individual's material preparedness to deal with stressor? Appraisal of harm, threat, and challenge (how to overcome it). ▪ Harm: what damage has already been caused ▪ Threat: How much damage could be caused ▪ Challenge: How can the situation be overcome or conquered. o Humans can have a stress reaction and also anticipate stressors! Makes the whole process a bit more interesting/complicated.

Past-in-present discrimination

Even if discrimination done in the past is no longer allowed, can still have consequences for people in the present

Iron rule of oligarchy

Even the most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by a select few

attitude to behavior process model of how do our attitudes influence behavior.

Event triggers one's attitude which affects: Perception of the event ➙ then behavior Social norms ➙ then behavior

Lazarus theory of emotion

Event → Label the event (appraisal-interpretation) → emotion + physiological response Based on appraisal from individual experiences + if label is + - if appraisal is - about the event. Lazarus - "LAzarus" = "LAbel" leads to emotion and physiologic response

Episodic memory

Event-related memories

Rational choices Theory

Every action people do is fundamentally rational. A person acts as if they are weighing costs and benefits of each action. People act in self-interest, driven by personal desires and goals.

Cultural universals examples

Ex. all cultures have ways of dealing with illness/medicine/healing Or wedding/funeral ceremonies. Language (ability to communicate within a group).

fMRI

Examines brain activity by measuring blood flow, which an indicator of metabolic activity (b/c of need for oxygen for increased metabolic activity)

Lazarus Theory

Experience of emotion depends on how the situation is labelled. We label the situation, which then leads to emotional and physiological response

What is a shadowing task?

Experiment that studies selective attention. In this task you are wearing headphones and they have two different sounds in each. Left ear hear one thing, right ear another thing. Told to repeat everything said in one ear and ignore the other. Focus on one ear and ignore the other (selective attention). Based on the unattended information that we do and don't end up comprehending - we can learn about how selective attention works by seeing what they filter out in other ear.

Priming

Exposure to one stimulus affects a response to another stimulus, even if we haven't been paying attention to it

Internal validity

Extent to which a causal conclusion based on a study is warranted. Impacted by confounding factors

Internal validity

Extent we can draw causal conclusions between IV and DV -Confounding factors often impact the internal validity of an experiment.

Social Sigma

Extreme disapproval/discrediting of individual by society - comes in 2 forms: 1. social stigma and 2. self-stigma

differences in external motivation and extrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation "broader term" motivated behaviors from any outside factor External motivation: motivated behaviors to gain "reward/punishment" from social pressure from "social contacts"

Source traits

Factors underlying human personality and behavior

what are examples of important agents of socialization?

Family School-(hidden curriculum) Peers Mass Media

Hyperopia

Farsightedness

Max Weber

Father of sociology. Argued that in a capitalist society inequalities would lead to conflict, but that there would be more than one source of conflict. Argued that there were several factors that moderated people's reaction to inequality.

Karl Marx

Father of sociology. Associated with Conflict Theory. Looked at the economic conflict between different social classes, and argued that societies progress through class struggle between those who own and control production and those who labor and provide the manpower for production. Believed that capitalism would ultimately lead to self-destruction of society due to internal tensions.

Universal emotions include:

Fear, anger, happiness, surprise, joy, disgust, and sadness

Vicarious emotions

Feeling the emotions of others as though they are one's own, in order to learn from the successes and mistakes of others through observation

Sensory memory

First phase in memory formation. Acts as temporary storage for incoming sensory stimuli. Encoding at this state is simply transducing physical stimuli into electrical information--> unconscious, neurological process. Information from here will either be lost or encode as short-term memory. Can hold a LOT of information at any given time.

Rudimentary movements

First voluntary movements performed by a child

Fad

Fleeting behavior that occurs when something becomes incredibly popular very quickly but loses popularity just as quickly

Resource Mobilization Theory

Focus on factors that help/hinder a social movement like access to resources

Drive reduction theory

Focuses on internal factors in motivations. Posits that people are motivated to take action in order to lessen the state of arousal caused by a physiological need

Social epidemiology

Focuses on social and cultural factors/determinants to disease patterns & health disparities in populations (social indicators like race, gender, and income distribution, and how social factors affect a person's health) Correlation between social advantages/disadvantages and distribution of health + disease It is also well positioned to supplement the biomedical approach because social epidemiology is a sub-field of epidemiology.

Attachment

Forming relationships between individuals. A social behavior

Psychoanalytic theory of personality

Founded by Sigmund Freud. Personality is determined by a person's unconscious- the flow of psychic energy between three systems in the stream of consciousness (id, ego, and superego). Development of personality takes place according to a process of conflict between components of the SoC. CRUCIAL: Personality processes take place outside of conscious awareness.

Mass Media as viewed by functionalism and conflict theory

Functionalist: provides entertainment Conflict: portrays divisions that exist in society

list Amino Acid Neutrotransmitters

GABA (-)(CNS) Glycine (-)(PNS) Glutamate (+)

Gene-Environment Interaction is what?

Gene + environments effect our Behavior, and the role of genes + environments on behavior is dependent on each other. [Explains Nature through nurture]

A psychosis arising from an advanced stage of syphilis, in which the disease attacks brain cells, is called:

General paresis, also known as general paralysis of the insane or paralytic dementia is a neuropsychiatric disorder affecting the brain, caused by late-stage syphilis

Mass society theory

Groups only form for people seeking refuge from main society (ex. Nazism)

Informal norms

Generally understood but are less precise and often carry no specific punishments

Stress-diathesis theory

Genetics provides a biological predisposition for schizophrenia, but environmental stressors elicit the onset of the disease

Biological factors associated with schizophrenia

Genetics, excess dopamine activity, brain atrophy (smaller brain)

what is an ambient stressor?

Global stressors that are integrated into the environment. Perceivable, but hard to control. Can negatively impact us without us being aware of them. Stuff we just put up with in our lives. Ex. Pollution, noise, crowding

working backwards heuristic(problem solving)

Goal State → Current State. Start with goal and use it to suggest connections back to current state. Used in mathematical proofs, in mazes.

Survey methods-goals, benefits, disadvantages

Goal: to collect a ton of information, usually with questionnaires Benefits: Cheap and not labor intensive. Disadvantage: Potential for poor reliability, vulnerable to subjective interpretation, hard to compare w/ those from other measures.

this person says all of us have different traits. Came up with list of 4500 different descriptive words for traits. From those he was able to come up with 3 basic categories of traits: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits

Gordon Allport

Monarchy

Government embodied by single person, king/queen is the figurehead

Population pyramid

Graphs a population's sex and age cohorts

Factors that Influence Conformity and Obedience are what?

Group Size: 3-5 Unanimity: everyone agrees Group Status: trust popular people or doctors Group Cohesion: if we feel connected to group Observed Behavior: if our behavior can be seen Public Response: if we think we're met with acceptance vs. shunning. Internal factors: no prior obligations and feelings of insecurity

Social movement

Group of people who share an ideology and work together toward a specific set of goals

Negative control

Group with no response expected

In order to grow to self-actualization, 2 conditions that need to be met:

Growth is nurtured by when individual is genuine, one has to be open and revealing about themselves without fear of being wrong. Second is growth is nurtured through acceptance from others - allows us to live up to our ideal selves.

Structures of the limbic system?

HAT Hippo. Hypothalamus: physiological responses Amygdala: conductor of emotional experiences Thalamus: HIPPOcampus Structures are important with regulating emotions

this person proposed extroversion level is based on differences in the reticular formation (controls arousal and consciousness)- introverts are more aroused than extroverts so they seek lower levels of stimulation

Hans Eysenck We all poses all traits which we express to different degrees PEN (Eysenck's PEN) Psychoticism -degree to which reality is distorted. Extroversion (vs. introversion) - degree of sociability Neuroticism -emotional stability

Divorce rate in America

Has generally increased due to social and religious acceptance, more opportunities for women's autonomy, and lessened financial and legal barriers

Dizygotic twins

Have genomes that are no more similar than any other biological sibling

Monozygotic twins

Have virtually identical genomes

Paraphilia

Having sexual arousal to unusual stimuli

social epidemiology

Health & Disease issues/disparities of a population is affected by social-cultural advantages/disadvantage (race, gender, income/poverty, class) studies patterns in populations (the social determinants of a disease) aligns with sociological perspective of health and disease saying that they are conditioned in a social context.

Hypnagonic hallucinations

Hearing or seeing things that aren't there

explain the differences in these subject responses: Hit, Miss, False Alarm, Correct Rejection

Hit: the subject responded affirmative when a signal was present, False Alarm: the subject perceived a signal when there was none present; Correct Rejection: a correct negative answer for no signal Miss: a negative response to a present signal

Ghrelin

Hormone released by the stomach and pancreas that heightens the sensation of hunger

Self-presentation

How an individual is perceived

The looking glass self

How we see ourselves does not come from who we really are, but rather from how we believe others see us

This theory focuses on actualization and making meaning in life, among other focuses.

Humanistic theory

Dopamine hypothesis

Hypersensitive dopamine receptors and overabundance of dopamine is associated with schizophrenia

Social selection

Idea that an individual's health can influence their social mobility. Social conditions can affect reproductive rates of individual in a population

Rational Choice Theory

Idea that everything people do is fundamentally rational, people not only motivated by money, but do what's best to get better. -weighing costs and benefits of each action to gain most benefit. -Pattern of choices (not an individual choice). 3 assumptions: completeness, transitivity, and independence of irrelevant alternatives

Just world phenomenon

Idea that the universe is fair so people must get what they deserve (Good things happen to good people, and vice versa)

Internalization

Idea/belief/behavior that has be been integrated into our own values. We conform to the belief privately. Stronger than other types of conformity

Strain theory

If a person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, they may become frustrated/strained and turn to deviance

what happens if hippocampus is destroyed?

If destroyed, still have old memories intact, just can't make new ones (anterograde amnesia).

Central Processing

If listener interest, motivation, importance are high. People will only choose this route when they are interested in the topic. Focus on a deep processing of the information creates a lasting attitude change

Peripheral processing

If listener interest, motivation, importance are low we process via the peripheral route. Chosen when listener doesn't care about topic, ▪ We Filter information before we can even process it. Focus on superficial characteristics (shallow processing of information) such attractiveness of speaker, their PowerPoint attractiveness, or even how many points the speaker made. How many times speaker got audience to laugh, etc. creates a temporarily attitude change

Thomas Theorem

If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences. AKA the objective reality of a situation doesn't matter as much as someone's perception of what they believe is happening. Theory of social constructionism.

normative social influence

If we do something to gain respect/support of peers, we're complying with social norms. Because of this we might go with group outwardly, but internally believe something differently. ▪ Ex: friends are all obsessed with a certain singer. You tell the group you like the singer as well even if you absolutely hate him/her. You continue to say you like it (or even go to the singers concert)

Normative influence

In group discussion, taking a stronger stance than you initially would have in order to better relate with and internalize the group's belief system. Even if you know what's right, do group's actions to avoid social rejection

Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, a consequence of a behavior that increases the likelihood of a behavior

Reality principle

In psychoanalytic theory of personality, the ego uses logical thinking/planning to control consciousness and the id. Tries to find realistic ways to satisfy the id.

Pleasure principle

In psychoanalytic theory of personality, the id seeks to reduce tension, avoid pain, and gain pleasure. The id does so with no logical/moral reasoning, and does not distinguish mental images from external objects.

Insecure attachment

In the presence of their caregiver, infants aren't likely to explore their environment and might cling to their caregiver. If the caregiver leaves, the child will either be extremely distressed or demonstrate indifference to her departure. Occurs when mothers are insensitive or unresponsive

Presbyopia

Inability to accommodate the lens of the eye. Normal part of age.

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to encode new memories

Retrograde amnesia

Inability to recall info previously encoded

Bystander effect is what?

Individual may feel less inclined to take action because of presence of others in the group diffusion of responsibility theory - explains bystander effect.

Self-serving bias is more prominent in ______________.

Individualistic cultures

brainstorming groups vs individuals

Individuals: -generate more alternatives Groups: -social loafing, people come up with less ideas -individuals are less critical -less creative in groups -Why? distraction, social loafing, evaluation apprehension, and production blocking

Moro reflex

Infant reflex where a baby will startle in response to a loud sound or sudden movement.

Rooting reflex

Infant reflex where a baby will turn its head towards a stroke of cheek and open its mouth

Babinski reflex

Infant reflex where if its foot is stroked, the baby's toes fan out

Temperament

Innate, genetically influenced baseline of personality that includes the infant's tendency towards certain patterns of emotions and social interaction

stimulus motive

Innate, unlearned motives that causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity NOT necessary for survival

Precision

hitting the same spot/or close to the spot repeatedly -Doesn't mean your hitting the bullseye though

Manifest functions

Intended and obvious consequences of a social structure

Meditation

Intentional, self-produced state of consciousness induced by relying and systematically shifting attention away from day-to-day concerns

HPA axis

Interaction between the nervous and endocrine systems to produce the body's response to stress. Elevated levels of one of these hormones may lead to depression

Positive punishment

Introduction of a punishing stimulus in response to an undesired behavior. AKA adds stimulus to reduce likelihood of behavior

Positive reinforcement

Introduction of a reinforcing stimulus in response to a desired behavior. AKA adds a stimulus to increase likelihood of behavior

Declarative memory

Involves information that is consciously known

Declarative memory aka Explicit

Long-term conscious memory of specific facts (semantic) or events (episodic) that can be brought consciously to mind and explicitly stated or declared.

