Memory Exam 1 Review

Chunking

- Several pieces of information together to make one piece in memory. - Can increase the total amount of info remembered

Priming effect (usually unconscious)

- associated priming - repetitive priming Priming is a part of the implicit memory

Nairne's (1988; 1990) Feature Model

-The Feature Model: explains why similar items interfere with each other more -Each memory is represented by a set of features, which are either: -Modality-Dependent: Features inherently tied to the presentation modality (e.g. the color of a font) Anything that is physical -Modality-Independent: Features that aren't linked to how the item was presented (e.g. the meaning of the word presented) Non-physical -Forgetting depends on interference, with new items disrupting the features of earlier items when there are feature overlaps

Visual versus Auditory Memory

-Visual Sensory Memory -Iconic Memory: The early, fast, and automatic storage of visual forms -Recognition Buffer: Information from iconic memory is transferred to this more durable memory store at a relatively slower rate, where it becomes available for report -Images presented earlier in a visual study list enjoy a primacy advantage for accuracy -The BEGINNING part usually gets into your visual sensory memory first. -Visual Sensory Memory -Iconic Memory: The early, fast, and automatic storage of visual forms -Recognition Buffer: Information from iconic memory is transferred to this more durable memory store at a relatively slower rate, where it becomes available for report -Images presented earlier in a visual study list enjoy a primacy advantage for accuracy -The BEGINNING part usually gets into your visual sensory memory first.

Anterograde Amnesia

After accident you can't remember new information.

RI vs Pi

Depends on what you are being tested.

Retrograde Amnesia

Failure to remember anything before the accident. (storage failure, consolidation period)

How generalizable are the results of Ebbinghaus's results from his experiment given that he used non-sense syllables and himself as the only subject for his experiment? Did he underestimate or overestimate our normal memory?

He underestimated our memory.

The poor memory of the day group compared to the night group is do to RI or Pi?

RI

Memory loss - Personality disorders

The reason why we have a consistent personality is because of our memory. Personality disorders are basically a memory disorder.

TMS CONS

a)Hard to reach deep sites in the brain. b)The affected area sometimes is not precisely bounded. c)Somewhat invasive. d)Sometimes can caused prolonged brain function disruption, including seizure.

The Visual-Spatial Distinction (dissociation)

nAdditional evidence for the visual-spatial dissociation comes from Klauer and Zhao (2004). When a visual interfering task during the retention interval involves: nMovement processing (e.g. select static asterisk): nMemory for spatial location of dots is diminished nMemory for Chinese ideographs is not interfered w spatial memory nColor processing (e.g. select blue from red): nMemory for Chinese ideographs is diminished nMemory for spatial location of dots is not

The Importance of Double-Dissociations

nAllows one to infer the partial independence of cognitive functions underlying the two cognitive tasks nHelps to rule out the possibility that a single patient group cannot perform one task simply because it is more difficult than the other task

Long-Term Recency

nBaddeley and Hitch's (1977) Rugby Study nQuestion: "Which teams have you played this past season?" nResults: nRecency effect: Recent games were recalled best nNumber of games played, rather than absolute elapsed time, was the best positive predictor of forgetting (again, a fact supporting the interference rather than decay theory of forgetting).

Irrelevant Sound Effects

nBoth meaningful and irrelevant/nonsense, language-like distractor sounds disrupt short-term retention nThe disruption occurs regardless of the presentation method (visual or auditory) for the studied items nMusic also disrupts retention, with vocals being more disruptive than purely instrumental tunes nThe effect does not appear to be caused by masking, as distractor intensity is irrelevant and un-patterned (e.g. white) noise does not produce the effect. nRecall that sensory memory is vulnerable to masking which is a physical process. This is STM. The interference occurs at a post-sensory level. nLoudness matters, the louder the sound the more it distracts

Verbal Short-Term Memory

nBy the end of the 1960s, evidence suggested STM was not a unitary purely storing system, but involved a number of interacting working systems nBaddeley and Hitch's (1974) multi-component model of working memory proposed, among other things: nA phonological loop, with two subcomponents: nShort-term store: Limited in capacity; items decay within a few seconds unless rehearsed (passively store it). nArticulatory rehearsal process: Saying the word to oneself aloud or subvocally serves to refresh the memory traces in the short-term store (actively refresh it).

