MGMT 326 MidTerm

planning, organizing, leading, controlling

How managers apply the basic functions across resources to advance the organization toward its goals (4)

Perceived threat of loss

If some employees perceive a direct threat to their own career opportunities, they may feel that they need to protect their own prospects by impeding diversity efforts

Fixed-ratio; fixed-interval; variable-ratio; variable-interval

What are the 4 kinds of partial reinforcement?

Physiological needs (sustenance; base salary); Security needs (stability; pension plan); Belongingness needs (friendship; friends in Work Group); Esteem needs (status; job title); Self-actualization needs (achievement; challenging job)

What are the needs listed in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (in order from most to least necessary)

balanced scorecard (BSC)

a relatively structured performance management technique that identifies financial and nonfinancial performance measures and organizes them into a single model

Continuous reinforcement

a schedule in which the desired behavior is reinforced each time that it occurs

Partial reinforcement

a schedule in which the desired behavior is reinforced only part of the time

"Big Five" personality traits

a set of five fundamental traits that are especially relevant to organizations

System

a set of interrelated elements functioning as a whole

Procedural fairness

addresses the fairness of the procedures used to generate the outcome

Emotional intelligence (EI)

an interpersonal capability that includes the ability to perceive and express emotions, to understand and use them, and to manage emotions in oneself and other people

Need

anything an individual requires or wants

Competitive advantage

anything that gives a firm an edge over rivals in attracting customers and defending itself against competition

Outcome

anything that results from performing a particular behavior

Scientific management

approach to motivation that assumes that employees are motivated by money

Hygiene factors

are extrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as pay and job security

Motivation factors

are intrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as achievement and recognition

Administrative model of decision making

argues that managers use bounded rationality, rule of thumb, suboptimizing, and satisficing in making decisions

Prospect theory

argues that when people make decisions under a condition of risk they are more motivated to avoid losses than they are to seek gains

Growth strategy

company expansion organically or through acquisitions

Intention

component of an attitude that guides a person's behavior

Negative affect

comprises feelings of being upset, fearful, and distressed

Intrapersonal value conflict

conflict between the instrumental value of ambition and the terminal value of happiness

Employee engagement

heightened emotional and intellectual connection that an employee has for his/her job, organization, manager, or coworkers that, in turn, influences him/her to apply additional discretionary effort to his/her work

Job design

how organizations define and structure jobs

Bounded rationality

idea that decision makers cannot deal with information about all the aspects and alternatives pertaining to a problem and therefore choose to tackle some meaningful subset of it

Two-factor theory (dual structure theory)

identifies motivation factors, which affect satisfaction, and hygiene factors, which determine dissatisfaction

General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

identifies three stages of response to a stressor: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

Type A personality

impatient, competitive, ambitious, and uptight

Long-term values

include focusing on the future, working on projects that have a distant payoff, persistence, and thrift

Deep-level diversity

individual differences that cannot be seen directly, including goals, values, personalities, decision-making styles, knowledge, skills, abilities, and attitudes

Behavior modification

the application of reinforcement theory to influence the behaviors of people in organizational settings

Organizational citizenship

the behavior of individuals that makes a positive overall contribution to the organization

Ethnocentrism

the belief that one's own language, native country, and cultural rules and norms are superior to all others

Authoritarianism

the belief that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems such as organizations

Equity

the belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others; inequity is the belief that we are being treated unfairly in relation to others

openness

the capacity to entertain new ideas and to change as a result of new information

General mental ability

the capacity to rapidly and fluidly acquire, process, and apply information

Goal specificity

the clarity and precision of a goal

Evidence-based management (EBM)

the commitment to identify and utilize the best theory and data available to make decisions

Condition of risk

the decision maker cannot know with certainty what the outcome of a given action will be but has enough information to estimate the probabilities of various outcomes

Condition of uncertainty

the decision maker lacks enough information to estimate the probability of possible outcomes

Valence

the degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness a particular outcome has for a person

Tolerance for risk (or risk propensity)

the degree to which a person is comfortable with risk and is willing to take chances and make risky decisions

Need for achievement

the desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than was done in the past

Need for power

the desire to control the resources in one's environment

Trust

the expectation that another person will not act to take advantage of us regardless of our ability to monitor or control them