General adaptation syndrome

Involves three distinct stages of stress: 1) Alarm phase--> stress kicks in and heart races 2) Resistance--> fleeing, huddling, a ton of cortisol 3) Exhaustion--> if this doesn't occur, we get tissue damage

Absolute threshold

Is the lowest level of a "stimulus" that you can detect with your "senses" Measured by: minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

Where is dopamine produced?

It is mainly produced in the Substantia nigra and Ventral tegmental area.

The problem with heuristics is that:

It may lead to overgeneralization

Dual coding hypothesis

It's easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone.

dual coding hypothesis

It's easier to remember words associated with images than either one alone.

this person (Biopsychological theory of personality) proposed personality is governed by the behavioural inhibition (punishment/avoidance) and activation (reward) system.

Jeffrey Alan Gray "50 shades of grey"

White-collar work

Jobs that are professional, administrative, or managerial in nature; defines the middle class

who did the Little Albert experiment and what did it show?

John B. Watson's involved the use of classical conditioning and stimulus generalization to cause a healthy young boy to fear furry animals and objects.

Kohlberg's Theory of Development

Key: Developing children progress through a predictable sequence of stages of moral reasoning. Levels are defined by REASONING for decision, not by what decision is made Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality -Based solely on consideration of anticipated consequences of behavior (reward vs punishment) -No internalization of what's right and wrong Stage 1: Punishment--> avoid punishment Stage 2: Reward---> seek reward Level II: Conventional Morality -Acceptance of conventional definitions of what is right and wrong -Stage 3: Social disapproval--> avoid social disapproval -Stage 4: Rule following --> duty to obey rules established Level III: Post-conventional morality (few people reach this stage) -Internal ethical guidelines, with rules being useful but malleable guidelines Stage 5: Social contract --> wants to ensure greatest good for greatest number of people Stage 6: Universal ethics --> ensures universal justice

what happens if you destroy the amygdala?

Kluver-bucy syndrome mellow effect, oral fixation, hypersexuality

who proposed the Moral development theory

Kohlberg Focussed on moral reasoning and difference between right and wrong. o Moral reasoning develops through level of cognitive development, and people pass through 3 stages of development (each with 2 stages) - 6 levels total ▪ Did research on groups of children and present children in moral dilemma situations and interview kids based on each of their conclusions in each dilemma.

this is a neurological disorder caused by a lack of thiamine (vitamin B1) in the brain. Its onset is linked to chronic alcohol abuse or severe malnutrition, or both.

Korsakoff's syndrome

What is typically used to treat Parkinson's patients

L-dopa--> precursor to dopamine that is able to pass the blood-brain barrier (unlike dopamine)

Mass hysteria

Large # of people who experience unmanageable delusions and anxiety at same time

Macrosociology

Large scale perspective, looking at big phenomena that affect big portion of population. Social structures and institutions, whole civilizations/populations. Looking for patterns and effects the big picture has on lives on small groups. Broad social trends in cities and statistical data. Deals with matters like poverty, war, health care, world economy

Learning-performance distinction

Learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things

learning-performance distinction states what?

Learning a behavior and performing it are 2 different things Just becuase you didn't do the behavior doesn't mean you didn't learn it

Observational learning

Learning through observation (and imitation) of others' behaviors. Very important in childhood.

Linguistic information is lateralized in the:

Left hemisphere

Rational-legal authority

Legal rules and regulations are stipulated in a document. How the United States government operates

what are central traits?

Less dominant than cardinal. ex. honesty, sociability, shyness

Kolberg's Levels of Moral Development

Level 1: focus on self (pre conventional) 1. punish 2. reward Level 2: focus on others (conventional) 3. good 4. law Level 3: focus on all (post conventional) 5. social 6. universal

whole report technique

Limited to 4-5 items

Broca's area

Located in the frontal lobe. Primarily involved in speech production. People who are damaged in this area cannot produce language but understand it normally.

Suprachiasmic nucleus

Located in the hypothalamus. Regulates the body's sleep-wake cycle. Maintains drive for wakefulness by inhibiting melatonin. Light triggers SCN firing.

Wernicke's area

Located in the temporal lobe. Primarily involved in speech comprehension. People who are damaged in this area can hear words and repeat them back, but do not understand language.

Non-declarative aka Implicit memory

Long-term "unconscious" memories that include procedural memories(such as how to catch a ball). Conditioned(classical or operant) responses, and priming (habituation or sensitizing) can relate to motor cortex

Activity theory

Looks at how older generation looks at themselves. Lost social interactions (work, certain activities) need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged

environmental justice

Looks at the fair distribution of the environmental benefits and burdens within society across all groups. A recognition that access to a clean, healthy environment is a fundamental right of all human beings.

Example of Normative organization

MADD, religious groups Members come together through shared goals Positive sense of unity and purpose ex. religion groups or MADD (Mothers against Drunk Driving). Positive sense of unity and purpose

Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

MAGIC (II)s Sees Demons (1) Trust vs. Mistrust; (2) Autonomy vs. Shame; (3) Initiative vs. Guilt; (4) Industry vs. Inferiority; (5) Identity vs. Confusion; (6) Intimacy vs. Isolation; (7) Generativity vs. Self-absorption; (8) Integrity vs. Despair.

Ego

ME: "The Reality Principle" - Operates on secondary processes. (Reality testing) Mediates the demands of reality vs. the desires of the Id. The self. This is who we identify with/believe ourselves to be.

class consciousness

Marx's term for awareness of oppression and exploitation of persons of a common identity based on one's position in the means of production Marx believed this led to change in society because of Significant economic inequality Lower class united to create "class consciousness" as they realized they were being "exploited". Exploitation would allow lower class to overthrow the status quo. This Involves seizing and obtaining means and redistributing the means of production among the workers.

Encoding of information into long-term memory is guided by :

Meaning

What level of stress is optimal for performance?

Medium level of arousal

Social loafing

Members a group decrease the pace or intensity of their own work with the intention of letting other group members work harder

Semantic memory

Memory of words and phrases (remembering simple facts)

Schemas

Mental representations or frameworks of the world

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often lead to a solution. They are timesaving but can potentially lead problem solving efforts astray

Strain Theory says what

Merton's theory that deviance occurs when a society does not give all its members equal ability to achieve socially acceptable goals

Biological basis of empathy

Mirror neurons are responsible

Elaboration likelihood model

Model of Persuasion. There are two ways information is processes: central processing (depending on quality of arguments by persuader) and peripheral (superficial-non-verbal persuasion cues)

MAOIIs

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Interfere with the breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters (eg. serotonin, norepinephrine)

ill-defined problem

More ambiguous starting and/or ending point. An ill-defined problem does not have an obviously stated goal or lacks relevant information to solve the problem.- ex. how to live a happy life. Can still solve ill-defined problems solve but don't know outcome.

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of how do our attitudes influence behavior.

More cognitive approach - focuses on the why/how of persuasion. 2 ways info is processed: central: depends on words quality of arguments by persuader peripheral: superficial/non-verbal persuasion cues, such as attractiveness/status of persuader (like if they are a doctor)

As group size increases, the group is ___________ stable and __________ intimate.

More stable, less intimate

Glutamate

Most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS, EXCEPT vision. Acts as the major inhibitory neurotransmitter on bipolar cells of the eye in the absence of light.

GABA and glycine

Most common inhibitory neurotransmitters

Benzodiazepines

Most commonly prescribed suppressant. Act as a sleep aid or anti-anxiety aid. Enhances brain's response to GABA neurotransmitter.

Intrinsic motivation

Motivation driven by internal factors (pleasurable feelings or satisfaction). Can be diminished if person continuously receive extrinsic rewards for the behavior

The frontal lobe is associated with:

Motor control, decision making, and long-term memory storage

What is Parkinson's disease?

Movement disorder caused by the death of cells that generate dopamine in the basal ganglia and substantial nigra. Characterized by resting tremor, slowed movement, rigidity of facial muscles, and shuffling gait, and reduction in capacity for language

what are the 4 main stages of sleep, associated brain waves, and other information associated

N=non rapid-eye N1: theta waves: hypnagonic hallucinations, tetris effect, hypnic jerks) N2: theta waves, sleep spindles, K-complexes(declaritive/implicit memory consolidation): N3: delta waves: sleep walking/talking, declarative memory consolidation REM stage: alpha/beta mix like awake: paralyzed, most dreaming, most important for memory consolidation, formation of episodic memories

Sexual selection

Natural selection arising through preference for one sex for characteristics in individuals of the other sex

Language acquisition device

Neural cognitive system that allows for learning of syntax and grammar

Which type of personality makes someone more susceptible to authority?

No one type of personality makes someone more susceptible to authority. But people's moods can have an effect - those with rough day less likely to conform. Status and culture can play a role, those of low socioeconomic status (those with low power) are more likely to conform. Also cultures like US/Europe (individualized cultures) that emphasize individual achievement less likely to conform than collective cultures (Asia, cultures that emphasize family/group). • People conform all the time like going to school or eating cereal for breakfast.

Nativist theory of language development

Noam Chomsky. Language is an innate biological instinct, and everyone has a neural cognitive system allowing for learning of syntax and grammar.

what are Learned behavioral traits and characteristics?

Non-inherited - acquired only through observation/experience o Extrinsic - absent when animals are raised in isolation, ex. social skills o Permutable - pattern/sequence that is changeable o Adaptable - capable of being modified in response to changing conditions o Progressive - subject to improvement or refined through practice over time

Symbolic culture

Non-material,Includes the meanings ascribed by people (i.e. rituals, gestures, and objects)

Assortative Mating

Non-random mating where individuals with certain phenotypes/genotypes/similarities/genes/physical appearance tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency, ex. large animals mate with large animals and small animals mate with small animals.

Animal signals

Nonverbal methods to communication such as vocalizations, visual stimuli, touch, and smell

this organizational type is the "volunteer" ex. American Red Cross volunteer division

Normative organization

Types of Schizophrenia

Paranoid: psychosis involves hallucinations/delusions Disorganized: Flat/inappropriate affect, disorganized speech, disorganized behavior, negative symptoms Catatonic: Negative symptoms predominant Undifferentiated: Basic criteria are met, but symptoms do not fit a subtype Residual: Acute phase has resolved, but person still appears odd and suffers some symptoms

Mores

Norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and so are often strictly enforced

Secondary deviance

Not considered acceptable and often results in the individual being excluded from a group

non-associative learning

Noticing how response changes in relationship to the same stimuli over time Ex: you are sitting in a bedroom and you hear a thunder clap which results in you jumping out of your bed. What would happen? Three options: habituation, sensitization, or the same response due to the stimuli.

The pleasure center of the brain

Nucleus accumbens

Korsakoff's Syndrome

Nutritional deficiency of vitamin B1, which results in a deficit in the ability to recall recent events. Often due to severe alcoholism.

The authoritarian personality

Obedient to superiors but don't have much sympathy to those inferior to themselves (oppressive). Rigid thinkers, inflexible with viewpoints. Use prejudice to protect their ego and avoid confronting aspects of themselves. HARD to change.

Principle of common region

Objects sharing a common background will be perceived as a group even if they would be separated by eh principles of nearness and/or similarity

Principle of similarity

Objects with a shared feature (shape) will likewise be perceived as a single group

mirror neurons supports evidence for what?

Observational learning (aka social learning/vicarious learning) is learned through watching and imitating others - such as modeling actions of another.

Case-control study

Observational study where 2 people differing in outcome are identified and compared to find a causal factor

Obsessions vs compulsions

Obsessions: repeated intrusive uncontrollable thoughts/impulses that cause distress Compulsions: repeated physical/mental behaviors that are done in RESPONSE to an obsession

Memory construction

Occurs during retrieval. Memory is a construct of the mind and therefore can be updated with new info and experiences.

Fundamental movement stage

Occurs from age 2-7. During this time, child is learning to manipulate his body through actions like running, jumping, throwing. Necessary for proper motor development

Peripheral route processing

Occurs when an individual does not think deeply to evaluate an argument (occurs when a person isn't very invested in an argument/has no knowledge). If a person is using this route, is more likely to change attitude based on situational cues (strength of argument d/n matter)

Amalgamation

Occurs when majority and minority groups combine to form a new group

Incongruence

Occurs when people encounter experiences in life that contradict their self-concepts. Can help a person learn what their true values are and then become healthy again by modifying their self-concept.

De-individuation

Occurs when people lose awareness of their individuality and instead immerse themselves in the mood or activities of a crowd

Drug overdoses

Often occur when a person takes a new drug at a high dose, or when a regular drug user takes their normal level of drug dose in an unfamiliar location--> no external cues to alert body that they're getting a dose.

Positive transfer

Older information can facilitate the learning of new information

Bystander effect

Onlookers in a crowd fail to offer assistance to a person who is in trouble because they assume someone else will help. Willingness to help is inversely proportional to # of people present

Skinner box

Operant conditioning chamber for animals, where food is dispensed to animals only after carrying out a specific behavior. Sometimes included areas of electrical shock, used for animals to learn to avoid.