Chaining

nChaining: One possible method of remembering the order of the items in which an individual links each item to the next in the series nChaining predicts that forgetting one link would prohibit any further recall in the chain nHowever, forgetting a link does not turn out to be as catastrophic as chaining theory predicts (1996 "Unchained memory: Error patterns rule out chaining models of immediate serial recall") n

Neuropsychological Studies of Memory

nDisease-Related Studies nLess precise because diseases affect a wide area across different areas nInvolves characterizing the deficits and preserved abilities in patients suffering from specific diseases (e.g. Alzheimer's) nPros: nProvides a direct route to advancing diagnosis and treatment of diseases nCons: nOften difficult to separate memory impairments from other deficits related to the disease nLesion Studies nInvolves patients with brain damage to relatively focal regions (like hippocampal lesions) nPros: nHelps identify causal links between brain and behavior nCons: nSuch cases are relatively rare nLesions are almost never entirely confined to a specific region of interest and/or patients' deficits are not entirely pure

Critics of Peterson's Theory

nImportant findings not compatible with the decay theory: nPeterson blames timing to fault/loss in memory nSeveral problems with his method: 1.Counting not only prevents rehearsing but actually creates interference. There is no way to create a vacuum mental state. 2.Proactive interference (RI) 3.Release from proactive interference (PI) -evidence against decay trace nWhen you switch to a different area. Example: professor always confused names here in US, but one summer he went to Taiwan to teach, and the names didn't get mixed up bc they where completely different than in US. 4.Interference plays a more important role in forgetting than decay Peterson's goal was only to not let you rehearse three letter but he did more than that by asking you to count backwards

Memory In and Out of the Laboratory

nResearching in the Laboratory nPros: nMore experimental control (less confounds) nSimpler and easier to do. nCons: nOverrepresentation of certain participant populations nReduced generalizability of findings to real environment (e.g., Ebbinghaus) nLess ecological validity (external validity) nResearching in the Real World nPros: nValidates theory by testing various populations nImproving learning and treatment nHighlights important gaps in current understanding and advances future development. Stimulate new theories and research nCons: nLess experimental control; more confounding variables

Short-Term Memory (STM) and Working Memory (WM)

nShort-Term Memory (STM): The temporary storage of small amounts of material over brief delays. nOnce information is stored in STM it's more immune to physical masking nWhile initially thought to be primarily verbal in nature (info is stored in the form of sound), STM can actually hold material from most any modality, including from the visual-spatial, olfactory, and cutaneous (haptic, tactile). nRehearsal is often used to maintain info in the short-term store. Rehearse once every two or three seconds nWorking Memory (WM): A new concept replacing the traditional STM. STM is not just a temporary storing place. It is both for storing and processing info. WM is a more appropriate concept than STM.

Errors

nShort-term memory for consonants appears partially reliant on an acoustic code, even when the letters are presented visually (Conrad, 1964) nAs the acoustic information rapidly fades from the short-term store, items become confused for consonants sharing a similar sound (e.g. P instead of V), rather than a similar visual form (P instead of R) nFor this reason, memory is improved for lists of consonants with dissimilar sounds nPhonological Similarity Effect: When information is similar in sound we tend to make more errors. ne.g. recall for CVDPGT is worse than for KRXLYF nThis is called phonological confusion errors. If you are remembering a list of letters the first thing you will do is rehearse it. The proof that we use phonological codes is that we make phonological confusion errors.

The Peterson Task and Interference

nSimple Trace Decay cannot explain some results: nForgetting is nonexistent on the very first trial of the Peterson Task, but builds up over trials nSuggests the effect is caused by interference from previous trials, which are typically similar to subsequent ones nSupporting the interference perspective, recall declines with increasing numbers of trials involving similar materials (i.e. from the same category, like "PETS") but memory rebounds after the category changes (e.g. to "COLORS")

The Visual (shapes of object)-Spatial (locations) Distinction

nSpatial and visual span are thought to reflect dissociable processes because when a filler task during the retention interval involves: nSpatial processing (e.g. sequentially tapping a series of keys): nCorsi Span is more disrupted nVisual processing (e.g. viewing shapes): nPattern Span is more disrupted

Visual Search Task

nTask: nParticipants scan an array looking for a target nResults: nSpatial memory is impaired by visually scanning array nObject memory (color) is not affected by scanning nConcurrently remembering objects did not affect target search speed nConcurrently maintaining spatial location slows down target search speed Spatial location: dorsal area of the right hemisphere (back) Object memory: ventral area of the right hemisphere (bottom)

Primacy Effect and LTM

nThe primacy effect depends principally on long-term memory (LTM) nIt is likely related to the tendency to rehearse the first few items during their initial presentation and throughout the remainder of the study list nRehearsed items have a better chance of entering LTM, making them available for later recall

