MGMT 326 MidTerm
planning, organizing, leading, controlling
How managers apply the basic functions across resources to advance the organization toward its goals (4)
Perceived threat of loss
If some employees perceive a direct threat to their own career opportunities, they may feel that they need to protect their own prospects by impeding diversity efforts
Fixed-ratio; fixed-interval; variable-ratio; variable-interval
What are the 4 kinds of partial reinforcement?
Physiological needs (sustenance; base salary); Security needs (stability; pension plan); Belongingness needs (friendship; friends in Work Group); Esteem needs (status; job title); Self-actualization needs (achievement; challenging job)
What are the needs listed in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (in order from most to least necessary)
balanced scorecard (BSC)
a relatively structured performance management technique that identifies financial and nonfinancial performance measures and organizes them into a single model
Continuous reinforcement
a schedule in which the desired behavior is reinforced each time that it occurs
Partial reinforcement
a schedule in which the desired behavior is reinforced only part of the time
"Big Five" personality traits
a set of five fundamental traits that are especially relevant to organizations
System
a set of interrelated elements functioning as a whole
Procedural fairness
addresses the fairness of the procedures used to generate the outcome
Emotional intelligence (EI)
an interpersonal capability that includes the ability to perceive and express emotions, to understand and use them, and to manage emotions in oneself and other people
Need
anything an individual requires or wants
Competitive advantage
anything that gives a firm an edge over rivals in attracting customers and defending itself against competition
Outcome
anything that results from performing a particular behavior
Scientific management
approach to motivation that assumes that employees are motivated by money
Hygiene factors
are extrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as pay and job security
Motivation factors
are intrinsic to the work itself and include factors such as achievement and recognition
Administrative model of decision making
argues that managers use bounded rationality, rule of thumb, suboptimizing, and satisficing in making decisions
Prospect theory
argues that when people make decisions under a condition of risk they are more motivated to avoid losses than they are to seek gains
Growth strategy
company expansion organically or through acquisitions
Intention
component of an attitude that guides a person's behavior
Negative affect
comprises feelings of being upset, fearful, and distressed
Intrapersonal value conflict
conflict between the instrumental value of ambition and the terminal value of happiness
Employee engagement
heightened emotional and intellectual connection that an employee has for his/her job, organization, manager, or coworkers that, in turn, influences him/her to apply additional discretionary effort to his/her work
Job design
how organizations define and structure jobs
Bounded rationality
idea that decision makers cannot deal with information about all the aspects and alternatives pertaining to a problem and therefore choose to tackle some meaningful subset of it
Two-factor theory (dual structure theory)
identifies motivation factors, which affect satisfaction, and hygiene factors, which determine dissatisfaction
General adaptation syndrome (GAS)
identifies three stages of response to a stressor: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
Type A personality
impatient, competitive, ambitious, and uptight
Long-term values
include focusing on the future, working on projects that have a distant payoff, persistence, and thrift
Deep-level diversity
individual differences that cannot be seen directly, including goals, values, personalities, decision-making styles, knowledge, skills, abilities, and attitudes
Behavior modification
the application of reinforcement theory to influence the behaviors of people in organizational settings
Organizational citizenship
the behavior of individuals that makes a positive overall contribution to the organization
Ethnocentrism
the belief that one's own language, native country, and cultural rules and norms are superior to all others
Authoritarianism
the belief that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems such as organizations
Equity
the belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others; inequity is the belief that we are being treated unfairly in relation to others
openness
the capacity to entertain new ideas and to change as a result of new information
General mental ability
the capacity to rapidly and fluidly acquire, process, and apply information
Goal specificity
the clarity and precision of a goal
Evidence-based management (EBM)
the commitment to identify and utilize the best theory and data available to make decisions
Condition of risk
the decision maker cannot know with certainty what the outcome of a given action will be but has enough information to estimate the probabilities of various outcomes
Condition of uncertainty
the decision maker lacks enough information to estimate the probability of possible outcomes
Valence
the degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness a particular outcome has for a person
Tolerance for risk (or risk propensity)
the degree to which a person is comfortable with risk and is willing to take chances and make risky decisions
Need for achievement
the desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than was done in the past
Need for power
the desire to control the resources in one's environment
Trust