What's the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

Operant conditioning involves "changing the frequency" of a behavior, whereas Classical conditioning involves "changing the cues" that a behavior is associated with. *TIP* 4Cs: Changing Cues, Classical Conditioning *TIP* The concepts of punishment and reinforcement are associated with operant conditioning. "CORPoral punishment"

Social potency trait

The degree to which a person assumes leadership roles in social situations

Utilitarian organizations

Organization where members get paid for their efforts (ex. businesses)

Normative organizations

Organizations motivated based on morally relevant goals (ex. MADD)

Coercive organizations

Organizations where members do not have a choice in joining (ex. prisons)

Social institutions

Orginazations/systems that teach/provide/maintain/ pass on instructions for stable and/or purposeful social behaviors in society. Ex. Government/economy, Education, Religion, Family, and Medical

what regulates calcium levels

Parathyroid calcitonin and PTH

Retinal disparity

Our eyes are 2.5 inches apart, so they create slightly different images that the brain puts together to give a solid image with an idea of DEPTH.

The self as a social construct

Our identity is created by interactions with other people, and our reactions to the other people

Public conformity

Outwardly changing behaviors to align with group, but maintaining inner core beliefs

Intersectionality

Overlapping of social categories such as race, class, gender as they apply to a given individual or group. Creates interdependent systems of discrimination/disadvantage

VTA(ventral tegmental area) releases dopamine to what areas for reward pathway?

PHAN of dope prefrontal cortex: focus and attention hippocampus: memory formation amygdala: emotions nucleus accumbens: controls motor function

Acute stress disorder

PTSD symptoms that appear for a month or less

Visual processing

Parallel processing occurs at the level of bipolar and ganglion cells in the eye. Visual info is then split into two distinct pathways: one that detects motion and one that detects form, and these pathways project to separate areas of the LGN and visual cortex. From there, feature detection occurs via serial processing of the information.

Assisted marriage

Parents provide children with possible mates, out of which the child can choose

medulla oblongata

Part of the brainstem that controls vital life-sustaining functions such as heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, and digestion.

What is the most sustainable way to establish a learned response?

Partial reinforcement

Reward pathway

Pathway within the limbic system that is associated with feelings of reward in day-to-day life and the feelings of pleasure that lead to craving and addition. Activation of this pathway by addictive drugs leads to increase levels of dopamine.

Proximal stimuli

Patterns of stimuli from objects and events that actually reach your senses

Justification of effort

People may modify their attitudes to match their behaviors

Dependent personality disorder

Person feels a need to be taken care of by others and an unrealistic fear of being unable to take care of himself

Narcissistic personality disorder

Person feels grandiosely self-important, and feels desperate need for admiration. Feels envy toward/from others. Lacks empathy for others, feels entitled, arrogant, and haughty

Avoidant personality disorder

Person feels inadequate, inferior, and undesirable and is preoccupied with fears of criticism

Antisocial personality disorder

Person has history of serious behavior problems beginning in adolescence, including aggression and rule violation.

Schizotypal personality disorder

Person has several traits that causes interpersonal problems, including inappropriate affect, paranoid/magical thinking, off beliefs

Schizoid personality disorder

Person is a loner with little interest or involvement in close relationships with anyone

Paranoid personality disorder

Person mistrusts and misinterprets others' motives and actions without sufficient cause

Borderline personality disorder

Person suffers from enduring/recurrent instability in his impulses, mood, and self image. Results in instability in behavior and relationships with other. Person feels empty with an unstable sense of self, terrified of abandonment,

Behaviorist theory of personality

Personality is constructed by a series of learning experiences that occur through interactions between the individual and their environment. Individuals have learning experiences through their lifetimes that lead to predictable behaviors (behaviors make up the personality). People are born as BLANK STATES, and environmental reinforcement/punishment determine the personality. KEY: Environment shapes personality

Surface traits

Personality traits that are evident from a person's behavior

Verbal info is processed in the:

Phonological loop

Albert Bandura

Pioneer in the field of observational learning. Demonstrated the learning of aggressive behaviors in children after watching violent videos

Hippocampus

Plays an important role in the initial consolidation of declarative memory and long term potentiation.

Affirmative action

Policies that take factors like race or sex into consideration to benefit underrepresented groups in admissions or job hiring decisions. It is an attempt to limit discrimination, but has been accused of perpetuating reverse discrimination

Freud's Theory of development

Posits stages of development in terms of the impulses of the id (and overcoming these impulses) Oral - 1st year- Nursing, oral stimulation-Requires development of trust and capacity of delayed gratification Anal - 2nd year- Toilet training- Allows the development of self control Phallic- 3-6 years- Gender and sexual identification- Allows internalization of society's rules and development of superego Latent- 7-12 years- Social development & suppression o sexual impulses- Allows children to focus on other developmental tasks Genital-Adolescence-Mature sexuality & return of sexual urges

Erikson's Theory of Development

Posits stages of development in terms of the interaction between self and society experienced across society, with each stage presenting a crisis that must be resolved 1st year - Trust vs mistrust (ability to trust) 2nd year: Autonomy vs shame/doubt (ability to self-care) 3-6 years: Initiative vs guilt (ability to carry out a plan) 7-12 years: Industry vs inferiority (ability to learn new tasks) Adolescence: Identity vs role confusion (stable identity formation) Young adulthood: Intimacy vs isolation (ability to form relationships w/ others) Adulthood: Generativity vs stagnation (ability to put energy into others) Maturity: Integrity vs despair (determining how well they have lived)

Piaget's Theory of Development

Posits that all children develop cognitively by experimenting with their environment and passing through same set of developmental stages. 0-2 years: Sensorimotor -Children learn to separate themselves from the world -Learn object permanence 2-7 years: Preoperational -Children learn to use language -Children think literally and egocentrically -Children unable to take on perspectives of others 7-11 years: Concrete Operational -Children develop inductive reasoning -Understand conservation of mass 11 years +: Formal Operational -Children develop deductive reasoning -Can think theoretically and philosophically -Children at this stage are able to reach post-conventional moral reasoning

Traditional authority

Power due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice

Charismatic authority

Power due to persuasion (eg. MLK)

People in higher social class tend to have more:

Power, Privilege, and Prestige

Population projections

Predict changes in populations by examining current data

Racism

Prejudices and actions that discriminate based on race, or hold that one race is inferior to another

Compliance

Situations where we do behavior to get a reward or avoid punishment. Aka going along with behavior without questioning why. Goes away when rewards/punishments removed

Meads theory of social behavior stages

Preparatory stage(imitation) play stage(role taking) game stage (generalized other, multiple roles)

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Presence of others improves performance on simple tasks, and hinders it on difficult tasks. AKA people perform best when they are moderately aroused

Proactive interference

Previously held knowledge prevents successful retrieval of more newly learned information . Occurs when information that is newly learned is similar to that in older memories.

Primary group vs Ingroup vs secondary group

Primary group; core social group, close intimate ties Parents, peers In group- a group you are affiliated with based on identification - can be ethnicity, nationality, gender, religion, etc. Secondary: work acquaintances, acquaintances, short term

Kinship: primary, secondary, tertiary examples

Primary: immediate family, brother, sister, your parents, your spouse, your kids Secondary: in laws Tertiary: in laws kids, your brother in laws kids

Written rules and regulations

Pro - clear expectations, uniform performance, equal treatment of all employees, and sense of unity/continuity to organization (laws/structures of organization stay same as members come/go) ▪ Con - stiffens creativity, and if too much structure discourage employees from taking initiative. Goal displacement (rules become more important than goals of organization)

Means-end analysis

Problem solving method where we analyze main problem and break it down into smaller problems, and reduce differences between the problem and goal

Binding problem

Problem with feature detection theory regarding how all of different aspects of feature detection are assembled together and related to a single object. This problem is solved by visual attention.

which hormones released after organs

Prolactin: sexual gratification and relieves arousal after orgasm Endorphins: euphoria and pleasure post orgasm Ocytocin: released post orgasm for bonding feelings

Ludwig Gumplowicz

Proposed that society is shaped by war and conquest, and that cultural and ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over other groups.

Humanistic therapy

Provides an environment that will help clients trust and accept themselves and their emotional reactions, so they can learn and grow from their experiences. Personal growth through self-insight is the goal, achieved through active listening and unconditional positive regard

Negative punishment

Removal of a desired stimulus in response to an undesired behavior. AKA removes stimulus to reduce likelihood of behavior

Libido

Psychoanalytic concept--> it is the life instinct that drives behaviors focused on survival, growth, creativity, pain avoidance, and pleasure

This theory deals with Concepts involving defenses, such as displacement

Psychodynamic Theory sublimation occurs when a person channels unacceptable urges, like a craving to smoke, into something more acceptable, like helping others to quit. Reaction formation occurs when you express the opposite of your true motivations or desires. For example, if the leader really wanted the participants to keep smoking, she would emphatically discuss how they should quit. Intellectualization is the use of cognitive processes to separate oneself from the real problem and avoid emotions and impulses that may arise. If the program leader was using intellectualization, she might focus on statistics about relapse and quitting instead of thinking about why she's craving cigarettes. Rationalization happens when a person uses false but logical reasons to explain a feeling or desire. For example, the leader might say that she's only craving cigarettes because everyone else is talking about quitting, when, in reality, her cravings started before she began leading the program.

Somatoform disroders

Psychological disorders characterized by bodily symptoms

what sleep stage is dreaming primarily in ?

REM

which sleep does alcohol disrupt?

REM, so it inhibits the formation of memories

Racial formation theory

Race and Ethnicity are a social construct, with no basis in actual genetic differences looks at social/economic/political forces that result in racially constructed identities.

this person is a strict behaviourist, associated with concept of operant conditioning. Uses rewards/punishment to increase/decrease behaviour, respectively.

Skinner

Dependency Theory

Reaction to Modernization theory. Uses idea of Core + Periphery countries to look at inequalities between countries. Periphery countries (3rd world countries) export resources to Core countries (first world). This is not because they are in an earlier stage of development but because they have been integrated into the world economy as an undeveloped countries. They don't have means to become a developed nation. They will remain poor and dependent on wealthier nations.

Self-actualization

Realizing one's human potential

Primacy effect

Recall of items at the beginning of the list is strongest

Recency effect

Recall of items at the end of the list is strongest

Negative symptoms of psychosis

Reduced/absent emotional expression, reduced quantity/fluency of speech, reduced initiative or will to do things (avolition)

factor analysis is good for what?

Reduces variable and detects structure between variables. We get a final classification of personality after the factor analysis a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

agents of socialization is what?

Refers to parts of society that are important for socialization (the process of learning the norms and values in a society) popular culture, family, and religion ect.

Procedural memory

Refers to unconscious abilities to remember how to perform a particular task

Circadian rhythm

Regulates the body's functions on a predictable schedule. Regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus.

The hypothalamus is associated with:

Regulating the autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic)

Is reinforcement or punishment a more effective form of conditioning?

Reinforcement---> punishment does not have a long lasting effect

Prospective memory

Remembering to do things in the future

Endogenous Cues / Internal Cues are what?

Require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it Ex. A mouse arrow, would need internal arrow of what an arrow is to follow it and to know it's not just a random line. Endogenous attention is driven by top-down or internal events, i.e. the cocktail effect.

variable-interval schedule

Responses are reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time has passed, regardless on amount Ex. bonus can come randomly on different days.

Diffusion of responsibility

Responsible for bystander effect. People in a large, anonymous crowd are less likely to feel accountable for the outcome of a situation or to feel responsibility to take action

Dishabituation

Results when a repeated stimulus is removed

State-dependent cues

Retrieval cues that are related to the state you were in when you learned the information.

Sanctions

Rewards and punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms

Bourgeoisie

Rich middle class, including merchants, industrialists, and professional people The term "bourgeois" refers to individuals of a social class that have wealth, power, or influence Karl Marx that believed society evolved through several stages: feudalism -> capitalism -> socialism.

Representativeness heuristic

Rule of thumb where people look for the most representative answer, such as if a person matches a prototype. Essentially seeing the most likely/probable answer as the correct answer

Trait versus state controversery

The degree to which a person's reaction in a given situation is due to their personality or due to the situation itself.

Intergenerational mobility

SES class mobility your offspring, different generation than you is part of another class

Social class

SSociety Stratification (categorizes in groups) of people based on social power-status/position (SES) of persons within a community, category, geographic region, or social unit. Western societies: typically 3 main social classes: Upper class, middle class, and lower class

Norms are reinforced by _________.

Sanctions

Schachter-Singer theory

Scary stimulus→↑HR→ Hmm..........Oh.. →FEAR!! states that there is a physiological reaction and a cognitive label.

what did the Harlow Monkey experiment show?

Shows that attachment basis to mother is due to comfort, not food! ▪ Cloth mother acts as a secure base - eventually monkey is comfortable enough to explore world/cage on its own, because it knows cloth mother will still be there. • If monkey became anxious, it would come back to cloth mother.

Attention

Selects sensory information for perceptual processing and conscious awareness. Any information not paid attention to will only be processed unconsciously.