Risk propensity

the extent to which a decision maker is willing to gamble in making a decision

Goal difficulty

the extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort

Goal acceptance

the extent to which a person accepts a goal as his or her own

Goal commitment

the extent to which a person is personally interested in reaching a goal

person-group fit (or person-team fit)

the extent to which an individual fits with the workgroup's and supervisor's work styles, skills, and goals

Locus of control

the extent to which one believes one's circumstances are a function of either one's own actions or of external factors beyond one's control

Power distance (orientation to authority)

the extent to which people accept as normal on unequal distribution of power

Uncertainty avoidance (preference for stability)

the extent to which people feel threatened by unknown situations and prefer to be in clear and unambiguous situations

Masculinity (assertiveness or materialism)

the extent to which the dominant values in a society emphasize aggressiveness and the acquisition of money and other possessions as opposed to concern for people, relationships among people, and overall quality of life

Verification

the final stage of the creative process in which the validity or truthfulness of the insight is determined

person-job fit

the fit between a person's abilities and the demands of the job, and the fit between a person's desires and motivations and the attributes and rewards of a job

person-vocation fit

the fit between a person's interests, abilities, values, and personality and a profession

person-organization fit

the fit between an individual's values, beliefs, and personality and the values, norms, and culture of the organization

Performance-to-outcome instrumentality

the individual's perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain outcomes

Globalization

the internationalization of business activities and the shift toward an integrated global economy

Cognition

the knowledge a person presumes to have about something

Need for affiliation

the need for human companionship

Eustress

the pleasurable stress that accompanies positive events

Outsourcing

the practice of hiring other firms to do work previously performed by the organization itself; when this work is moved overseas, it is often called offshoring

Performance appraisal

the process of assessing and evaluating an employee's work behaviors by measurement

Stereotyping

the process of categorizing or labeling people on the basis of a single attribute

Decision making

the process of choosing from among several alternatives

Planning

the process of determining an organization's desired future position and the best means of getting there

Empowerment

the process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of responsibility and authority

Selective perception

the process of screening out information that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs

extraversion

the quality of being comfortable with relationships

Human relations movement

views organizations as cooperative systems and treats workers' orientations, values, and feelings as important parts of organizational performance

Values

ways of behaving or end-states that are desirable to a person or to a group

Individual-organization value conflict

when an employee's values conflict with the values of the organization

Tiered workforce

when one group of an organization's workforce has a contractual arrangement with the organization objectively different from another group performing the same jobs

Hawthorne effect

when people improve some aspect of their behavior or performance simply because they are being assessed

Social learning

when people observe the behaviors of others, recognize the consequences, and alter their own behavior as a result

Interactional fairness

whether the amount of information about the decision and the process was adequate, and the perceived fairness of the interpersonal treatment and explanations received during the decision-making process

Unequal access to organizational networks

women and minorities are often excluded from organizational networks, which can be important to job performance, mentoring opportunities, and being seen as a candidate for promotion

Telecommuting

work arrangement in which employees spend part of their time working off-site

Compressed work schedule

work schedule in which employees work a full forty-hour week in fewer than the traditional five days

Extended work schedule

work schedule that requires relatively long periods of work followed by relatively long periods of paid time off

Hypothesis

written predictions specifying expected relationships between certain variables

General self-efficacy

your generalized belief that you will be successful at whatever challenges or tasks you might face

Organizational stressors

factors in the workplace that can cause stress

Problem solving

finding the answer to a question

Process-based perspectives

focus on how people behave in their efforts to satisfy their needs

Equity theory

focuses on people's desire to be treated with what they perceive as equity and to avoid perceived inequity

Specialization strategy

focusing on a narrow market segment or niche and pursuing either a differentiation or cost leadership strategy within that market segment

Flexible work schedules (or flextime)

give employees more personal control over the hours they work each day

Nominal group technique

group members follow a generate-discuss-vote cycle until they reach a decision

Interpersonal value conflict

occurs when two different people hold conflicting values

Service organization

one that transforms resources into an intangible output and creates time or place utility for its customers

Self-esteem

our feelings of self-worth and our liking or disliking of ourselves

Instrumental values

our preferred means of achieving our terminal values or our preferred ways of behaving

