MGMT 5920S Exam 1
How Do We Build Theories?
(1) Introspection (2) Interviews (3) Observation
Psychological Withdrawal (Neglect)
-Daydreaming -Socializing -Looking busy -Moonlighting -Cyberloafing
What is the cost of employee strain on an organization?
300 billion
One of the top things employers say they are looking for in a job candidate is
A Positive Attitude
Job satisfaction can fluctuate throughout the day due to the experiences and activities we have throughout the day
Depends on your mood and emotions Even the most satisfied employees aren't satisfied every minute of every day; satisfaction levels wax and wane as a function of mood and emotions
How does job satisfaction correlate with life satisfaction?
Moderate (about 0.30 - has increased since determined)
Which element of the job is most important above all else>
The work itself
Job characteristics matter to employees as they create
Three "critical psychological states" (1) Meaningfulness of work (2) Responsibility for work (3) Knowledge of results The impact that job characteristics have - through these critical psychological states - on satisfaction, performance, and commitment can even trump pay, promotion opportunities, coworker satisfaction
Theory and Hypotheses Testing
To test our theory and hypotheses we have to gather data -that data requires measuring the independent and dependent variables in our theory
True or False: Five drive characteristics (autonomy, variety, identity, significance, feedback) can trump satisfaction with pay, promotion, coworkers, and supervisors
True
Citizenship Behavior
Voluntary activities that may or may not be rewarded but that contribute to the organization by improving the quality of the setting where work occurs Organizational (1) Voice -speaking up and offering constructive suggestions for change (2) Civic Virtue -participating in the company's operations at a deeper-than-normal level by attending voluntary meetings and functions, reading and keeping up with organizational announcements, and keeping up with business news that affects the company (3) Boosterism -representing the organization in a positive way when out in public, away from the office, and away from work Interpersonal (1) Helping -assisting coworkers who have heavy workloads; aiding them with personal matters; showing new employees the ropes when they first arrive (2) Courtesy -keeping coworkers informed about matters relevant to them (3) Sportsmanship -maintaining a good attitude with coworkers, even when they've done something annoying or when the unit is having tough times
Should we care about lack of commitment among employees?
Yes because it is more expensive to recruit and train new employees than to retain current employees Ex: -Deloitte: $150,000 to replace an employee -SAS: $60,000 to replace an employee
Theory
a collection of assertions that specify how, why, and when variables are related
Organizational Behavior (OB)
a field of study devoted to understanding, explaining, and ultimately improving human behavior in organizations
Job Satisfaction
a pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences -it is based on both cognition (calculated opinions of your job) and affect (emotional reactions to your job)
Stress
a psychological response to demands when there is something at stake and when coping with the demands taxes or exceeds a person's capacity or resources Stressors -the demands -include: (1) Work Hindrance (2) Work Challenge (3) Nonwork Hindrance (4) Nonwork Challenge Strain -the negative physical and emotional consequences of stress Stressors -> Stess -> Strain
Resource Value
a resource has value if its: (1) Rare (2) Inimitable -History -Numerous Small Decisions -Socially Complex Resources Ex: Culture, reputation, history, etc.
100 best companies to work for
doubled the return of the market -had the best OB policies
Hindrance stressors have a strong negative relationship with Organizational Commitment
people who experience higher levels of hindrance stressors tend to have lower levels of Affective Commitment and Normative Commitment -relationships with Continuance Commitment are weaker
Hindrance stressors have a weak negative relationship with Job Performance
people who experience higher levels of hindrance stressors tend to have lower levels of task performance -not much is known about the impact of hindrance stressors on Citizenship Behavior and Counterproductive Behavior
Hindrance Stressors
perceived as hindering progress toward personal accomplishments or goal attainment
Situational Leadership
the situation is really with your followers -you need to adapt for your followers when their needs change As times change, leadership changes
Does Commitment Still Exist?