General Adaptation Syndrome

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion. -Alarm stage: represents the initial reaction to the stressor, when the body interprets a threatening situation and begins to respond -Resistance stage:the body has responded to the stressor but is still on guard if the stressor has only been reduced -Exhaustion Stage: no longer feel able to manage their stress, no longer have the resources or the energy to manage their stress

Treisman's Attenuation Theory

Sensory register → attenuator → perceptual process →→ Conscious have an attenuator - weakens but doesn't eliminate input from unattended ear. Then some gets to perceptual processes, so still assign meaning to stuff in unattended ear, just not high priority. Then switch if something important.

Deutch & Deutch's Late Selection Theory

Sensory register → perceptual process → selective filter → Conscious Places Broadband selective filter after perceptual processes. This means that you DO register and assign everything meaning but then selective filter decides what you pass on to conscious awareness. Some problems - This whole process has to occur quickly, but given limited resources of attention and knowing are brains are super-efficient it seems wasteful to spend all that effort assigning meaning to things first which you won't ever need.

Broadbent's Early Selection Theory

Sensory register → selective filter → perceptual process → Conscious. Some problems - if you completely filter out unattended info, shouldn't be able identify your own name in unattended ear → but, you can as explained by Cocktail party effect.

Educational stratification

Separation of students into groups on the basis of academic achievement

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking

Health disparity

Social inequality causes difference in health outcome that is closely related to (SES) social and economic factors.

Ethnicity

Socially defined concept referring to whether or not people identify with each other based on shared social experience or ancestry

means-end analysis heuristic(problem solving)

Solve Biggest → Smallest Problem. Current State → Goal State Ex. Planning a trip to a new country, biggest problem would be to get to the new country - so you book a plane ticket to a new country.

Conversion disorder

Somatoform disorder where a person experiences a change in sensory/motor function that has no discernible physical or physiological cause, but seems affected by psychological factors

Somatization disorder

Somatoform disorder where a person experiences a variety of physical symptoms over an extended period of time. The person needs to have many somatic symptoms (pain, GI stress, sexual stress, and neurological)

Body dysmorphic disorder

Somatoform disorder where a person is preoccupied with a slight physical anomaly or imagined defect in appearance

Pain disorder

Somatoform disorder where a person suffers clinically important pain whose onset or severity seems significantly affected by psychological factors

Mindguarding

Some members of the group prevent dissenting opinions from permeating the group by filtering out information and facts that go against the beliefs of the group

Egalitarian family

Spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in negotiation when making decisions

Diffusion

Spread of an invention or discovery from one place to another

Spacing

Spreading out studying to shorter periods for greater encoding of information

partial report technique

Study by Sterling found that iconic memory has a large capacity after asking participants to recall 3 rows of 4 letters based on a different tone for each line.

Malthusian theory

Starvation is the inevitable result of population growth, because the population increases at a geometric rate while food supply can only increase arithmetically

Master status

Status that dominates the others and determines the individual's general position in society

Ethnography

Study of particular people and places the scientific description of the customs of individual peoples and cultures.

The effects of alcohol on the nervous system

Stimulates GABA and dopamine systems--> creates feelings of reduced anxiety and minor euphoria

what is Distal stimuli

Stimuli that lie in the distance (that is, in the world outside the body).

Cannon-Bard theory

Stimulus → FEAR! + ↑HR→RUN! For example, seeing a snake might prompt both the feeling of fear (an emotional response) and a racing heartbeat (a physical reaction)

James-Lange theory

Stimulus→↑HR→FEAR! Stimulus, then 1st experiences a physiological sensation, then perceive this sensation as a type of emotion

Self-handicapping

Strategy in which people create obstacles and excuses to avoid self-blame when they do poorly

Histrionic personality disorder

Strongly desires to be center of attention, and seeks to attract attention through personal appearance and seductive behavior. Dramatic emotional affect with shallow actual emotions, with vague speech

Vygotsky's Theory of Development

Studied the role that social interaction plays in development of cognition. Current developmental level: tasks that a child can perform w/o help from others Zone of proximal development: range of abilities b/t current & potential developmental level. Consists of all of the skills that can be accomplished with help Potential developmental level: The most advanced takes that a child can do with guidance from more knowledgable people

Prospective analysis

Study watches for outcomes, such as the development of a disease, during the study period and relates this to other factors such as suspected risk or protection factor(s). The study usually involves taking a cohort of subjects and watching them over a long period.

State capitalism

System in which companies are privately run, but work closely with the government in forming laws and regulations

Token economy

System of behavior modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behavior. Reinforcers are "tokens" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers

Welfare capitalism

System where most of the economy is private with the exception of extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society.

Mortality

The death rate within a population. 3 factors contribute to total growth rate: fertility(babies), migration, mortality(death)

The parietal lobe is associated with:

Tactile information (somatosensory information)

Teacher expectancy

Teachers treat students differently according to preconceived ideas about their capabilities. Influences students' achievements

Systematic desensitization

Teaching an individual to replace feelings of anxiety with relaxation. Works great with phobias

Twin studies

Tease out the effects of the genetic and environmental influences of a trait, by determining the degree to which genetic inheritance influences it

Shadowing

Technique where a participant is asked to repeat a word or phrase immediately after its heard

Neural plasticity

The ability of the brain's networks of neurons and their synapses to change. Allows adaptation to chaining life circumstances as well as memory formation (memory can be stored as changes to networks of neurons)

Deductive reasoning

The ability to apply general concepts to specific situations

Fluid intelligence

The ability to think logically without the need for previously learned knowledge. Peaks in young adulthood and then declines

Intelligence

The ability to understand and reason with complex ideas, adapt effectively to the environment, and learn from experience

Optimism bias

The belief that bad things happen to other people but not to us

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one's group is of central importance. Includes the tendency to judge the practices by other groups by one's own cultural standards

Class consciousness

The beliefs that a person holds regarding their social class or economic rank in society, the structure of their class, and their class interests.

Race

The biological, anthropological, or genetic origin of an individual

Information-processing model

The brain receives a stimulus input, process the stimulus, and selects and output function.

Principle of continuity

The brain will perceive an ambitious stimulus according to the simplest possible continuous forms

Conjunction fallacy

The co-occurrence of two instances is more likely than a single one.

Working memory

The combination of storing and activity using short term memory. Info is encoded here through auditory representation (you hear the info you may have initially processed as visual info).

Situational approach to explaining behaviors

The concept of enduring personality traits is fatally flawed because of variations in behavior that occur across different situations. Still allows stability in personality, however, because people behavior according to their interpretations of situations.

Cognitive dissonance theory

The conflict between internal attitudes and external behaviors. People have an inherent desire to avoid the internal discomfort associated with a mismatch b/t the two. ASSUMES people have a self-concept of consistency and honesty --> will not occur in people who do not view themselves as honest and consistent

Bottom-up processing

The construction of perceptions from individual pieces of information provided by sensory processing

Sensation

The conversion of physical stimuli into electrical signals that are transferred through the nervous system by neurons. This is a PHYSICAL process.

Consolidation

The conversion of working memory into long term memory

Recognition

The correct identification of information that is presented. An easier form of retrieval.

The aging of the U.S. population is most likely to increase? A. the dependency ratio. B. the social gradient in health. C. the life course perspective. D. the intersectionality of medicine.

The dependency ratio ratio of the number of economically dependent members(too old or too young) vs number of economically productive members(18-65) of the population The economically dependent are those considered too young or too old to work, whereas the economically productive are the working-age population (approximately between the ages of 18 and 65)

elaboration likelihood

The elaboration likelihood model explains how attitudes are formed and changed based on the message and source characteristics like content(research based) or superficial features(attractive, shiny)

Ego depletion

The idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it, it can get used up and you'll have less to use in the future

what is Shaping in Operant Conditioning

The reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response.

Conduction aphasia

The inability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted

conduction aphasia

The inability to conduct between listening and speaking is disrupted Makes it difficult for people with this to repeat things even when they understand what is being said. Associated with damage to the arcuate fasciculus.

Expressive aphasia

The inability to produce language ( despite being able to understand language)

Infantile amnesia

The inability to remember memories before age 3.5

Receptive aphasia

The inability to understand language (despite being able to hear it and produce it)

Sensitivity bias

The individual's tendency toward or against accepting evidence of a signal. It is a cognitive appraisal of input by sensory system, and can occur consciously or unconsciously.

Replacement level fertility

The number of children that a woman/couple must have in order to replace the number of people in the population who die

Life expectancy

The number of years that an individual at a given age can expect to live at present mortality rates

Groupthink

The phenomenon where a group's members tend to think alike and agree for the sake of group harmony. May cause individuals to self-censor ideas and opinions that go against group norms, or may be pressured by other group members to keep silent on these opinions.

Multiculturalism

The practice of valuing and respecting differences in culture. Believes that the harmonious coexistence of separate cultures is a valuable goal, rather than encouraging all cultures to blend together through assimilation

Cortisol is:

The primary stress hormone, which increases blood glucose

Gatekeeping

The process by which a small number of people/corporations control what info is presented to the media

Cultural assimilation

The process by which an individual or group becomes part of a new culture. Can occur through a variety of means (language acquisition, gaining knowledge of social norms)

Socialization

The process by which people learn customs and values of their culture. It is the way that children learn the culture into which they have been born

source monitoring

The process of making attributions about the origins of memories.

James-Lange Theory

Theory of emotion that states that an external stimulus elicits a physiological response, and that emotional experience depends on recognition and interpretation this physical reaction Physiological and behavior response---> cognitive awareness--> emotion

World-Systems Theory

Theory originated by Immanuel Wallerstein and illuminated by his three-tier structure, proposing that social change in the developing world is inextricably linked to the economic activities of the developed world.

Gender schema

Theory that explains how individuals should be gendered in society. How sex-linked characteristics are maintained and transmitted to other members of a culture. What constitutes men/female characteristics and how stereotypes become ingrained in the society. Cognitions regarding what constitutes a sex identity is a gender schema.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

There are two routes to attitude formation: peripheral route processing and central route processing. Each route is defined by the likelihood that the person who receives an argument will elaborate on it by generating his/her own thoughts and opinions in response

Motion parallax

Things farther away move slower, while things closer to us move faster

Skeptical perspective

Third world countries aren't being integrated into global economy with same benefits

People with longer dopamine-4 receptor gene are more likely to be:

Thrill seekers

Group polarization

Through the interactions and discussions of a group, the attitude of the group as a whole toward a particular issue becomes stronger than the attitudes of its individual members

Central traits

Traits such as honesty, sociability, and shyness. Less dominant traits

Cardinal traits

Traits that are characteristics that direct most of the person's activities (the person's dominant traits that influence all of our behaviors)

Secondary traits

Traits that are more preferences/attitudes

social reproduction

Transmission of social inequality from one generation to the next, People with rich parents end up wealthy themselves They have Social and Financial Capital

Schacter-Singer theory

Two components of emotional response: physiological arousal and situational cues. Must evaluate BOTH before cognitive appraisal of emotion physiological arousal--> cognitive appraisal of situation--> emotion

Vehicular control

Type of experimental control that determines what experimental group does without the directly desired impact

what does conditioned and unconditioned mean in classical conditiong?

Unconditioned means it's innate, already do naturally, and not learned. While conditioned means it's a learned behavior.

Latent functions

Unintended or less recognizable consequence of a social structure. Can be considered beneficial, neutral, or harmful

Upper vs lower class families

Upper class families have concerns related to continuing a larger family tradition and properly training children, while lower class families are focused on completing the everyday tasks necessary for survival. Upper class parents are more permissive/authoritative, while lower class parents are more authoritarian.

Hypothesis of Relative Deprivation

Upsurge in prejudice when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to

Drives

Urges to perform certain behaviors in order to resolve physiological arousal when that arousal is caused by the biological needs of the organism

Elimination disorder

Urination/defecation at inappropriate times

Behavioral therapy

Uses conditioning to shape a client's behaviors in the desired direction. Commonly used to desensitize anxiety patients to phobias or anxiety-provoking stimuli

Psychoanalytic therapy

Uses various methods to help a patient become aware of his/her unconscious motives, in order to help the patient be more able to choose behaviors consciously. Therapy sessions usually focus on patients talking about their lives and reducing anxiety through self insight through analysis and interpretation.

Mnemonic device

Using unrelated stimuli or words to help you remember information. Encoding strategy

Identification

When people act/dress a certain way to be like someone they respect. Will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual

Frustration-aggression principle

When someone is blocked from achieving a goal, the frustration can trigger anger, leading to aggression

which reinforcement schedule is the most effective

Variable-Ratio, used for slot machines

whats the difference in Chompsky and Vygotsky view on language acquisition?

Vygotsky's view, stresses the role of others and interactions with others in language acquisition • language and thought are both independent, but converge through development. Chomsky's view, individuals have an innate "born with" language acquisition device

Feature detection theory

We activate different areas of the brain when looking at different features of an image. Allows for parallel processing of a visual stimulus.

Actor-observer bias

We are victims of circumstance, but others are willful actors. Form of fundamental attribution error.

Inattentional blindness

We aren't aware of things not in our visual filed when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field

Defensive attribution hypothesis

We blame the victim, not situation, because we are afraid to admit that things out of our control due to chance, random When we defend "random acts", meaning they aren't to blame

Resource model of attention

We have a limited pool of resource son which to draw when performing tasks. Practicing a task diminishes task resource demand

Frustration Aggression principle

When someone is blocked from achieving a goal, this frustration can trigger anger and lead to aggression

According to humanistic theory, when is an individual's personality healthy?