the expectation that another person will not act to take advantage of us regardless of our ability to monitor or control them
Risk propensity
the extent to which a decision maker is willing to gamble in making a decision
Goal difficulty
the extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort
Goal acceptance
the extent to which a person accepts a goal as his or her own
Goal commitment
the extent to which a person is personally interested in reaching a goal
person-group fit (or person-team fit)
the extent to which an individual fits with the workgroup's and supervisor's work styles, skills, and goals
Locus of control
the extent to which one believes one's circumstances are a function of either one's own actions or of external factors beyond one's control
Power distance (orientation to authority)
the extent to which people accept as normal on unequal distribution of power
Uncertainty avoidance (preference for stability)
the extent to which people feel threatened by unknown situations and prefer to be in clear and unambiguous situations
Masculinity (assertiveness or materialism)
the extent to which the dominant values in a society emphasize aggressiveness and the acquisition of money and other possessions as opposed to concern for people, relationships among people, and overall quality of life
Verification
the final stage of the creative process in which the validity or truthfulness of the insight is determined
person-job fit
the fit between a person's abilities and the demands of the job, and the fit between a person's desires and motivations and the attributes and rewards of a job
person-vocation fit
the fit between a person's interests, abilities, values, and personality and a profession
person-organization fit
the fit between an individual's values, beliefs, and personality and the values, norms, and culture of the organization
Performance-to-outcome instrumentality
the individual's perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain outcomes
Globalization
the internationalization of business activities and the shift toward an integrated global economy
Cognition
the knowledge a person presumes to have about something
Need for affiliation
the need for human companionship
Eustress
the pleasurable stress that accompanies positive events
Outsourcing
the practice of hiring other firms to do work previously performed by the organization itself; when this work is moved overseas, it is often called offshoring
Performance appraisal
the process of assessing and evaluating an employee's work behaviors by measurement
Stereotyping
the process of categorizing or labeling people on the basis of a single attribute
Decision making
the process of choosing from among several alternatives
Planning
the process of determining an organization's desired future position and the best means of getting there
Empowerment
the process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of responsibility and authority
Selective perception
the process of screening out information that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs
extraversion
the quality of being comfortable with relationships
Human relations movement
views organizations as cooperative systems and treats workers' orientations, values, and feelings as important parts of organizational performance
Values
ways of behaving or end-states that are desirable to a person or to a group
Individual-organization value conflict
when an employee's values conflict with the values of the organization
Tiered workforce
when one group of an organization's workforce has a contractual arrangement with the organization objectively different from another group performing the same jobs
Hawthorne effect
when people improve some aspect of their behavior or performance simply because they are being assessed
Social learning
when people observe the behaviors of others, recognize the consequences, and alter their own behavior as a result
Interactional fairness
whether the amount of information about the decision and the process was adequate, and the perceived fairness of the interpersonal treatment and explanations received during the decision-making process
Unequal access to organizational networks
women and minorities are often excluded from organizational networks, which can be important to job performance, mentoring opportunities, and being seen as a candidate for promotion
Telecommuting
work arrangement in which employees spend part of their time working off-site
Compressed work schedule
work schedule in which employees work a full forty-hour week in fewer than the traditional five days
Extended work schedule
work schedule that requires relatively long periods of work followed by relatively long periods of paid time off
Hypothesis
written predictions specifying expected relationships between certain variables
General self-efficacy
your generalized belief that you will be successful at whatever challenges or tasks you might face
Organizational stressors
factors in the workplace that can cause stress
Problem solving
finding the answer to a question
Process-based perspectives
focus on how people behave in their efforts to satisfy their needs
Equity theory
focuses on people's desire to be treated with what they perceive as equity and to avoid perceived inequity
Specialization strategy
focusing on a narrow market segment or niche and pursuing either a differentiation or cost leadership strategy within that market segment
Flexible work schedules (or flextime)
give employees more personal control over the hours they work each day
Nominal group technique
group members follow a generate-discuss-vote cycle until they reach a decision
Interpersonal value conflict
occurs when two different people hold conflicting values
Service organization
one that transforms resources into an intangible output and creates time or place utility for its customers