Explaining the Recency and the Peterson Effects (memory decline with increase in trials)

nThe recency effect can happen even in long-term memory, seeming to defy classification as a purely short-term memory phenomenon nInstead, the effect reflects a particular retrieval strategy: the most recent events are the most readily available to recall. nCrowder's (1976) telephone post metaphor: nThe apparent distance between successive posts is greatest for those nearest (i.e. most recent) to the viewer, making them more discriminable nThe most recent item in immediate recall can easily be distinguished from the rest of the items and recalled, but with increasing delays, the discriminability is progressively reduced nThus, the primacy and recency effects are not the results of one coming from LTM and the other from STM. nIt has to do with the way our memory represents serial items. Memory does not copy things in a physically identical way. It is very similar to visually looking at a series of items. It transforms the structure and appearance of things. n Research found that discrimination ratio predicts the probability of recall of an item. Discrim Ratio = Interitem interval (the temporal distance between an item and its nearest competitor) divided by Retention interval. nLong Interpresentation interval (IPI) by Short RI gives a high Discrimination Ratio which gives you better memory.

Neuroimaging Techniques

nThe use of newly developed technologies that allow researchers to study the structure and function of the brain by tracking indicators of brain activity

Visual Short-Term Memory

nVisual short-term memory can be divided into two aspects: nSpatial STM (spatial locations): Where was the yellow dot located on the line? nObject STM (object characteristics): What shape was located on the X? How large was the shape?

The Peterson Task and Trace Decay

nWhen a distractor task (e.g., counting) is introduced following a study item, memory for item is diminished nThe impairment arises even when the distractor is designed to be unrelated to the study list (e.g. counting backwards after studying a list of letters), thereby minimizing interference nTherefore, the Petersons concluded that short-term memory traces decay as a function of time (i.e. simple trace decay). On average, STM duration is 18 sec. Two important purposes for the Peterson task 1.Peterson wanted to know if STM would disappear over time 2. if it disappears over time, what is the duration? How long will it last if you do not rehearse STMT. They found that the longer you count backwards the less you can remember of the three letters. 18 seconds later you cant recall. STM declines when you do not refresh.

articulatory suppression effect

the finding that people have poorer memory for a set of words if they are asked to say something while trying to remember the words

PET Scan:

•-If you are asked to read a poem, and somebody is looking at PET scan of your brain the parts of the brain that are doing the work consumes more fuels. •The harder the area of the brain is working the more fuels it consumes. •-The fuels of the brain is from glucose that comes from blood stream. •The brain consumes 20% of all the sugars you get from food. •The more active the neurons of an area, the more glucose they are burning. •Does not give you very good timing info. It takes some time for the brain to consume glucose, by the time it becomes bright, the activity is already gone. •It tells you precisely what areas of the brain are doing the work. •High Spatial resolution but low temporal resolution. (Like stars) •Risk: inject radioactive glucose into people's body

Structural imaging

•Computerized tomography (CT): Taking multiple X-ray pictures of the brain from different viewpoints and having computer construct a 3-D brain representation. • •Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): put the person's head in a strong magnetic; scanner emits radio waves; waves absorbed by brain; creates a 3-D image of the brain; unlike CT, no radiation used. -Disadvantage: extremely expensive

Three basic memory processes: (information processing approach)

•Encoding • •Storing • •Retrieving • Each is a necessary process for a successful remembering experience. •In late 1960s and early 1970s, the modal model of memory: environment à sensation à perception à STM à LTM (info flows in one direction). • •Now, the new concept: bidirectional flow of info.

FMRI method

•Measures the amount of oxygen the brain consumed. In this method you do not need to inject radioactive glucose into someone's body. •Much better than PET •Has high spatial and temporal resolution

Sensory Memory (continued)

•Partial Report: If you are asked to recall only one row. 80—85% of the whole chart. • •When the subject is asked to report the whole chart. The subject can then only recall the first row. •The first characteristic of the sensory memory is that its duration is very short. (within one second) •If you delay the time, the number of characteristics you remember is less •Second point: if you use a partial report people can report up to 8-9 out of ten. If you ask people to do whole report they can only recall first row because image won't stay

Multi-voxel pattern analysis (MVPA)

•The scanned image can be divided into many small areas known as voxels. •A computer can detect common features or regularities among the voxels in a response to a particular stimulus •(e.g., when looking at a face vs a cat) and determine what kind of stimuli generated the pattern of voxels. •So it is a little like computer doing "mind reading". •One example is that the MVPAs are different for telling a truth and a lie. However the computer cannot tell the contents of the truth or lie.