When the individual's actual self, ideal self, and perceived self (self-concept) overlap (are the same)

social constructs

a social mechanism, phenomenon, or category created and developed by society; a perception of an individual, group, or idea that is 'constructed' through cultural or social practice

Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development

What is known-"I can do already" ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (Skills too difficult for a child to master on their own, needs guidance and encouragement from a knowledgeable person) What is unknown-"Never could I do that!"

Subject bias

When a study participate intentionally/unintentionally reports distorted measurements

Extinctive burst

When an individual no longer receives regular reinforcement, its original behavior will sometimes spike (increase dramatically)

Role Exit

When an individual stops engaging in a role previously central to their identity and the process of establishing a new identity. Example: When an individual retires from a long career and must transition from the role of worker with deadlines and responsibilities to a leisurely life or when an individual becomes a parent and has to change their lifestyle.

Global aphasia

When both production and understanding of language is damaged

Projection bias

When we assume others share the same beliefs we do

Informational social influence

When we conform because we feel others are more knowledgable than us, because we think they know something we don't

selective attention

When you divide your attention on one task between 2 (ex: watch TV and studying together) It's like a flashlight on your attention -you can move it around at any spot.

Perceived control and stress

When you have a higher perceived control of your environment, your stress level will go down. If you feel like you have little control over your environment, you will become stressed or depressed Studies that show: •Robert Sapolsky-baboons social hierarchy •White-Hall Study-rank of humans in workplace

Construct validity

Whether a tool is measuring what it is intended to measure

External validity

Whether the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people. Protected for by randomization of sample and control of situational variables

Cognition

Wide range of higher level internal mental activities (eg. logical reasoning, language) that influence external behaviors

Modeling

Witnessing another person's actions, retaining info on that person's behavior, and later re-enacting what was learned

Is conformity necessary for a society to function smoothly?

Yes

are we born with emotions?

Yes: 1. newborns react same way emotionally as adults 2. blind people have same facial expressions as those who see

recency bias.

Your most recent actions are also very important, and people place a lot of emphasis on your recent actions/recent performances, more than ones before - the recency bias. Ex: you're only as good as your last game, last match.

Recency bias

Your most recent actions are important--> people place emphasis on your more recent actions/performances

labeling theory of deviance is what?

a behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant. Depends on what's acceptable in that society. o Ex. steroids can be labelled as deviant. Not labeled as right or wrong, it is possible that in some situations steroids are necessary. In professional sports - steroid use can be labeled as wrong or unfair and can be considered deviant and subject to critic by others. Deviance is determined by the team members, sporting league, or greater society label.

Social group

a collection of shared experiences that create a group identity among a set of individuals within a population

representiveness heuristic

a heuristic where people look for the most representative answer, and look to match prototype - a given concept to what is typical/representative

life course approach to health

a holistic perspective that calls attention to developmental processes and other experiences across a person's life

What is overt orienting?

a person turns all or part of the body to alter or maximize the sensory impact of an event

myers briggs test and what are its components?

a personality test that taps 4 characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types ESTJ: extraversion (E), sensing (S), thinking (T), judgment (J)- (Acronym: East ST. Johns High school) INFP: introversion (I), intuition (N), feeling (F), perception (P) (Acronym: I Need the Feeling of Pain)

authoritarian personality

a personality that is disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance of outgroups and those lower in status obedient to superiors, oppressive, inflexible use prejudice to protect their ego and avoid confronting aspects of themselves because they're always focussed on others.

well-defined problem

a problem with clear specifications of the start state, goal state, and the processes for reaching the goal state

self-serving bias

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably

variable-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses ex. car salesman gets bonus every 5 cars he sells

Stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

Looking Glass Self (Cooley) deals with what?

a self-image based on how we think others see us, forming concept of "selves" based our perceptions on how we think others see us

Oligarchy

a small group of people having control of a country, organization, or institution

Master Status

a status that has special importance for social identity, often shaping a person's entire life supersedes other identifying traits; for example, if a woman feels that her role as a mother is more important than her role as a woman, a daughter, etc., she is more likely to identify herself as a mother and to identify with other women who label themselves as such.

what is the looking-glass self

a term coined by Charles Cooley to refer to the process by which our self develops through internalizing others' reactions to us 1) How do I appear to others? 2) What must others think of me? (are we: shy, intelligent, funny, or awkward) 3) Revise how we think about ourselves (based on correct OR incorrect perceptions on others evaluations).

elaboration likelihood model

a theory of how persuasive messages lead to attitude changes with central and peripheral routes The target characteristics are the most important in this model, but all play a factor (message and source characteristics as well). Determines when people will be influenced by the content of a speech vs. more superficial features.

Signal Detection Theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

dramaturgical approach

a view of social interaction in which people are seen as theatrical performers front, back stage

what is dissociation

ability of the mind to separate and compartmentalize thoughts, memories, and emotions. This is often associated with post traumatic stress syndrome.

What is the cocktail party effect?

ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd. Or when someone calls your name (endogenous cue..meaning of name draws attention)

Self-Stigma

acceptance of prejudice and discrimination based on internalized negative societal beliefs or stereotypes

Fixation

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved Ex. someone fixated at oral stage (first stage) might have oral personality characteristics, such as smoking habits/overly talkative when they grow up.

which neurotransmitter is associated frontal lobe to cerebral cortex

aceytocholine nuclei(basilis and septal nuclei)

which neurotransmitter is associated with muscle contractions

acytelcholine

Accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

Cultural Transmission:

addresses how culture is learned. Culture is passed along from generation to generation through various childrearing practices, including when parents expose children to music.

Emotional support examples

affection, love, trust, caring. The type that involves listening and emphasizing. Can include physical support (hugs/pats on back). Provided by those closest to you (family/close friends)

ABC model of attitudes

affective component, behavior component, cognitive component Example 1: "I love yoga because I get to mediate and I believe it helps me relax so I will go to class each week." - 'I love yoga' is emotional,' I believe it helps me relax' is cognitive, and behavioural is 'I will go to class each week' • Example 2: "I am frightful of rollercoasters and believe they are stupid so I will be on the carousel." Affective - 'I am frightful', behavioural is 'I will be on the carousel', and cognitive is 'I believe they are stupid'

Amygdala function

aggression/conductor of emotion center. If you stimulate amygdala, produces anger/violence and fear/anxiety response

Life Course Theory

aging is a social, psychological, and biological process that begins from time you born till time you die. a holistic perspective that calls attention to developmental processes and other experiences across a person's life

working memory

aka short term memory -Working memory is memory that is stored while it is held in attention. -7 (why phone numbers are 7 digits)

whats the most common depressant drug?

alchohol, and it is a CNS depressant that is absorbed through the cell membrane

what are the 3 categories of depressants

alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines

effort justification

an idea and paradigm in social psychology stemming from Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance. Effort justification is people's tendency to attribute a greater value (greater than the objective value) to an outcome they had to put effort into acquiring or achieving.

Norms

are standards for what behaviours, set by groups of individuals, are acceptable, and which are not. Rules that dictate how person should behave around certain group of people - and are defined by that group and usually guided by some sort of moral standard or ethical value that is easily understood and internalized by all members of the group. Provide structure and standards of how people can behave.

what is Proximal stimuli

are the patterns of stimuli from these objects and events that actually reach your senses (eyes, ears, etc.). It is the light that is actually falling on the retina.

Ghettoes

areas where specific racial, ethnic, or religious minorities are concentrated, usually due to social or economic inequities

Social constructionism

argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions/agreement - it's something constructed, not inherent. theory that knowledge is not real, and only exists because we give them reality through social agreement - nations, books, etc. don't exist in absence of human society.

Prejudice

attitudes that prejudge a group, usually negative and not based on facts. Make same assumptions about everyone in a group without considering their differences. Ex. CEO doesn't think women are capable of running a team.

universally attractive

attractive across cultural backgrounds. Things like youthfulness, skin clarity/smoothness, body symmetry. For women, low waist-hip ratio and full breasts. For men, muscular chest and V-shaped torso (broad shoulders, narrow waste)

anthropomorphism

attributing human characteristics to non-human animals. We can interpret and describe meaning to action of animals but we can't be certain if we are correct about these interpretations because we can't speak to the animals.

echoic memory

auditory sensory memory, retained for up to several seconds

availability vs representative heuristic

availability = actual memories in mind, representativeness = not thinking of exact memories, thinking of a prototype of idea (general typical concept)

Taboos

behaviors completely forbidden/wrong in any circumstance, and violation results in consequences far more extreme than a more. Often punishable by law (with serious legal consequences) and result in severe disgust by members of community. Considered very immoral behavior. Ex. Incest (sexual relationships between family members) and cannibalism (eating human flesh)

A weak argument will be effective in changing attitudes through a) central route b) peripheral route or c) both

b--> weak arguments only work through peripheral route

what structure is considered the major cholinergic output of CNS?

basal forebrain area, it makes acetylcholine

crystallized intelligence

based on fact, experience, prior learning and accumulates as one ages.

why do Researchers always try to look at identical twins for research studies

because used to tease out environmental vs. genetic characteristics - same genetic makeup. aka: We look at identical twins because they have the same genetic makeup. We look at twins who grew up in different environments and they still had similar personalities - similar traits

categorical self

becoming aware that even though we're separate/distinct objects/beings, we also exist in the world with others.

Cultural relativism

being aware of and judging a culture by its own standards, biases, norms, values, ect. instead of by yours - o No absolute right or wrong except violation of human rights no matter what culture they're from.

list the monoamine subgroup catecholamines

benzene w/ 2 hydroxyl groups) dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine

Hearing pathway to the brain(taken from MCAT practice exams)

bones: (HAS: Hammer→Anvil→Sturip) Pathway: 1. Organ of Corti (detects physical vibrations, makes them electrical signals, amazon gets order, picks and ships)→ 2. auditory nerve(delivers to brain, delivery semi truck)→ 3. inferior colliculus(local mail truck) → 4. medial geniculate nucleus(loading dock)→ 5. auditory cortex (processing)

social anomie

breakdown of social bonds between an individual and their community A situation in which society does not have the support of a firm collective consciousness. Social anomie can also result in social groups disbanding, and alienation from social groups. To resolve social anomie, social norms must be strengthened and groups must redevelop sets of shared norms. Can lead to uncertainty in social situations. Means that there is a weakened sense of morality and criteria for behavior.

how do you avoid group think?

bring in outsiders/experts, have the leader of the group not disclose opinion, discuss what should be done in smaller groups

name of area of brain associated for speaking, and specific location

broca's area left, frontal lobe

Tracts of the Spinal Cord

bundle of parallel axons within CNS, "white matter"

which psychologist is associated with humanistic theory

carl rogers developed Abraham Maslow was first theorist Central feature of our personality is self-concept

Mediating Variable

causal link to why IV and DV relate to each other Ex. "older"IV drivers are "better"DV drivers "older"IV drivers are "wiser"MV" causing them to be "better"DV drivers

what are causes of korsakoff's syndrome?

caused by lack of vitamin B1 or thiamine. Caused by malnutrition, eating disorders, and especially alcoholism. These groups don't process or absorb all the nutrients they need. -Most cases Not caused by brain injuries -Thiamine is important because converts carbohydrates into glucose cells need for energy. Important for normal functioning of neurons

privately conform

change behaviours and opinions to align with group. ▪ Ex: If you privately conformed to the shock color, you would leave the situation with a genuine belief that the best way to train a dog is with a shock color.

Demographic transition theory

changes in both birth rate and the death rate ande economic development/industrialization Typical pattern: Drop in the death rate, leading to population growth, followed by a drop in the birth rate, leading to population stabilization

Riots

characterized by large # of people who engage in dangerous behavior, such as vandalism, violence, or other crimes

Primary groups

closest members of the group to you. Close intimate long-term relationships. Parents, close friends from childhood

attributional bias

cognitive bias that refers to the systematic errors made when people evaluate or try to find reasons for their own and others' behaviors. People constantly make attributions regarding the cause of behaviors; however, attributions do not always accurately mirror reality. Rather than operating as objective perceivers, people are prone to perceptual errors that lead to biased interpretations of their social world.

Which theory connects the observable (behavioral) to mental approach (psychoanalytic) approach?

cognitive theory a bridge between classic behaviourism and other theories like psychoanalytic

long tracts are what?

collections of axons connecting cerebrum and brain stem

independent samples t-test

compares mean values between 2 groups to a specific value

Tailed Test (T-Test)

compares mean values of a continuous variable (dependent) between 2 categories/groups, ex. comparing mean of a group to a specific value. Can also compare means of 2 groups. Two-tailed = possibility of relationship in both directions, One-tailed = one direction.

Skeptical Perspective

critical of globalization, considers it as being regionalized instead of globalized. Third world countries aren't being integrated into global economy with same benefits as first world countries. Current economy is not leading towards global capitalism. Transnational corporations still tied to their home countries and national borders remain important. CRTIICAL.