Prejudice

outright bigotry or intolerance for other groups

Offshoring

outsourcing to workers in another country

Sensing

people are detail-oriented; want & trust facts (Myers-Briggs)

the "like me" bias

people prefer to associate with others they perceive to be like themselves

individual differences

personal attributes that vary from one person to another

Innovation; distribution; speed; convenience; first to market; cost; service; quality; branding

Businesses can choose to pursue competitive advantage by using an array of different sources (9)

realistic job previews (RJPs)

Involve the presentation of both positive and potentially negative information to job candidates

Extroversion/Introversion; Sensing/Intuition; Thinking/Feeling; Judging/Perceiving

The Myers-Briggs four scales

cost leadership; differentiation; specialization

Three primary business strategies are:

Stereotypes

a belief about an individual or a group based on the idea that everyone in a particular group will behave the same way or have the same characteristics

Management by objectives (MBO)

a collaborative goal-setting process through which organizational goals cascade down throughout the organization

Theory

a collection of verbal and symbolic assertions that specify how and why variables are related, and the conditions under which they should and should not relate

Nonprogrammed decision

a decision that recurs infrequently and for which there is no previously established decision rule

Programmed decision

a decision that recurs often enough for a decision rule to be developed

Manufacturing

a form of business that combines and transforms resources into tangible outcomes that are then sold to others

Burnout

a general feeling of exhaustion that develops when an individual simultaneously experiences too much pressure and has too few resources of satisfaction

Delphi technique

a method of systematically gathering judgments of experts for use in developing forecasts

Groupthink

a mode of thinking that occurs when members of a group are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, and the desire for unanimity offsets their motivation to appraise alternative courses of action

360-degree feedback

a performance appraisal method in which employees receive performance feedback from those on all sides of them in the organization

Contingent worker

a person who works for an organization on something other than a permanent or full-time basis

Creativity

a person's ability to generate new ideas or to conceive of new perspectives on existing ideas

Stress

a person's adaptive response to a stimulus that places excessive psychological or physical demands on that person

Task specific self-efficacy

a person's beliefs in his or her capabilities to do what is required to accomplish a specific task

Ethics

a person's beliefs regarding what is right or wrong in a given situation

Attitudes

a person's complexes of beliefs and feelings about specific ideas, situations, or other people

Self-efficacy

a person's confidence in his or her ability to organize & execute the courses of action necessary to accomplish a specific task

Affect

a person's feeling toward something

Effort-to-performance expectancy

a person's perception of the probability that effort will lead to performance

Psychological contract

a person's set of expectations regarding what he or she will contribute to an organization and what the organization, in return, will provide to the individual

Learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential resulting from direct or indirect experience

Classical conditioning

a simple form of learning that links a conditioned response with an unconditioned stimulus

Decision rule

a statement that tells a decision maker which alternative to choose based on the characteristics of the decision situation

Meta-analysis

a statistical technique used to combine the results of many different research studies done in a variety of organizations and for a variety of jobs

Rational decision-making approach

a systematic, step-by-step process for making decisions

Brainstorming

a technique used in the idea-generation phase of decision making that assists in development of numerous alternative courses of action

Machiavellianism

a trait causing a person to behave in ways to gain power and control the behavior of others

Global perspective

a willingness to be open to and learn from the alternative systems and meanings of other people and cultures, and a capacity to avoid assuming that people from everywhere are the same

Perceiving

adaptable, spontaneous, & curious; start many tasks & find difficult to complete them; deadlines meant to be stretched

reward system

all organizational components, including people, processes, rules and procedures, and decision-making activities, involved in allocating compensation and benefits to employees in exchange for their contributions to the organization

flexible rewards system

allows employees to choose the combination of benefits that best suits their needs

Contingency plans

alternative actions to take if the primary course of action is unexpectedly disrupted or rendered inappropriate

Cognitive dissonance

an incompatibility or conflict between behavior and an attitude or between two different attitudes

Coalition

an informal alliance of individuals or groups formed to achieve a common goal

Intuition

an innate belief about something without conscious consideration

Need-based theories

assume that need deficiencies cause behavior

Hierarchy of needs

assumes that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance (Abraham Maslow)