What is memory? Why do we need memory?

•What is memory? -A record of what we experienced in the past •Why do we need memory? -Without memory we cannot learn anything. The reason we can learn something is because you have a record to build on. If you don't have memory then everyday is the first day. Without memory we cant have a coherent personality.

Functional imaging: observe brain in action

•What kinds of activities correlate with what mental activities. •Electrode implants in the brain: not very practical for humans (brain itself has no pain sensation) but used in animals. When electric current is sent, patient reports specific episodic memories.

Single Neuron Approach

•You can find out very precisely what a single neuron in the brain is doing •Cannot be done to humans because it involves the insertion of a needle into the brain. Tiny electro to touch a neuron. •Hubel and Wesel -Feature detector: a neuron that its specific function is detecting a very specific feature •An ideal lesion study (with high-precision lesion or destroying a highly circumscribed region) can only be done with an animal and even this will be objected to by animal advocates or humane societies. •An ideal lesion study (with high-precision lesion or destroying a highly circumscribed region) can only be done with an animal and even this will be objected to by animal advocates or humane societies.

Verbal Learning Approach

•learn lists of words and non words. Emphasizes S-R association. Also known as Associationism. Consistent with the S-R doctrine of behaviorism. •W1= S. W2=RS. W3=R

The Human Brain

--Amygdala: Emotional center --Thalamus: Information relaying center --Hippocampus: Memory section --Cerebellum: performs muscular coordination functions --Spinal Cord: --Frontal Lobe: controlling our behavior, logic, reasoning, decision making, attention --Parietal Lobe: Attention orientation --Occipital Lobe: Visual cortex --Temporal Lobe: hearing and listening, can sometimes control attention

What is a suffix effect?

--Has the capacity to wipe out the recency effect. --Also called the physical masking process. If the last sound are similar in frequency to the last words it is physically masking or wiping out the sound of the last words. If it is a sound that is not similar to the words then it does not affect the recency effect. --Poorer memory for a series of items if there is an additional sound at the end of the list

•Chain Association / Linear Structure

-Direct Association =The association between W1 and W2 is direct. Association between W2 and W3 is direct and etc. -Remote Association= Association between W1 and W3, W3 and W5 BUT also between W4 and W5

•How did he prove remote association?

-He learned a list of words 1-9 -Created a derived list from the original list. -The DERIVED LIST was easier to learn than a new list

Word-Length Effect Alternative Explanations

-Interference: Longer words are more complex, leading to greater interference and forgetting -Fragmentation: Longer words are composed of more parts and are vulnerable to fragmentation and forgetting (Second reason why longer words are easier to forget.) - the word has more syllables -In other words, it may not be because it takes longer to say longer words, but simply because longer words provide more chances to make errors (with more syllables, chances of errors increases).

•Why did Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve show that he had forgotten so much in the first hours?

-It was nonsense -PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE: what you learned earlier can interfere with what you learn later •You had a student named Mariana and now you call your current student whose name is Maria, Mariana •(he learned so many nonsense syllables that he starts confusing them because they all sound similar) •If you are tested of current info you are subject to proactive -RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE: if you are tested about info you learned earlier, the current information can interfere. •If you are tested on earlier info you are subject to retroactive interference

One memory or many?

-Many memory systems. We know this because we have seen dissociation between different memory systems. Some factors or variables can affect our memory system in many ways. -Example: Brain injury can cause amnesia. Person may not be able to tell you their birthday or what they ate this morning. However he or she will still be able to brush teeth, or ride a bicycle. •Factual memory or declarative memory is damaged •Procedural memory is not damaged -More resilient type of memory •Semantic memory: knowledge of general things in the world •Episodic Memory: Episodes in your life (Affected more than semantic)

Sensory Memory (Sperling)

-The earliest stage of memory before the information is fully processed. (ECHO: sound you haven't processed yet.) -The perceptual system stores the most recently acquired static image just long enough to integrate it with the next, in order to create apparent motion -Sperling (1960) investigated the number of items available for report in visual memory by randomly sampling items from a matrix of letters presented to participants --Recall decreases when: --The delay between the original presentation and the signal indicating which items from the matrix to report is increased --When a visual mask (e.g. a bright flash of light or a contoured pattern) is presented following the matrix display, thereby interfering with the memory trace *Example: When a person says what? Right after you ask them something. Then without you repeating the question they answer. *Icon: visual image you haven't processed yet

the main cause of forgetting seems to be other information that is interfering with the first information, rather than the time per se.