Meta-analyses

data from multiple studies combined and re-analized

Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)

debilitating disorder characterized by impulsivity, unstable affect, and difficult interpersonal relationships Substance use is a diagnostic criterion of BPD. For that reason, BPD and Substance Use Disorder (SUD) have a high comorbidity

Operationalization

defining your variables in practical/measurable terms to represent the data Methods/experimental setup

What is an exurb?

describes community beyond suburbs who are very prosperous

Demand characteristics are what?

describes how participants change behaviour to match expectations of experimenter. Conformed because that's what experimenter wanted them to do.

Social control

describes the ways in which society can prevent and sanction behavior that violates social norms.

autonomous motivation

desire to reach one's goals creates a drive that individuals are motivated to fulfill

what is it called when norm is violated?

deviance Not negative, just individuals behaving differently from what society feels is normal. Deviance is relative (just like norms are). Deviance is dependent on context, individuals, group, and country. Deviance standards can change based on these factors. o Ex. most Americans eat meat, but someone who's vegetarian is deviant in US (their behavior is different than what majority considers as normal)

mass media

dissemination of information AND how information is transmitted within a culture

categorical perception

distinction between sounds (hearing children must be able to do this for language development) distinction between hand movements (non-hearing children must be able to do this for language development)

what is Ecological validity

do the conditions of the study mimic those of the real world. If they don't, we can only make limited conclusions. A line in lab (in this experiment) is not same as conformity in the real world.

Construct validity

does our data/outcomes match our goals/theory, how well is the test constructed

Transformationalist Perspective

doesn't have specific cause or outcome. Believe national governments are changing, perhaps becoming less important but difficult to explain change so simply. They see the world order is changing. Just a new world order is being developing. Many factors that influence change of world patterns but outcome unknown. CHANGING

which neurotransmitter is associated with VTA and substancia nigra (motor planning)

domapine

Ecclesia

dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, ex. Lutheranism in Sweden and Islam in Iran.

Hierarchy of organization

each position is under supervision of higher authority. Not all people of an organization are equal. ▪ Pro - clarify who's in command ▪ Con - deprive people of voice in decision making (especially of those lower in chain of command) and shirk responsibility, especially in unethical tasks ("I was just following orders"). Also allows individuals allows them to hide mistakes (often serious mistakes because no one person interacts with all members).

example of social institutions

education, family, religion

Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment showed what

effects of power and authority on individuals

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development "language" and "thought" are both independent, but "converge" through development. heavily stresses the role of people and interactions in language acquisition, which would involve mirror neurons

Pluralism

encourages racial and ethnic variation. A theory of government that holds that open, multiple, and competing groups can check the asserted power by any one group.

cortical reaction is what?

enzymes prevent any other sperm from binding to the egg

Remembering past personal events, such as state of residence in childhood and residential history since birth requires retrieval of ....................... from memory

episodic information (personal memories)

Normative social influence

even if you know what's right, do what group's negative actions to to avoid social rejection. ▪ Ex: you are an expert group trainer and you know it's easier to train the dog with treats than treat it with a shock color. Even though you know training the dog with a shock color is incorrect you may still decide to go along with the group to avoid being a social outcast. You fear social rejection that can come with disagreement with the group, so you conform to even a wrongful act.

Iron rule of oligarchy

even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by select few. Why? Conflict theory explains it. Once person gains leadership role in organization they might be hesitant to give it up. (those with power have vested interest in keeping it) Also those who achieve power might have skills that make them valuable.

Sherif's Robbers Cave Study examined what?

examined the intergroup - 2 groups of 11-year-old boys against each other at summer camp (Eagles vs. Rattlers) - after competitions / be relations emerged, task-oriented cooperation was used to improve relations

Sick role

expectation in society that allows you to take a break from responsibilities. But if you don't get better or return, you're viewed as deviant and harmful to society.

social cognitive perspective is based on what?

expectations of others

Learning (Behavorist) Theory of language

explains language acquisition as being controlled by operant conditioning and reinforcement by parents and caregivers

what are the 2 main categories of long-term memory?

explicit (declarative) implicit (non-declarative)

What is change blindness?

fail to notice changes from a previous to a current state in environment. (Different from inattentional blindness, a subtle but importance difference) ex: don't notice when your mom gets a haircut. Ex. Famous study done where a person asks a stranger in a big city to give directions. The person is swapped with another person and the direction giver does not notice that this was a different person that they were now giving directions too

Type II error (beta)

false negative failing to reject a false null hypothesis

3 factors contribute to total growth rate

fertility, migration, mortality

Tangible/Instrumental support

financial assistance/support, material goods, or services. Taking some of your responsibilities so you can deal with other problems. Can come from a bank, people who bring you dinner when you're sick, or lend you money between jobs

complex innate behavior example

fixed action patters like mating dance, migration

Which term is used to describe a memory report that is inaccurate, but expressed with extreme confidence?

flashbulb memory

Endolymph

fluid within the labyrinth of the inner ear -stimulates the receptor cells, which in turn translate their movement into nerve impulses that the brain perceives as sound

Huministic Theory

focuses on healthy personality development, and humans are seen as inherently good. The most basic motive of all people is the actualizing tendency (self-actualization), innate drive to maintain and enhance oneself. Person will grow towards self-actualization as long as there are no obstacles.

longitudinal study

follows same group of people that are restudied and retested over a long period Gives more insight into risk factors and protective factors than single point in time, but still not 100% causal

Secondary groups

formal, impersonal, temporary, and business-like relationships, based on a limited purpose/goal. Usually short-term, and only see them sometimes. Do a few goal-directed activities with these people ex. You do things like attending a lunch meeting to talk business. You are only part of the group to accomplish a task or for example, earn money (means to an end) "formal impersonal groups"

What are examples of innate behaviors traits and what are characteristics?

genetically programmed behavior. present at birth and requires no experience with the environment. Have the following characteristics: o Inherited - innate behaviours are encoded by DNA o Intrinsic - present even if you're raised in isolation. Ex. Pooping, peeing, etc. o Stereotypic - performed the same way each time. o Inflexible - not modifiable by experience. o Consummate - fully developed right away, at first performance. Not influenced by experience. ▪ Subject to change through mutation and recombination, natural selection etc (just like all other physical traits) ▪ Ex. Nausea in women during pregnancy helps them avoid toxic foods/novel-strongly flavored food in critical period of development. Thought of as programmed.

Cost signalling

giving signals to others that person who's giving has resources. People have increased trust in those they know have helped others in the past. Signals that the person is open to cooperation

which neurotransmitter is associated with reticular activation system

glutamate, it increases arousal

assimilation

goes for "any" assimilation (cultural assimulation, childs development) where individual or minority/smaller group is absorbed and blended into the majority/main population we use new information/experiences in terms of our current understanding/schemas to do so

which matter gray or white contains most of neuron somas?

grey matter

Confirmation bias is what?

group members seek out information that support the majority view. Ex: majority of the group agrees that training the dog with treats is the best way to go about it. Some people chastise those who say the collar is the best way to train the dog. The individuals leave the discussion that training the dog with treats is amplified

Employment based on technical qualifications

hiring in bureaucracy is based on qualifications on person has and not favouritism/personal rivalries Pro - decrease discrimination ▪ Con - decrease ambition (only do what is necessary to secure job and do nothing more).

which neurotransmitter is associated with hypothathalus to cerebral cortex

histamine

Accuracy

hitting the bullseye

Universal emotions

happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, anger

Innate learning

hardwired things that you are born with the ability to do

Tinnitus

high frequency hairs cells(20,000Hz) get damaged, hear "ringing noise"

Past-In-Present discrimination

how things done in the past, even if no longer allowed they can have consequences for people in the present. Ex. After Brown vs. Board verdict, but girl in integrated school still doesn't feel welcome in her classroom

Assimilation

how we describe new information/experiences in terms of our current understanding/schemas. Acronym: assimilation has "ss" - same schema

attribution theory is what?

how we explain behaviours of others around us. Explain the behavior of other people by breaking down our understanding/explanation of their behaviours to factors about them, and factors related to their environment/surroundings.

accomendation

how we later adjust our schemas to incorporate new experiences -to remember. Acronym: accommodation has "cc" for change or create

Content Validity

how well construct is accurate test comprehensively, ever aspect, does our test cover full scope of outcomes that could present

Predictive validity:

how well our test matches time dependent or situational outcomes

Population validity

how well the sample used can be extrapolated to a population as a whole. Generalizability.

Galton's idea of hereditary genius

human ability is hereditary

The autonomic nervous system is regulated primary by the:

hypothalamus

id, ego, superego

id (one's largely unconscious set of primal urges) superego (one's sense of moral purpose) ego (the logic-based, more conscious balance between the two). psychoanalytic therapy Sigmund Freud, the "father of psychoanalysis," unconscious desires. psychoanalytic therapy

ego depletion is what?

idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it, it can get used up, and less of it to use in the future which can affect a later unrelated task that also requires self-control. This is true because self-control requires lots of energy and focus. Muscle is used as a metaphor for self-control. Can be strengthened with practice, but can also be fatigued/depleted with overuse

what is internalization?

idea/belief/behaviour has been integrated into our own values. We conform to the belief privately. Stronger than other types of conformity. Iternalization refers to the normal process where children learn and absorb (internalize) knowledge and rules about the world from social context, rather than through being specifically told. This is how children learn how to alter their behavior in response to the situation that they are in (home, school, church, playground, etc. Ex: start going to gym to comply with friends, but then might internalize that exercise is good for you and continue the behavior

priming

implicit memory where the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

Conformity, Group Polarization and Group think are all processes when individuals come together in a group. When can this be positive?

if the group is open minded, positive, and willing to consider more than one opinion.

Extensor Plantar Response

if you take a hard object and scrape along bottom of foot, normal response is flexor - toes will come down on the object. But with extensor, toes extend up. Upper motor sign

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

retrograde amnesia

inability to recall info previously encoded

source amnesia

inability to remember where, when or how previously learned information has been acquired, while retaining the factual knowledge.

hypertonia

increased tone of skeletal muscles. Increase muscle tension, reduce muscle stretch. upper motor sign

openness trait measures what?

independent vs. conforming, imagining vs. practical

optimum arousal theory

individuals are motivated to maintain an optimum level of internal arousal

differential association theory

individuals engage in criminal choices because they are exposed to it, while individuals who don't commit crimes have not been exposed to this type of behavior So a strategy to reduce crime according to this perspecive, A child in a high-crime area being adopted by an affluent family

what is primary appraisal and its 3 categories

initial decision regarding whether an event is harmful 1. Irrelevant: see it, but not important 2. Benign/Positive: stressor can't affect you 3. Stressful/Negative: stressor is actually threatening you

bootstrapping

initial stage(s) of grammatical (i.e., syntactic) development

The strong negative effect that losing a long-term employee can have on a hospital is most likely due to the effect on what?

institutional memory of the organization

what memory construct explains why its better to study right before bed to remember things better the next day?

interference When people study new material, any new information introduced between the initial learning (i.e., encoding) and retrieval, such as viewing a movie, will interfere with memory consolidation

cultural assimilation

interpenetration and fusion of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture.

what is the fastest route of entry for drugs?

intramuscular quick for epi pen, but slow for vaccines however, most abused drugs are delivered intravenously

what is Executive attention?

involved in goal-directed behavior, monitoring conflicts between internal processes, and anticipating the effects of behavior. Dopamine from the ventral tegmental area is associated with executing attention.

theory of mind

involves being able to take another person's perspective

what is Orienting attention

involves the capacity to change the focus of attention from one stimulus to another stimulus. This network is predominantly modulated by acetylcholine produced in the basal forebrain.

Crystallized intelligence

involves the use of previously-learned knowledge, skills, and experience

Depersonalization is what?

is a symptom of serious mental illness (although it can happen to anyone, repeated instances are suggestive of a dissociative disorder) in which a person feels like she has stepped outside of herself and is watching herself act, with no sense of control over her behavior. when leaner/victim is made to seem less human through stereotypes/prejudices, people are less likely to object against them

social loafing

is a tendency to put forth less effort in group task if the individual contributions aren't evaluated. Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to put forth less effort when part of a group.

REM sleep facts

is characterized by waves similar to beta waves when alert and awake, but with a less regular distribution. Combination of alpha, beta, and desynchronous waves Acronym for REM brain waves: BATS-Drink Blood (Beta Alpha Theta Sleep-spindle/K-complex Delta Beta) paradoxical sleep: because brain is active and awake but body prevents it from doing anything Most dreaming occurs during REM sleep, so paralysation inhibits actions. Waking up during REM sleep allows you to remember your dream Most important for memory consolidation. Formation of episodic memories. REM sleep more before you wake up

what does the hypothalamus do in regards to limbic system?

it regulates the Autonomic nervous system (ANS) - (fight or flight vs. rest and digest). Temperature control. Controlling endocrine system by triggers hormones like epinephrine/norepinephrine.; responsible for hunger, sleep, thirst, sex

what does the behaviourist theory says personality is the result of?

learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment - it's deterministic, in that people begin as blank states and the environment completely determines their behavior/personalities. Do not take thoughts and feelings into account. Environment → BEHAVIOR Focuses on observable and measurable behaviour, rather than mental/emotional. The psychoanalytic theory would be the most opposite of this theory (focuses

Superior olive

localizes sound

for benzodiazepines (benzos), what symptoms do you prescribe the long vs short acting

long: treat anxiety short: insomnia

cross-sectional study

look at a group of "different" people at a "single" moment in time

what is Informative influence?

look to group for guidance when you don't know what to do and you assume the group is correct. ▪ Ex: You have never interacted with a dog before and you are uncertain about how to train a dog and you are uncertain if it's an appropriate method to use a shock color. You look for the group for guidance and you assume they are correct.