Self-esteem
our feelings of self-worth and our liking or disliking of ourselves
Instrumental values
our preferred means of achieving our terminal values or our preferred ways of behaving
Prejudice
outright bigotry or intolerance for other groups
Offshoring
outsourcing to workers in another country
Sensing
people are detail-oriented; want & trust facts (Myers-Briggs)
the "like me" bias
people prefer to associate with others they perceive to be like themselves
individual differences
personal attributes that vary from one person to another
Innovation; distribution; speed; convenience; first to market; cost; service; quality; branding
Businesses can choose to pursue competitive advantage by using an array of different sources (9)
realistic job previews (RJPs)
Involve the presentation of both positive and potentially negative information to job candidates
Extroversion/Introversion; Sensing/Intuition; Thinking/Feeling; Judging/Perceiving
The Myers-Briggs four scales
cost leadership; differentiation; specialization
Three primary business strategies are:
Stereotypes
a belief about an individual or a group based on the idea that everyone in a particular group will behave the same way or have the same characteristics
Management by objectives (MBO)
a collaborative goal-setting process through which organizational goals cascade down throughout the organization
Theory
a collection of verbal and symbolic assertions that specify how and why variables are related, and the conditions under which they should and should not relate
Nonprogrammed decision
a decision that recurs infrequently and for which there is no previously established decision rule
Programmed decision
a decision that recurs often enough for a decision rule to be developed
Manufacturing
a form of business that combines and transforms resources into tangible outcomes that are then sold to others
Burnout
a general feeling of exhaustion that develops when an individual simultaneously experiences too much pressure and has too few resources of satisfaction
Delphi technique
a method of systematically gathering judgments of experts for use in developing forecasts
Groupthink
a mode of thinking that occurs when members of a group are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, and the desire for unanimity offsets their motivation to appraise alternative courses of action
360-degree feedback
a performance appraisal method in which employees receive performance feedback from those on all sides of them in the organization
Contingent worker
a person who works for an organization on something other than a permanent or full-time basis
Creativity
a person's ability to generate new ideas or to conceive of new perspectives on existing ideas
Stress
a person's adaptive response to a stimulus that places excessive psychological or physical demands on that person
Task specific self-efficacy
a person's beliefs in his or her capabilities to do what is required to accomplish a specific task
Ethics
a person's beliefs regarding what is right or wrong in a given situation
Attitudes
a person's complexes of beliefs and feelings about specific ideas, situations, or other people
Self-efficacy
a person's confidence in his or her ability to organize & execute the courses of action necessary to accomplish a specific task
Affect
a person's feeling toward something
Effort-to-performance expectancy
a person's perception of the probability that effort will lead to performance
Psychological contract
a person's set of expectations regarding what he or she will contribute to an organization and what the organization, in return, will provide to the individual
Learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential resulting from direct or indirect experience
Classical conditioning
a simple form of learning that links a conditioned response with an unconditioned stimulus
Decision rule
a statement that tells a decision maker which alternative to choose based on the characteristics of the decision situation
Meta-analysis
a statistical technique used to combine the results of many different research studies done in a variety of organizations and for a variety of jobs
Rational decision-making approach
a systematic, step-by-step process for making decisions
Brainstorming
a technique used in the idea-generation phase of decision making that assists in development of numerous alternative courses of action
Machiavellianism
a trait causing a person to behave in ways to gain power and control the behavior of others
Global perspective
a willingness to be open to and learn from the alternative systems and meanings of other people and cultures, and a capacity to avoid assuming that people from everywhere are the same
Perceiving
adaptable, spontaneous, & curious; start many tasks & find difficult to complete them; deadlines meant to be stretched
reward system
all organizational components, including people, processes, rules and procedures, and decision-making activities, involved in allocating compensation and benefits to employees in exchange for their contributions to the organization
flexible rewards system
allows employees to choose the combination of benefits that best suits their needs
Contingency plans
alternative actions to take if the primary course of action is unexpectedly disrupted or rendered inappropriate
Cognitive dissonance
an incompatibility or conflict between behavior and an attitude or between two different attitudes
Coalition
an informal alliance of individuals or groups formed to achieve a common goal
Intuition
an innate belief about something without conscious consideration
Need-based theories
assume that need deficiencies cause behavior
Hierarchy of needs
assumes that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance (Abraham Maslow)
Human resource approach