-time itself does not seem to cause forgetting. That is, if you memorize only 3 letters (trigram), and you count and count even for 20 seconds, you still remember the three letters. nBut if you remember many sets of three letters already, then counting for more time is detrimental to your memory of the 3 letters. nThus, the main cause of forgetting seems to be other information that is interfering with the first information, rather than the time per se.

Digit Span

Digit span measures our largest capacity of our short term memory because it requires you to simply repeat back a sequence of a number and nothing else. The Simple Span. When you measure the working memory span you have to do a more complex task because working memory involves keeping information and working on it. The Complex Span The limit is usually 7 digits for most people. We say our STM span is 7+1 or 7-1. nDigit span is limited to about six to seven digits for most people nSome recall as few as four or as many as ten plus nThough classically tested with digits, other stimuli (e.g. letters or words) can be used to assess memory span nMemory span is dependent on: nRemembering what the items are (item memory) nRemembering the order of the items (order memory) Sub digit: sub span sequence it is below the digit spam of most people

Dissociation: single vs double. Why is double dissociation important.?

If you don't have a double dissociation you can say you have one memory, and when we lose memory we always loose the more difficult part first when you have one dissociation. Double dissociation means that they are separate (example: two languages) So you can loose either one without loosing the other one.

Figure 2.5 Different 3D views of regions showing relatively higher activity during truth telling (green) or lying (red).

When somebody is telling a lie, you see a lot of activities in the frontal lobe especially left frontal lobe. When somebody is telling the truth there is a lot of activity in different areas of the brain. Telling a lie involves a lot of reasoning and logical thinking.

Why a Recency Effect?

nEarly interpretation (popularized in the 1960s): nRecency, unlike primacy, was thought to reflect the output of a temporary short-term store nA short distractor task following the study list should disrupt the short-term store, eliminating the recency effect nProblems with the early interpretation: nWhile a short distractor task after the entire list has been presented does wipe out the recency effect as expected, presenting the same distractor task after each and every item in the list produces a recency effect nRecency effects arise even at extensive intervals (e.g. months), long after items can be assumed to have fallen out of the short-term store. This has been called long-term recency

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

nExplicit/Declarative Memory: Long-term memory for facts and events, not personal nEpisodic Memory: Memory for specific events that can be vividly recalled through what Tulving calls "mental time travel (mentally go back to re-live a past experience)" ne.g. I celebrated my last birthday in Madrid nSemantic Memory: General knowledge of the world and society ne.g.The capital of Spain is Madrid nImplicit/Non-Declarative Memory: Long-term memory for information: Unconscious part of LTM nProcedural memory ne.g. Motor skills like learning to ride a bike; classical conditioning; and priming nPriming: Unconscious facilitation in repeating something previous encountered or related to previously encountered event. nAssociated priming nRepetition priming n

Chunking

nGeorge Miller suggested that memory span is not limited to a certain number of items, but by the number of chunks nChunking: Grouping a series of apparently random items into a smaller number of meaningful segments to enhance recall nChunking can be induced by altering prosody in presenting the items (e.g., intonation, rhythmic pauses). In visual presentation, they can be demarked by spaces. nRandom digits are often best chunked into groups of about three items, as a telephone numbers are presented Every time you are using your STM you are getting help from LTM A chunk is a group of items that are put together to form one item. Culture and Language can affect STM

Explaining the Phonological Similarity Effect

nItems that share phonological features are more likely to be confused nAuditory speech is automatically fed into the phonological store nNameable, visually presented items (e.g. digits, letters, or objects) are typically fed into the phonological store as well, through a process called articulation nRepeatedly saying or subvocalizing an unrelated word (a process called articulatory suppression) blocks the conversion of visually presented items into the phonological store nThus, articulatory suppression eliminates the phonological similarity effect for visually presented items, while also reducing overall recall due to the disruption of the sub vocal rehearsal system

Neuropsychological Approaches to the Study of STM

nLesion Studies: nPatient HM (with a bilateral hippocampal resection—remove part of the area) and other dense amnesiacs have a symptom profile, suggesting, among other things, that STM and LTM are independent: nImpairments in: nAcquiring new episodic and semantic memories into LTM nPrimacy in free recall (possibly relying on some form of LTM) nSpared ability: nRecall events prior to the resection (explicit LTM retrieval) nLearn new motor skills (implicit LTM) (unconscious memory) nDigit span (STM) nPeterson task (STM) nRecency in free recall (replying on immediate memory)