Human resource approach

assumes that people want to contribute & are able to make genuine contributions

the "like me" bias; stereotypes; prejudice; perceived threat of loss; ethnocentrism; unequal access to organizational networks

barriers to inclusion

Reinforcement theory

based on the idea that behavior is a function of its consequences

Job specialization

breaking jobs down to small component tasks and standardizing them across all workers doing those jobs

Social responsibility

businesses living and working together for the common good and valuing human dignity

Acquired needs framework

centers on the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power

neuroticism

characterized by a person's tendency to experience unpleasant emotions such as anger, anxiety, depression, and feelings of vulnerability

Collectivism

characterized by tight social frameworks in which people tend to base their identities on the group or organization to which they belong

Judging

decisive & tend to plan; focus on completing tasks, take action quickly, & want to know essentials; develop plans & follow them, adhering to deadlines (Myers-Briggs)

Customer intimacy

delivering unique and customizable products or services to meet customers' needs and increase customer loyalty

ERG theory

describes existence, relatedness, and growth needs - more than one kind of need may motivate a person at the same time

Fixed-interval

desired behavior is reinforced after a certain amount of time has passed (receiving weekly paychecks)

Fixed-ratio

desired behavior is reinforced after a specified number of correct responses (receiving pay bonuses for every ten error-free pieces made per hour)

Variable-interval

desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed (not knowing when a regional supervisor will visit your location for an inspection)

Variable-ratio

desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of behaviors (a supervisor praises a call center representative after the third call, then the seventh call after that, and then the fourth call after that)

Differentiation strategy

developing a product or service that has unique characteristics valued by customers

Product innovation

developing new products or services

Variety diversity

differences in a certain type or category, including group members' expertise, knowledge, or functional background

Separation diversity

differences in position or opinion among group members reflecting disagreement or opposition - dissimilarity in an attitude or value, for example, especially with regard to group goals or processes

Disparity diversity

differences in the concentration of valuable social assets or resources - dissimilarity in rank, pay, decision-making authority, or status, for example

Post-decision dissonance

doubt about a choice that has already been made

indirect compensation

employee benefits provided as a form of compensation

Extroversion

energized by things & people (Myers-Briggs)

Participation

entails giving employees a voice in making decisions about their own work

Job enrichment

entails giving workers more tasks to perform and more control over how to perform them

Satisficing

examining alternatives only until a solution that meets minimal requirements is found

Individualism

exists to the extent that people in a culture define themselves primarily as individuals rather than as part of one or more groups or organizations

Emotions

intense, short-term physiological, behavioral, and psychological reactions to a specific object, person, or event that prepare us to respond to it

Introversion

interactors, "on the fly" thinkers; energized in ideas, concepts, and abstractions; can be social but need quiet time to recharge batteries; reflective thinkers (Myers-Briggs)

Work-life relationships

interrelationships between a person's work life and personal life

Job enlargement

involves giving workers more tasks to perform

Information processing capacity

involves the manner in which individuals process and organize information

Suboptimizing

knowingly accepting less than the best possible outcome to avoid unintended negative effects on other aspects of the organization

Condition of certainty

manager knows what the outcomes of each alternative of a given action will be and has enough information to estimate the probabilities of various outcomes

Diagnostic skills

the ability to understand cause-and-effect relationships and to recognize the optimal solutions to problems

Operational excellence

maximizing the efficiency of the manufacturing or product development process to minimize costs

Scientific method

method of knowledge generation that relies on systematic studies that identify and replicate a result using a variety of methods, samples, and settings

Short-term values

more oriented toward the past and the present and include respect for traditions and social obligations

Type B personality

more relaxed & easygoing and less overtly competitive than Type A

surface value

objective meaning or worth of a reward

Surface-level diversity

observable differences in people, including race, age, ethnicity, physical abilities, physical characteristics, and gender

Escalation of commitment

occurs when a decision maker stays with a decision even when it appears to be wrong

incentive systems

plans in which employees can earn additional compensation in return for certain types of performance

Workplace bullying

repeated mistreatment of another employee through verbal abuse; conduct that is threatening, humiliating, or intimidating; or sabotage that interferes with the other person's work

conscientiousness

refers to an individual being dependable and organized

Organizational fairness

refers to employees' perceptions of organizational events, policies, and practices as being fair or not fair