Korsakoff's Syndrome symptoms

main symptom is severe memory loss, accompanied by confabulation (patients make up stories, sometimes to fill in memories) Precurser to Korsakoffs is Wernicke's encephalopathy --Damage to certain areas causes poor balance, abnormal eye movements, mild confusion, and/or memory loss.

vestibule system functions to

maintaining balance, linear acceleration

Delivery of healthcare

massive inequalities in terms of access. We take care of elderly through Medicaid and Medicare, and children through health child insurance. But people in between are left behind - those who populate working force (when they get sick they can seriously effect society). Affordable Care Act is trying to fix this but too early to tell. Spend a lot of $ on healthcare without desired outcomes, because we invest a lot more in helping people when they are sick instead of developing preventative medicine

what neurotransmitter controls circadian rhythms?

melatonin, produced in pineal gland

Utilitarian Organizations

members are paid/rewarded for their efforts, ex. Businesses and government jobs, and universities (receive diploma in exchange for your time).

Normative Organizations

members come together through shared goals, ex. religion groups or MADD (Mothers against Drunk Driving). Positive sense of unity and purpose.

Brainstem consists of what?

midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata

what class of drug is cannabis (marijuana)

mix of all. can be a hallucinogen and also depressant or stimulant

Stress-diathesis

model posits that underlying biological characteristics can be activated provided there is sufficient stress. An example of a stressor could be conflictual communication.

Moderating Variable

modulates intensity between IV and DV Ex. There may be a relationship between socioeconomic status and how often women perform self-exams on their breasts. Age is possibly a numerical moderating variable

Suburbanization

movement away from cities to get a larger home (American dream), but commute for work can be long and harder to get quick medical help. However, suburbs form their own economic centres and become independent to cities they border. Ex. Silicon Valley created on outskirts of San Jose by tech-companies

Back stage

more private area of our lives, when act is over. You can be yourself. You can do what you feel makes you comfortable. Private area of your life.

secondary deviance (labeling theory)

more serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that produces a stigmatizing label and results in more deviant behavior. Ex. Teammates of an athlete label players behavior as deviant and they exclude him from practices and call him a terrible player. Reaction will be he needs to continue to use steroids to be a better player. Reaction might be to use steroids more frequently or try more dangerous forms of drug. Repeated deviance gives him a reputation of deviance and the stigma of deviance stays with him for the rest of his career

Socialism

motivated by what benefits society as whole, common ownership of production that focuses on human needs and economic demands

drive-reduction theory

motivation based on the need to fulfill a certain drive, like hunger or thirst. approach to motivation that assumes behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal

Ethics principle guidelines for research should include what?

must be or have... -social and clinical value(answering something important) -scientifically valid -fair subject selection, based on relevance of scientific goal -favorable risk-benefit ratio -Independent review:board approved -Informed consent needed: agree to any risks or pain/discomfort involved -Respect participants(Privacy, confidentiality, monitoring patients welfare)

Reticular Activation System (RAS)

nerve pathways in the brainstem connecting the spinal cord, cerebrum, and cerebellum, and mediating the overall level of consciousness. (alertness)

Retroactive interference

new learning impairs old info. Refers to later information interfering with memory for earlier information. -ex. Writing new address makes it difficult to recall your old address

Primary Deviance (Labeling Theory)

no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild and does not affect person's self-esteem. Individual is able to continue to behaves in same way without feeling immoral/wrong. Ex. All athletes of team use steroids, so the act of a player is not labeled as deviant and his actions go unnoticed

unconditioned stimulus (US) is what?

no one had to teach this in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

The earlier sleep cycles are predominantly ____________.

non-REM sleep

which neurotransmitter is associated with pons area locus coeruleus to cerebral cortex

norephrine

Mores are what?

norms based on some moral value/belief (dependent on group's values of right and wrong). Generally produce strong feelings. Usually a strong reaction if more is violated. Ex. Truthfulness (tell the truth because it's the right thing to do, when public figures are not truthful it causes outrage because the figure has done something wrong). Don't have serious consequences. Acronym: MOREALS ▪ Ex: friends takes of shirt who has painted baseball team's logo on chest. You feel strongly about modesty so you think its wrong that your friend took of shirt and is exposing skin. No serious consequences of your friend's behavior other than your disapproval.

Law norms are what

norms still based on right and wrong, but have formal/consistent consequences. Ex. Public figure lies under oath, done something morally wrong but also violate laws of court. There is a punishment for the crime. Violation can be simple (J-walking) or severe (murder). There is not always outrage when a law is violated - depends on the law. ▪ Ex: friends takes of all clothes and decides to go streaking across the field. Broken law and you will receive a punishment. Perhaps not outrage or disgust - crowd might be laughing or cheering.

4 things we do to reduce that discomfort. according to cognitive dissonance

o 1. Modify our cognitions - ex. smoker might say, I really don't smoke that much. o 2. Trivialize - make less important, ex. evidence is weak that smoking causes cancer. o 3. Add - adding more cognitions, ex. I exercise so much it doesn't matter o 4. Deny - denying the facts, ex. smoking and cancer are not linked.

What is neglect syndrome?

occurs when damage to the brain causes a change or loss in the capacity of the spatial dimension of divided attention.

when does Attentional capture occur?

occurs when attention is attracted by the motion of an object or stimulus.

this type of learning (aka social learning/vicarious learning) is learned through watching and imitating others - such as modeling actions of another.

observational learning

Case-Control Studies

observational study used for "epidemiology, emerging disease use" Where you gather specific "cases" of outcome interest and compare them with others who don't have the interest "controls" Ex. comparing people with the disease with those who don't but are otherwise similar.

Fundamental attribution error

occurs when a person assigns too much weight to internal causes rather than external factors when looking for causes of another person's behavior.

divided attention

occurs when an individual must perform two tasks which require attention, simultaneously attention is limited resource, can't split very well

what is groupthink?

occurs when maintaining harmony among group members is more important than carefully analyzing problem at hand. Happens in very cohesive, insulated groups. Often have important/respected leaders, and in the interest of group "unity" individuals suppress/sensor their own opinions. First suggestion proposed by the leader is adopted. Especially if there is little hope of finding a better solution. Not the most effective way to make a decision and can explain what's wrong with Congress in the US.

Dishabituation is what?

occurs when previously habituated stimulus is removed.

Disengagement Theory

older adults and society separate, assumes they become more self-absorbed as they age. Separation allows for self-reflection. But considers elderly people still involved in society as not adjusting well, which is debatable.

ideal self

one's perception of whom one should be or would like to be

Self-efficacy

one's sense of competence and effectiveness

discriminating stimuli

operant conditioning stimulus that is used to consistently signal the specific response/behavior of either reinforcement(reward) or punishment.

what is the difference in opiates and opioids and give examples of each

opiates: 'T= tree natural" Morphine, codeine opioids: synthetic: oxycodone/hydrocodone, heroin *these work on endorphins. NOT a depressant!"

Disassortative Mating (Non-Assortative Mating)

opposite of assortative mating - situation where individuals with individuals with different or diverse traits mate with higher frequency than with random mating.

Emigration:

opposite of immigration. Movement of a person out of a country. # ppl moving out/1000 ppl.

Impression management

our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage. Do this because we want to be viewed in a positive way.

this person is associated with classical conditioning, ex. Pavlov dog experiment. Places a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to trigger an involuntary response. Ex. ringing a bell in presence of food causes dog to start salivating.

pavlov

symbolic interaction theory

people act based on the "meanings" of cultural symbols that are derived from "social interaction". Based on the Desire to construct a new cultural identity

Symbolic interaction theory:

people act based on the meanings of "cultural symbols" that are derived from "social interaction." Desire to construct a new cultural identity

Negative controls

receive NO treatment or intervention received -Looks to see if interventions/treatment actually works -Placebo or sham may be used

Yerkes-Dodson Law states

people perform best when they are moderately aroused (bell shape curve) •The relationship between long term memory and fear follows a Yerkes-Dodson curve. •Extreme emotional responses usually impact memory negatively. •Moderate emotions, like mild fear, are associated with optimal memory recall.

Randomized Controlled Trial

people studied randomly given one of treatments under study, used to test efficacy/side effects of medical interventions like drugs

Continuity Theory

people try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives overtime. As they age people make decisions that preserve that structure and use it to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging.

incentive theory

peoples behaviors are motivated by external factors (like community values) to get rewards or avoid punishment

Humanistic theory

peoples behaviors are motivated by individual growth (actualization/meaning of life)

Status / Prestige:

person's prestige, social honor, or popularity in a society

culture shock

personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life Ex. Moving countries, move social environments, or travels to another type of life (urban to rural).

personality theorist; asserted that personality is largely determined by genes, used introversion/extroversion

personality theorist; asserted that personality is largely determined by genes, used introversion/extroversion

Regression to the mean

phenomenon in which, over time, scores become more average, representing the mean. 1st score reported may be skewed, but subsequent scores trend towards the mean

What is group polarization?

phenomenon where group decision-making amplifies the original opinion of group members. A stronger version of the decision is adopted.

Schachter-Singer Theory of emotion

physiological + contextualizes stimulus (cognitive reasoning of event/overthink) = form experience of emotion. If we become physiologically aroused, we don't feel a specific emotion until we're able to label/ identify/contextualize/context of stimulus reason for situation.

Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion

physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the same time Cannon termed the phrase "fight or flight"

which brain structure is considered the master gland?

pituitary

McDonaldization

policies of fast food organizations have come to dominate other organizations in society. Primarily, Principles of efficiency, calculability, predictability, uniformity and control - These principles have come to dominated everything, from medicine to sporting events to entertainment,

Weber's Law

postulates that there is a linear relationship between the intensity of a stimulus and its detection The law states that the perceivable change in stimulus intensity (I) is a constant, or mathematically, (If - Ii) /Ii = constant

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

pre-conventional (level 1) obedience and punishment orientation self-interest orientation conventional (level 2) interpersonal accord and conformity authority and social-order maintaining orientation post-convential (level 3) social contract orientation universal ethical principles

what are secondary traits?

preferences or attitude. Ex. love for modern art, reluctance to eat meat.

George Mead's social theory deals with what?

presents the part of the self which is called the "me" as the:collection of attitudes taken from society. "I" Independent response, creative, free will, within social norms "Me" socialized self, internalized set of societal values and attitudes 4Stages: imitation, play, game, and the generalized other.

Cerebellum function

receives plan for Balance and coordination (aka little brain) also receives position sense information (muscle stretch fibers) "bell" think of a person walking on a tight rope with 2 bells they are trying to balance

example of coercive organization

prison, military Organizations use power to control through force or threats

Capitalism

private ownership of production with market economy based on supply and demand.

what are 2 different ways a person can conform?

privately conform- change behaviours and opinions to align with group. publically conform - you're outwardly changing but inside you maintain core beliefs. You only outwardly agree with the group.

Illness experience

process of being ill and how people cope with illness. Being ill can change a person's self-identity. Diagnosis of chronic disease can take over your life where every decision revolves around the disease. Stigmas associated with certain diseases like mental illness or STDs that can affect how others perceive you. . How ▪ People experience of disease varies too if they have access to resources like palliative care.

Globalization

process of forming social, cultural, and economic links among distant regions of the globe, of which increased immigration is an important constituent.

weak social constructionism

proposes that social constructs are dependent on brute facts, which are the most basic and fundamental facts Ex. brute facts are what explain quarks (or what makes the quarks) in atoms, not the atoms themselves (something that is not defined by something else)

Theory of intersectionality

proposes that we need to understand how all these discriminations (double or triple jeopardy) can simultaneously exist

fundamental attribution error

put more blame on the persons dispositional or internal qualities in order to explain behavior rather than the situation/context of situation thinking that people are the way they act

defense mechanism where someone says or does exact opposite of what they actually want/feel),

reaction formation

Fundamentalism

reaction to secularization, go back to strict religious beliefs. Create social problems when people become too extreme.

Perceived behavior control

refers to a person's ability to carry out intentions to perform a certain behavior. • Important element of social cognitive theory is personal control. Are we controlling or are we getting controlled by the environment around us. Is our locus of control: Internal or external

ecological validity

refers to how findings from an experimental setting can be generalized to the environmental considerations in the real world. looks at the testing environment and determines how much it influences behavior "Stanford Prison Experiment"

transformationalist grammer

refers to the different ways that words can be arranged to convey the same information.

Incongruence (Rogers)

refers to the gap between a person's real "actual" self and "ideal" self

defense mechanism where one regresses to position of child in problematic situations

regression

what does reinforcement, punishment, positive, and negative mean?

reinforcement (increase a behavior) punishment (decrease a behavior) Positive (adds something) Negative (take away something) Positive reinforcement = something is being added to increase tendency of behavior, ex. a gas gift card for safe driving o Negative reinforcement = taking something away to increase tendency behavior will occur again. Ex. taking loud buzzing noise away only once you put your seatbelt on. Taking away sound of buzzer when you put on seatbelt is negative reinforcement, because taking something away in effort to increase behavior (putting a seatbelt on) o Positive punishment = Positive punishment means something is added to decrease tendency something will occur again. Ex. giving a speeding ticket (adding) to decrease behavior of speeding (behavior). o Negative punishment = something taken away in effort to decrease tendency it'll occur again. Ex. taking away your license.