Object STM

nObject STM: nMemory for what objects are like nFades more rapidly than spatial STM, but remains robust over brief delays. nCapacity is about 4 objects nObject STM is limited by the number of whole objects, not by the number of features/complexity of each object: nThe number of visual features (e.g. color, shape, orientation, texture) for each object does not affect retention nFor example, remembering 6 complex objects car, computer, airplane, train, carrier, tank is no easier and no more difficult than remembering 6 simple objects cup, shoe, paper, book, dish, key. It's the number of objects, not how complex each object is that affects memory. nPeople can hold about four whole objects before performance begins to decline nArticulatory suppression can be used to demonstrate that object STM does not rely on verbalization. nIt does not affect it because you are using two different hemispheres

Amnesia

nOne indication that long-term memory can be subdivided into distinct systems, e.g., explicit vs implicit, episodic vs semantic, comes from the study of amnesiacs nAmnesiacs typically: nHave significant impairments in episodic encoding/retrieval and relative less impairment in semantic memory. nHave difficulties forming new semantic memories nThis particular finding suggests that semantic memories are normally formed by generalizing information first encoded episodically. One can have memory of a specific episode but cannot form new semantic memory. nPreserved ability to acquire and utilize implicit memories but severely impaired explicit memory.

Neuropsychological Deficits in Verbal STM

nPatient KF and other patients showed the opposite pattern of memory problems, completing the double dissociation between STM and LTM: nImpairments in: nPeterson task (STM) nRecency in free recall nSpared ability for: nLTM So, some patients show impairments only in STM, others show impairments only in LTM. This is called a double dissociation. This proofs a dissociation between STM and LTM

Further Dissociations: deficit in phonological STM:

nPatients like KF and PV have a specific deficit in phonological STM: nTheir normally abysmal digit span improves markedly when presented visually rather than verbally (dissociation between verbal and visual info) nThey fail to show phonological similarity or word-length effects in verbal STM (since they lose the verbal processing capability) nThey have a reduced recency effect in immediate verbal free recall but normal long-term recency (the graph would not be U shaped it would be more like L shape) nIndicates that the capacity to use the (long term) recency strategy is unimpaired, but their capacity to use it to boost immediate verbal memory is impaired

nspecific deficit in either visual or spatial STM

nPatients like LH and LE have a specific deficit in either visual or spatial STM nPersevered spatial STM; impaired visual STM: nPatient LH has difficulty remembering colors and shapes, but has excellent memory for spatial information (e.g. locations and routes) nPatient LE has excellent spatial memory but impaired visual memory (e.g. ability to draw from memory) nPreserved visual STM; impaired spatial STM: nPatient MV, who had right frontal damage, has normal visual memory performance but impaired spatial abilities (e.g. Corsi block tapping)

Phonological Similarity Effect

nPhonological Similarity Effect: Memory span is greatly reduced for similar sounding items, much more than it is for lists with similar meanings nList 1 (Easy to remember/dissimilar phonology and semantics): nPIT, DAY, COW, PEN, HOT nList 2 (Only slightly harder than List #1/similar semantics) : nHUGE, WIDE, BIG, LONG, TALL nList 3 (Much harder than List #1/similar phonology) : nCAT, MAP, MAN, CAP, MAD nThus, phonology plays a very important role in STM, although sound is not the only form in which we retain info in STM. nOlfactory, cutaneous, visual image form, nIn what other form can information be kept in STM? nWhen the task relies on LTM, however, semantic similarity becomes much more relevant than phonological similarity n semantic: remembering the meaning rather than the actual word.

Free Recall Task

nPopularized in the 1960s nInvolves asking participants to recall studied items in any order nRecall probability for a given item declines as list length increases nThe absolute number of items recalled increases with list length nPrimacy effect: The first few items on a list enjoy a recall advantage nRecency effect: The last few items on a list are very well recalled nThe recency effect is eliminated by a brief delay filled with a distractor task People will most likely remember that last items (recency) then they might remember the first one (primacy) but it is difficult to recall items in the middle. U shape curve. Long term recency. The absolute number of items that you can remember increases with the increase in the amount of the list, but in percentage it goes down.