Learning style

refers to individual differences and preferences in how we process information when problem solving, learning, or engaging in similar activities

Technology

refers to the methods used to create products, including both physical goods and intangible services

Corporate governance

refers to the oversight of a public corporation by its board of directors

Distributive fairness

refers to the perceived fairness of the outcome received, including resource distributions, promotions, hiring and layoff decisions, and raises

Terminal values

reflect our long-term life goals, and may include prosperity, happiness, a secure family, and a sense of accomplishment

Positive affect

reflects a combination of high energy and positive evaluation characterized by emotions like elation

Organizational commitment

reflects the degree to which an employee identifies with the organization and its goals and wants to stay with the organization

Correlation

reflects the size and strength of the statistical relationship between two variables; ranges from -1 to +1

Tolerance for ambiguity

reflects the tendency to view ambiguous situations as either threatening or desirable

Extrinsic work values

relate to the outcomes of doing work

Intrinsic work values

relate to the work itself

Affectivity

represents our tendency to experience a particular mood or to react to things with certain emotions

benefits

rewards and incentives provided to employees in addition to their wages or salaries

Intuition (Myers-Briggs)

seek out patterns & relationships among facts; trust intuition & look for the "big picture." (Myers-Briggs)

Moods

short-term emotional states that are not directed toward anything in particular

perquisites

special privileges awarded to selected members of an organization, usually top managers

Cost leadership strategy

striving to be the lowest-cost producer for a particular level of product quality

symbolic value

subjective and personal meaning or worth of a reward

Human relations approach

suggests that fostering a sense of employees' inclusion in decision making will result in positive employee attitudes and motivation to work hard

Situational perspective

suggests that in most organizations, situations and outcomes are influenced by other variables

Interactionalism

suggests that individuals and situations interact continuously to determine individuals' behavior

Expectancy theory

suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something and the likelihood they perceive of getting it

Multiple intelligences

suggests that there are a number of distinct forms of intelligence that each individual possesses in varying degrees

Job rotation

systematically moving workers from one job to another in an attempt to minimize monotony and boredom

Interpersonal skills

the ability to effectively communicate with, understand, and motivate individuals and groups

agreeableness

the ability to get along with others

Cultural competence

the ability to interact effectively with people of different cultures

Conceptual skills

the ability to think in the abstract

personality

the relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another

Motivation

the set of forces that leads people to behave in particular ways

Human resource management (HRM)

the set of organizational activities directed at attracting, developing, and maintaining an effective workforce

Perception

the set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information about the environment

Culture

the set of shared values often taken for granted, that help people in a group, organization, or society understand which actions are considered acceptable and which are deemed unacceptable

Technical skills

the skills necessary to accomplish specific tasks within the organization

Insight

the stage in the creative process in which all the scattered thoughts and ideas that were maturing during incubation come together to produce a breakthrough

Incubation

the stage of less intense conscious concentration during which a creative person lets the knowledge and ideas acquired during preparation mature and develop

Organizational behavior (OB)

the study of human behavior in organizational settings, of the interface between human behavior and the organization, and of the organization itself

Group polarization

the tendency for a group's average post-discussion attitudes to be more extreme than its average pre-discussion attitudes

introversion

the tendency to be less comfortable in relationships and social situations

compensation package

the total array of money (wages, salary, commissions), incentives, benefits, perquisites, and awards provided by the organization to an individual

Distress

the unpleasant stress that accompanies negative events

Dependent variable

the variable predicted to be affected by something else

Independent variable

the variable that is predicted to affect something else

Diversity

the variety of observable and unobservable similarities and differences among people

Attribution

the way we explain the causes of our own as well as other people's behaviors and achievements, and understand why people do what they do

Knowledge workers

those employees who add value in an organization simply because of what they know

Dysfunctional behaviors

those that detract from, rather than contribute to, organizational performance

Job sharing

two or more part-time employees sharing one full-time job

Job characteristics theory

uses give motivational properties of tasks and three critical psychological to improve outcomes

Preparation

usually the first stage in the creative process, includes education and formal training

Thinking

value fairness, decide things impersonally based on objective criteria & logic (Myers-Briggs)

Feeling

value harmony & focus on human values & needs as they make decisions or judgments