Oedipal complex is what?

relates to how a boy perceives his relationship with his mother.

Webers Law

relation between the actual change in a physical stimulus and the perceived change

Thalamus function

relay station for sensory impulses, pain

Systematic Reviews

researchers studies literature on topic and critically assess the outcomes of various studies often combined with meta-analyses

Social desirability bias

respond to be more socially successful They also may want to portray themselves as being "more empathetic" or "less negative or emotional", which could be a more socially acceptable but less honest way to respond

Urban renewal

revamping old parts of cities to become better. But can lead to gentrification, which means when redone they target a wealthier community which increases property value. People there before are pushed out because they can't afford property anymore and it leads to great inequality in cities.

Psychoanalytic theory

says personality is shaped by childhood experiences person's unconscious thoughts/desires, feelings, and past memories (particularly experiences in childhood).

Culture shock

sense of "disorientation" as a person experiences an unfamiliar culture. Typically, culture shock is thought of as consisting of 4 phases: 1.HONEYMOON 2.Negotiation 3.Adjustment 4.Adaptation.

which neurotransmitter is associated ralphe nuclei

serotonin, Released by lots of nuclei from all over the brainstem (midbrain, pons, and medulla) called raphe nuclei to cerebral cortex release serotonin. Raphe nuclei also send serotonin to other parts of the nervous system.

whats the difference in sex, gender, sexuality

sex: biological traits that society associates with being male or female gender: cultural meanings attached to being masculine & feminine, which influence personal identities Sexuality: sexual attraction, practices and identity which may or may not align with sex and gender

Avoidance

signal is given before aversive situation. The behavior is to avoid the situation, which results in continued avoidance because it is reinforced by the removal of the pain/undesirable stimuli. Ex. A fire alarm allows you to avoid the fire and you are able to "Avoid" the situation.

complience

situations where we do behaviour to get a reward or avoid punishment. Tendency to go along with behaviour without questioning why. Compliance goes away once rewards/punishments removed. "Compliance refers to a change in behavior that is requested by another person or group; the individual acted in some way because others asked him or her to do so (but it was possible to refuse or decline.)

The more sensitive the sense organ, the __________ the Weber fraction required for detection of the stimulus.

smaller

This theory of behaviour change that emphasizes interactions between people and their environment

social cognitive theory

these traits are factors underlying human personality (fewer and more abstract).

source traits

parietal lobe structure and their funtions

somatosensory cortex: touch, pressure, pain spatial manipulation: think 3d

Proactive interference

something you learned in past impairs learning in future. Earlier information interferes with later information. ▪ ex. New password learning - prior pw learning impairs ability to learn new one.

temporal cortex structures and their funtion

sound wernicke's area

Extroversion measures what?

talkative or quiet, fun loving or sober

Neuroticism measure what?

stable vs. tense, calm vs anxious, secure vs. insecure

hidden curriculum

standard behaviors that are deemed acceptable that are subtly taught by teachers. the informal and unofficial aspects of culture that children are taught in school

incentive theory of motivation

states that incentives and rewards are the driving forces behind people's choices and behaviors calls attention to how factors outside of individuals, including community values and other aspects of culture, can motivate behavior.

Strong social constructionism

states that whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits; all knowledge is social construct and there are no brute facts. We created idea of quarks and everything we know to explain it. No facts that just exist.

Age Stratification Theory

suggests that age is a way of regulating the behavior of a generation

this trait is a personality traits that are evident from a person's behavior

surface trait

autobiographical memory

system consisting of episodes recollected from an individual's life, based on a combination of episodic (personal experiences and specific objects, people and events experienced at particular time and place) and semantic (general knowledge and facts about the world) memory.

Side-effect discrimination

talks about how one institution/organization/sector can influence another negatively. (Institutions - economics, politics, law, medicine, business and are all interrelated, and discrimination in one area can effect another- it is an side effect)

Evolutionary game theory

tells us those with best fit to environment will survive and pass on to offspring, and those genes will become more common in successive generations.

term for innate disposition, our mood/activity level, and is consistent throughout our life?

temperament

Sects

tend to be smaller and are established in protest of established church. They break away from churches. Ex. Mormon/Amish

what is Traditionalism and what is its tendencies in twin studies

tendency to follow authority also shown to be common in twins.

cognitive bias

tendency to think in certain ways. Cognitive biases often cause deviations from a standard of rationality or good judgment.

Generalization

tendency/ability of a stimulus similar to conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response, and more similar the stimulus is to original conditioned stimulus - the greater the conditioned response Generalization allows us to make appropriate response to similar stimuli. Ex. meeting someone new who smiles, reminds us of other smiles (both exhibit feelings of joy).

what is Covert orienting

the act of bringing the spotlight of attention on an object or event without body or eye movement

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response We're primed to respond to our name. Why it's a strong prime for pulling our attention

Hawthorne effect is what?

the alteration of behavior by the subjects of a study due to their awareness of being observed.

Just World Hypothesis

the belief that people get what they deserve in life and deserve what they get

Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky)

the difference between what a child can do on his own and what can be accomplished with some assistance part where most sensitive instruction/guidance should be given. Ex. between ability of not being able to do something and being able to do something. ZPD is the link between the zone of can't do and can do. Allows learner to use their skills they already have and expand learning to things they can't do.

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old info "past affected"

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of past learning on the recall of new information "older people call me Jason, instead of Justin"

culture lag

the gap of time between the introduction of material (physical) culture and nonmaterial (symbolic culture, so no physical objects like iphones) culture's acceptance of it

place theory

the idea that different sound frequencies stimulate different locations on the basilar membrane

Theory of Planned Behavior

the idea that people's intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviors, which are determined by their attitudes toward specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control

what did the Zimbardo experiment show us?

the influence situation can have on our behavior - might be due to situational attribution (due to situation), not dispositional attribution (internal characteristics/personalities of people) o It becomes much easier to behave badly towards individuals who suffer from deindividualization (loss of self) - In this case prisoners forced to dress same, and addressed as number. o Bad behavior caused cognitive dissonance - guards knowing their behavior was inappropriate, tried to reduce their mental distress by cognitive dissonance reduction - overly justified their behaviors - everything happened because prisoners were whims or they deserved it. They changed their cognition. o Also role of internalization - participants internalized their prison roles. Prisoners incorporated their roles into beliefs, and let it influence their attitudes/cognitions/behaviours.

folkways

the mildest type of norm, just common rules/manners we are supposed to follow on a day to day base. Traditions individuals have followed for a long time, ex. opening the door, helping a person who's dropped item, or saying thank you. Not engaging results in a consequences that is not severe/consistent. No actual punishment. ▪ Ex: Friend's pants zipper is undone. Tell your friend your zipper is undone (common courtesy) but not telling friends leads to no consequences.

JND, just noticeable difference aka Difference Threshold

the minimum difference we can detect between two stimuli

dominant response

the most common response in a given situation

Yerkes-Dodson Law says what?

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

identification

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos when people act/dress a certain way to be like someone they respect. Will do this as long as they maintain respect for that individual.

Urbanization

the process of a country transitioning to city life

Modeling is what?

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

manifest content (Freud)

the remembered story line of a dream

Foraging

the search for food in animal's environment. Can't survive or reproduce without it

Actual Self

the self one thinks one actually is

Ought Self

the self one thinks one's significant others wants one to be (duties, obligations)

Behavior

the sum coordinated responses of organisms to the internal and external stimuli that they experience

conjuction fallacy

the tendency for people to think two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event

Actor-Observer Bias

the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities

Medicalization

the transformation of a human condition into a matter to be treated by physicians occurs when human conditions previously considered normal get defined as medical conditions and are subject to studies, diagnosis, and treatment. Ex. mental health type issues (sadness/attention), and physical issues like birth. People are over diagnosed (depression/ADD). Sad =/= depressed and can't focus =/= ADD. Birth - women and doctors plan C-section instead of natural births. ▪ "concept of medicalization refers to the process in which something, usually a behavioral problem (such as, for example, alcolism) becomes described and treated as a medical condition when it was not previously conceived in that way.

Companionship support

the type that gives someone sense of social belonging. Companionship while you engage in an activity.

Sociologists have identified 3 types of collective behavior, what are they?

these are behaviors that are not in line with societal norms 1. Fad: fleeting behavior like the "cinnamon challenge" 2. Mass hysteria: groups with fear/anxiety at same time, real or perceived 3. Riots: groups that engage in dangerous behaviors

Stage 1 sleep is dominated by:

theta waves

how do biases effect our decision making?

they prevent us from making correct decision or from changing decisions once they are made

Deindividuation is what?

those in group are more likely to act inappropriately because crowd conceals person's identity. Good example is behavior of some on Black Friday. Presence of large group there is violence (shoppers trample employees, shot shoppers, stolen goods from stores). Presence of large group decreases their inhibition/guilt, hence increases antisocial/deviant behavior. Another example is the internet - anonymous platform causes people to express opinions they typically would not express. (ex. Youtube comments people are nasty, cyber bullying)

fixed-interval schedule

time is constant receives pay check every 2 weeks - in this case, time is constant. Pay doesn't change if he sells 1 car or 100 cars. Less incentive to sell cars. Response rate is slower.

what are cardinal traits?

traits are characteristics that direct most of person's activities - the dominant trait that influence all of our behaviours, including secondary and central traits.

Altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others and acting to help them

encoding

transferring information from the temporary store in working memory into permanent store in long-term memory

explicit memory (declarative aka facts)

type of long term memory that focuses on recalling previous experiences and information. Explicit memory can be divided into two categories, episodic and semantic.

example of Utilitarian Organization

university, government job members are paid/rewarded for their efforts, ex. (receive diploma in exchange for your time)

Cognitive dissonance

unpleasant mental experience of tension resulting from two conflicting thoughts or beliefs can be induced when a person is forced to recognize the inconsistency between his or her beliefs and behaviors.

what is Inattentional blindness - aka Perceptual Blindness

we aren't aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field. "miss something right in front of you" inability to recognize an unexpected object, event, or stimulus that is in 'plain sight'. This is due to a psychological lapse in attention, rather than a defect or deficit in sensory perception. Ex: you can't say where the nearest fire extinguisher is because you fail to notice it because your attention is typically elsewhere. This is true even though fire extinguishers are brightly colored and essential to survival (which should bring them to your attention)

example of educational segregation

we fund schools through property taxes, which is why different districts are funded differently. Residential segregation of education.

Chi-square test

when all variables are categorical, looks at if 2 distributions of categorical data differ from each other. Null hypothesis vs. alternative hypothesis.

nonassociative learning is what?

when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus, ex. habituation and sensitization.

social isolation

when community voluntarily isolates itself from mainstream, based on their own religious/cultural/other beliefs.

associative learning

when one event is connected to another, ex. classical and operant conditioning.

Front stage

when people are in a social setting. Ex. someone watches baseball with friends even if he doesn't like baseball.

Informational Social Influence is what?

when we conform because we feel others are more knowledgeable than us, because we think they know something we don't. ▪ Ex: when you move to a new place. You would ask people around you (who lived in this place for a longer period) of things to do /places to eat and go along with their suggestions.

which matter gray or white contains myelinated axons?

white matter

tell me the locations, in versus out, for white and grey matter in the brain and spinal cord

white: in middle of spinal cord(axons go down tracts in the middle of spinal cord), outer in brain grey: in brain, outer in spinal cord

public declaration

you're more likely to follow through if you've told everyone

publically conform

you're outwardly changing but inside you maintain core beliefs. You only outwardly agree with the group. ▪ Ex: you agree to the shock color in the group situation but you also know that the treats is a more effective route. You are not convinced. When you are alone you train the dog with a treat.

For a view point to influence a groups final decision making...

• All the view do not have equal influence. • Viewpoint is shared by majority of members of the group • Arguments made tend to favour popular/majority group view • Any criticism is directed towards minority view

Irving Janis symptoms of group think. There is alot, so try to pick out 1 key word from each.

•"Invulnerability" Illusion, TOO optimistic, like superman •Collective rationalization: disregard warnings •Moral reasoning •Stereotyping outgroups •Direct pressure on dissenters •Self censorship: tendency of members to restrain their own views if they fear they may be dissenting. •Illusion of unanimity •"Mindgaurds" put in place to stop outside views/opinions from coming in

Definitions of high culture, normative culture, and popular culture

•High culture: refers to patterns of experiences and attitudes that exist in the highest class segments of a society. This tends to be associated with wealth and formality. • Normative culture: refers to values and behaviors that are in line with larger societal norms (like avoidance of crime). • Popular culture refers to patterns of experiences and attitudes that exist within mainstream normative society - like attending a game or watching a parade.

with regards to theories of emotions, what are the 3 components that emotions are made up from?

•cognitive: subjective experiences, how you interpret •physiological: how your body reacts (hypothalamus) •behavioral: how you express those emotions