The Visual-Spatial Distinction

nSetup: nA series of wooden blocks is placed in front of participant nTask: nExperimenter taps a number of blocks in sequence, which participant must replicate nCorsi Span: nMaximum number of taps at which point performance breaks down) is about five blocks (about two fewer than digit span) nSetup: nA series of increasingly larger matrices, each with half the cells filled and half blank nTask: nParticipant must remember and mark in filled cells on an empty matrix nPattern Span: nThe maximum size of the matrix after which performance breaks down

Ch 3 summary

nShort-Term Memory (STM): Storage of small amounts of information over brief periods of time nTasks: Digit span (six to seven digits); Word span (smaller capacity) nPerformance is limited by the number of chunks rather than items nWorking Memory (WM): The capacity to both store and process small amounts of information, serving as a mental workspace for performing complex tasks nDiscussed further in Chapter 3 nPeterson Short-Term Forgetting Effect: An intervening distractor task preventing rehearsal will lead to forgetting nOriginally this was interpreted in terms of trace decay nHowever, since the very first item showed little forgetting, interference, rather than trace decay, was later implicated nFree Recall Task: Participants asked to remember previously presented items in any order nRecency advantage for last items presented is lost within seconds if rehearsal is prevented but is robust against numerous factors that influence earlier items nRecency effect likely reflects a retrieval strategy, which can be applied across a range of different memory systems nVerbal STM: nInfluenced by phonological similarity and word length nModels attempting to explain Verbal STM: nThe phonological loop hypothesis, which assumes a temporary store and an articulatory rehearsal process that can be interrupted by articulatory suppression nThe Feature hypothesis, which is mainly influenced by LTM models nThe Object-Oriented Episodic Record (O-OER) model, which is mainly influenced by irrelevant sound effects nThe SIMPLE model, which is strongly influenced by the need to account for recency nVisuo-spatial STM comprises: nVisual STM: nCapacity of up to four objects, after which performance declines nThe number of features constituting an object appears unlimited nSpatial STM: nShows forgetting over a period of seconds nVisual and spatial components have been proposed as part of working memory's counterpart of the phonological loop, called the Visuo-spatial sketchpad (discussed in Chapter 3) nNeuropsychological Dissociations nVerbal STM appears can be dissociated from both LTM and visual STM nOther patients have selective deficits in either the visual store (e.g. pattern span) or spatial memory (Corsi block tapping task), suggesting that they depend on at least two distinct processes

Short-Term Memory and Working Memory

nShort-Term Memory (STM): involving the capacity to store small amounts of information over brief intervals, tested immediately or after a short delay Emphasizes the storage function. nPart of the working memory system nOften measured by digit span nWorking Memory (WM): allows for the temporary storage and processing or manipulating of information to allow for reasoning, learning, and comprehension ncomplex reasoning and learning require a mental workspace that can hold/manipulate information nOften measured by working memory span (will explain in a later chapter) Short term memory - retaining function of the memory Working memory includes the retaining function and the processing function. How do you measure the largest short term memory spam, as the largest number of items you can temporarily hold in your STM? Typically it is measured with digits.

Electroencephalography (EEG)

nSince the early 1900s, researchers have used electrodes placed on the scalp to record the electrical signals generated by the brain's neurons nThe characteristics of the continuous brainwaves can help identify abnormal brain activity and different stages of sleep and arousal nBy dividing the continuous wave into segments called evoked response potentials or event-related potentials (ERPs), each beginning with a particular event, one can characterize the response elicited by that particular event (time-link an event to a particular component of the waves) nLie detector example nWhen the big wave goes up it is called a P (positive) nWhen wave goes down it is called N. nThe number after the letter represents milliseconds. It is the response time of the brain. •The length of a wave is how many cycles you see within a certain period of time. When the wave is short you see many cycles within a period of time. When the wave is long you probably see around 3 cycles within that period of time. •Short wave is usually high frequency: awake and relaxed •Stage 4 is the deepest sleep the brain waves are slower and longer •When people are dreaming the brain waves are similar to an awake person. nPros: nMillisecond high temporal resolution nRelatively low cost to perform and non-invasive nCons: nInability to precisely locate the brain region generating the recorded signal nLow spatial resolution

Spatial STM

nSpatial STM: nMemory for where things are located in space nLasts for about 30 seconds without interference or active maintenance nRetention declines when the retention interval is filled with other mental activities. nA spatial filler task is more interfering than a nonspatial activity nForgetting increases with greater complexity of the filler task nVulnerability to interference may reflect the need to maintain a spatial framework in order to precisely locate an object nSimply making eye movements in a visual search task during retention interval is enough to disrupt the spatial framework nThe mind's eyes and our physical eyes are replying on the same area in the brain (Occipital lobe). When the physical eyes are searching an area, it interferes with our mind's eye's searching or retaining the info we saw earlier. nIt is easier to make memory errors because you are using the same area of the brain