assumes that people want to contribute & are able to make genuine contributions
the "like me" bias; stereotypes; prejudice; perceived threat of loss; ethnocentrism; unequal access to organizational networks
barriers to inclusion
Reinforcement theory
based on the idea that behavior is a function of its consequences
Job specialization
breaking jobs down to small component tasks and standardizing them across all workers doing those jobs
Social responsibility
businesses living and working together for the common good and valuing human dignity
Acquired needs framework
centers on the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power
neuroticism
characterized by a person's tendency to experience unpleasant emotions such as anger, anxiety, depression, and feelings of vulnerability
Collectivism
characterized by tight social frameworks in which people tend to base their identities on the group or organization to which they belong
Judging
decisive & tend to plan; focus on completing tasks, take action quickly, & want to know essentials; develop plans & follow them, adhering to deadlines (Myers-Briggs)
Customer intimacy
delivering unique and customizable products or services to meet customers' needs and increase customer loyalty
ERG theory
describes existence, relatedness, and growth needs - more than one kind of need may motivate a person at the same time
Fixed-interval
desired behavior is reinforced after a certain amount of time has passed (receiving weekly paychecks)
Fixed-ratio
desired behavior is reinforced after a specified number of correct responses (receiving pay bonuses for every ten error-free pieces made per hour)
Variable-interval
desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed (not knowing when a regional supervisor will visit your location for an inspection)
Variable-ratio
desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of behaviors (a supervisor praises a call center representative after the third call, then the seventh call after that, and then the fourth call after that)
Differentiation strategy
developing a product or service that has unique characteristics valued by customers
Product innovation
developing new products or services
Variety diversity
differences in a certain type or category, including group members' expertise, knowledge, or functional background
Separation diversity
differences in position or opinion among group members reflecting disagreement or opposition - dissimilarity in an attitude or value, for example, especially with regard to group goals or processes
Disparity diversity
differences in the concentration of valuable social assets or resources - dissimilarity in rank, pay, decision-making authority, or status, for example
Post-decision dissonance
doubt about a choice that has already been made
indirect compensation
employee benefits provided as a form of compensation
Extroversion
energized by things & people (Myers-Briggs)
Participation
entails giving employees a voice in making decisions about their own work
Job enrichment
entails giving workers more tasks to perform and more control over how to perform them
Satisficing
examining alternatives only until a solution that meets minimal requirements is found
Individualism
exists to the extent that people in a culture define themselves primarily as individuals rather than as part of one or more groups or organizations
Emotions
intense, short-term physiological, behavioral, and psychological reactions to a specific object, person, or event that prepare us to respond to it
Introversion
interactors, "on the fly" thinkers; energized in ideas, concepts, and abstractions; can be social but need quiet time to recharge batteries; reflective thinkers (Myers-Briggs)
Work-life relationships
interrelationships between a person's work life and personal life
Job enlargement
involves giving workers more tasks to perform
Information processing capacity
involves the manner in which individuals process and organize information
Suboptimizing
knowingly accepting less than the best possible outcome to avoid unintended negative effects on other aspects of the organization
Condition of certainty
manager knows what the outcomes of each alternative of a given action will be and has enough information to estimate the probabilities of various outcomes
Diagnostic skills
the ability to understand cause-and-effect relationships and to recognize the optimal solutions to problems
Operational excellence
maximizing the efficiency of the manufacturing or product development process to minimize costs
Scientific method
method of knowledge generation that relies on systematic studies that identify and replicate a result using a variety of methods, samples, and settings
Short-term values
more oriented toward the past and the present and include respect for traditions and social obligations
Type B personality
more relaxed & easygoing and less overtly competitive than Type A
surface value
objective meaning or worth of a reward
Surface-level diversity
observable differences in people, including race, age, ethnicity, physical abilities, physical characteristics, and gender
Escalation of commitment
occurs when a decision maker stays with a decision even when it appears to be wrong
incentive systems
plans in which employees can earn additional compensation in return for certain types of performance
Workplace bullying
repeated mistreatment of another employee through verbal abuse; conduct that is threatening, humiliating, or intimidating; or sabotage that interferes with the other person's work
conscientiousness
refers to an individual being dependable and organized
Organizational fairness
refers to employees' perceptions of organizational events, policies, and practices as being fair or not fair
Learning style