Factors not Influencing recency effects

nThe following factors, known to affect LTM, also influence performance on recall of the early and middle parts of study lists; the Recency Effect is largely immune to these factors: 1.Presentation Rate: Slower presentation enhances recall ability of items 2.Word Frequency: More familiar (frequent) words are easier to recall 3.Image Ability: Words that are easier to visualize are easier to recall-also called the word concrete effect 4.Age: Younger adults remember more than children/elderly 5.Physiological State: Drugs such as marijuana and alcohol impair performance nYou are still able to recall the last words despite these factors because of the recency effect or the echo effect. The last words are echoing in your ear. The residual sound effect is still there nThis finding led to the idea that the primacy effect originates from LTM and the recency effect from the STM. nHowever, further research revealed facts not compatible with this idea. nAn idea that proofs this theory wrong is the idea that there is LTM recency effect. nWhen you try to remember the presidents of the US and you can recall the most recent presidents, that is something that has been in your long term memory not on your STM. nSee the next several slides for more details.

Word-Length Effect

nWord-length effect: Recall decreases as word length (the length of time it takes to say the word) increases nRule of thumb: People can remember about as many words as they can say in 2 seconds nWhy? 1.It takes longer to say longer words in order to rehearse them, so more trace decay/forgetting will occur during that time 2.It also takes longer to recall lengthy words on the final test, compounding the effect nArticulatory suppression eliminates the word-length effect for both spoken and visually presented items because it blocks rehearsal of both types

Nairne's (1988; 1990) Feature Model: Evaluated

nit is able to account for: nThe phonological similarity effect: Similar items have more common features, such that they will incorrectly intrude nIrrelevant sound effect: Irrelevant sound during the list presentation adds noise to memory traces. The more similar the irrelevant sounds, the more distracting (feature similarity effects)

Important facts about sensory memory (sensory register):

•1. Very brief duration -No more than 1 sec for icon (visual persistence) -No more than 2 sec for echo (auditory) •2. The consequence of delayed report -Everything goes. It wont stay forever. •3. Larger capacity (compared with STM): -Largest amt. of items you can keep in STM: 7 items -The whole chart of 12 items in first split second is available so capacity is longer •4. Why use partial report rather than whole report? -The sensory memory is too short for you to report. By the time you finish reading the first row the second and third are gone. If I point at a random row, everything is there the first second. -There is no way to record the whole chart. It won't stay there long enough for you to read to the first or second row •5. Visual persistence gives the illusion of a motion picture -This is because of the sensory icon •6. Uninterpreted (precategorical): pre-processed: How do you know? -Because you have not processed

Ebbinghaus:

•19th century in Germany. Pioneer in verbal learning approach, the mainstream memory research in the US in first half of 20th century. Important facts about him: 1.Is considered the father of scientific study of human memory. 1.Scientific method: a method in which you control irrelevant confounding variables. You only let one variable (independent variable) to change 2.His theory is called Associationism (and remote association): Memory is basically a matter of association between one idea and another idea. 3.Nonsense syllables as only materials 1.Syllables that do not have any meaning 2.Reason: he did not want his previous learning experience to confound his memory test result 3.Independent variable: Retention Interval (RI) the period between a participant's exposure to information and being tested for retention of that information. 4. Himself as only subject. 5. Savings in relearning. -He learns a whole list of nonsense syllables, then forgets the list, and then relearns it. The second time he learns it faster -Just because you cannot remember something does not mean you do not have a memory of it. Residual Memory helps in relearning 6. Forgetting curve (how much is left in memory after a variable length of time or retention interval RI). 7. Consequence of continued learning of many nonsense syllables over a long time.

Early Pioneers in Memory Psych

•Gestalt Psych: shifted away from behavior toward mental representations. Was one of the precursors of cognitive psychology. -German Psychologist -Does not agree with chain association or S-R association believes memory is more complex •Bartllet: opposite to Ebbinghaus. Emphasized influence of previous experiences (cultural & social) on memory. Used schemas to explain memory errors. -Memory Schemas -Plane example: Your mind might remember things differently because of your own schemas. •What you learn in society or culture can DISTORT your memory •Information processing approach: Use computer analogy to understand human memory. •Many concepts are borrowed from computer science. -Memory buffer, input, output, encoding, storing, retrieving, etc.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

•Involving delivering an electric current to a particular region of the brain to disrupt or interrupt the function of that particular area and see what mental function is affected. •PRO: This technique reveals whether a particular region is NECESSARY for a particular mental function (note that seeing activities in a brain region does not prove that that region is necessary).