refers to individual differences and preferences in how we process information when problem solving, learning, or engaging in similar activities
Technology
refers to the methods used to create products, including both physical goods and intangible services
Corporate governance
refers to the oversight of a public corporation by its board of directors
Distributive fairness
refers to the perceived fairness of the outcome received, including resource distributions, promotions, hiring and layoff decisions, and raises
Terminal values
reflect our long-term life goals, and may include prosperity, happiness, a secure family, and a sense of accomplishment
Positive affect
reflects a combination of high energy and positive evaluation characterized by emotions like elation
Organizational commitment
reflects the degree to which an employee identifies with the organization and its goals and wants to stay with the organization
Correlation
reflects the size and strength of the statistical relationship between two variables; ranges from -1 to +1
Tolerance for ambiguity
reflects the tendency to view ambiguous situations as either threatening or desirable
Extrinsic work values
relate to the outcomes of doing work
Intrinsic work values
relate to the work itself
Affectivity
represents our tendency to experience a particular mood or to react to things with certain emotions
benefits
rewards and incentives provided to employees in addition to their wages or salaries
Intuition (Myers-Briggs)
seek out patterns & relationships among facts; trust intuition & look for the "big picture." (Myers-Briggs)
Moods
short-term emotional states that are not directed toward anything in particular
perquisites
special privileges awarded to selected members of an organization, usually top managers
Cost leadership strategy
striving to be the lowest-cost producer for a particular level of product quality
symbolic value
subjective and personal meaning or worth of a reward
Human relations approach
suggests that fostering a sense of employees' inclusion in decision making will result in positive employee attitudes and motivation to work hard
Situational perspective
suggests that in most organizations, situations and outcomes are influenced by other variables
Interactionalism
suggests that individuals and situations interact continuously to determine individuals' behavior
Expectancy theory
suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something and the likelihood they perceive of getting it
Multiple intelligences
suggests that there are a number of distinct forms of intelligence that each individual possesses in varying degrees
Job rotation
systematically moving workers from one job to another in an attempt to minimize monotony and boredom
Interpersonal skills
the ability to effectively communicate with, understand, and motivate individuals and groups
agreeableness
the ability to get along with others
Cultural competence
the ability to interact effectively with people of different cultures
Conceptual skills
the ability to think in the abstract
personality
the relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish one person from another
Motivation
the set of forces that leads people to behave in particular ways
Human resource management (HRM)
the set of organizational activities directed at attracting, developing, and maintaining an effective workforce
Perception
the set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information about the environment
Culture
the set of shared values often taken for granted, that help people in a group, organization, or society understand which actions are considered acceptable and which are deemed unacceptable
Technical skills
the skills necessary to accomplish specific tasks within the organization
Insight
the stage in the creative process in which all the scattered thoughts and ideas that were maturing during incubation come together to produce a breakthrough
Incubation
the stage of less intense conscious concentration during which a creative person lets the knowledge and ideas acquired during preparation mature and develop
Organizational behavior (OB)
the study of human behavior in organizational settings, of the interface between human behavior and the organization, and of the organization itself
Group polarization
the tendency for a group's average post-discussion attitudes to be more extreme than its average pre-discussion attitudes
introversion
the tendency to be less comfortable in relationships and social situations
compensation package
the total array of money (wages, salary, commissions), incentives, benefits, perquisites, and awards provided by the organization to an individual
Distress
the unpleasant stress that accompanies negative events
Dependent variable
the variable predicted to be affected by something else
Independent variable
the variable that is predicted to affect something else
Diversity
the variety of observable and unobservable similarities and differences among people
Attribution
the way we explain the causes of our own as well as other people's behaviors and achievements, and understand why people do what they do
Knowledge workers
those employees who add value in an organization simply because of what they know
Dysfunctional behaviors
those that detract from, rather than contribute to, organizational performance
Job sharing
two or more part-time employees sharing one full-time job
Job characteristics theory
uses give motivational properties of tasks and three critical psychological to improve outcomes
Preparation
usually the first stage in the creative process, includes education and formal training
Thinking
value fairness, decide things impersonally based on objective criteria & logic (Myers-Briggs)
Feeling
value harmony & focus on human values & needs as they make decisions or judgments