(1) Are employees today less loyal than 10 years ago? -Yes, employees are less loyal now than 10 years ago -63% of respondents said "less loyal" (2) Will you change employers in the next 5 years? -Yes, it is more likely that employees will change jobs more frequently -50% of respondents said "yes"
Components of Job Attitudes
(1) Cognitive = Evaluation -My supervisor is unfair (2) Affective = Feeling -I dislike my supervisor (3) Behavioral = Action -I've complained [All of these add up to a negative attitude toward supervisor]
How do we evaluate job performance?
(1) Graphic Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales -an evaluation method in which the evaluator rates performance factors on an incremental scale
Examples of Job Attitudes
(1) Organizational Commitment -Affective -Continuant -Normative (2) Perceived Organizational Support -Extent to which employees feel the organization values their contributions and cares about them (3) Job Satisfaction -A positive feeling about your job based on features or characteristics of the job (pay, promotion, coworkers, supervisor, work itself)
Consequences of Stress
(1) Physiological Strains -illness -high blood pressure -coronary artery disease headaches -back pain -stomach aches (2) Psychological Strains -depression -anxiety -irritability -forgetfulness -inability to think clearly -reduced confidence -burnout (3) Behavior Strains -alcohol and drug use -teeth grinding -compulsive behaviors -overeating
Work Hindrance
(1) Role conflict -conflicting expectations (e.g., sell fast; be nice and make customers feel comfortable) (2) Role ambiguity -lack of information on job duties and what needs to be done (3) Role overload -high or overwhelming number of demands every day (4) Daily hassles -minor day-to-day demands (broken printer, annoying emails, slow traffic)
Why create positive attitudes?
(1) Task Performance -satisfied workers are more productive and more productive workers are in turn more satisfied (2) Organizational Citizenship Behavior -more helping behavior, going above and beyond in their jobs (3) Counterproductive Work Behavior -dissatisfied workers are more likely to abuse substances, steal, be tardy, put in less effort, and withdraw (4) Turnover -less likely to quit (5) Motivation -positive employees are more effective employees -persist longer towards goals (6) Enhanced Well-being -happiness and life-enjoyment -strengthen immune and cardiovascular systems and have better physical health (7) Customer satisfaction -satisfied frontline employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty
Work Challenge
(1) Time pressure -not quite enough time to complete tasks (2) Work complexity -task requires knowledge/ skills beyond current capabilities (3) Work responsibility -scope of obligations
Job Analysis = Heart of HRM
-Divide a job into 4-5 major dimensions -List key tasks within each of those major dimensions -Rate the tasks on frequency and importance -Use most frequent and important tasks to create a job description Focuses on tasks
Nonwork Challenge
-Family time demands -Personal development -Positive life events
Physical Withdrawal (Exit)
-Tardiness -Long breaks -Missing meetings -Quitting -Absenteeism
Nonwork Hindrance
-Work-family conflict -Negative life events -Financial uncertainty
Both Moods and Emotions
1) An affective experience (e.g. "feeling" angry - emotion/ bad mood) - it is a "feeling" 2) Physiological changes (e.g., increased heart rate and blood pressure) 3) Action readiness (e.g., impulse to attack) - will act a certain way due to your moods and emotions Can lead to negative or positive outcomes depending on the mood or emotion
The Rule of 1/8
1/2 of companies believe in a connection between OB practice and profit 1/2 of those implement a comprehensive approach (instead of just 1 change) 1/2 of those persist long enough to see profit = 1/8 of companies successfully use OB practices
Organizational Commitment
A desire on the part of an employee to remain a member of an organization -Comes in three forms: (1) Affective Commitment (2) Continuance Commitment (3) Normative Commitment
Normative Commitment
A desire on the part of an employee to remain a member of an organization because of a feeling of obligation -you stay because you OUGHT to -if you left, you'd feel Guilt -this feeling is decreasing among employees (individuals focusing more on themselves, their own career, their needs, etc. so it has become easier to walk away)
Continuance Commitment
A desire on the part of an employee to remain a member of an organization because of an awareness of the costs associated with leaving -you stay because you NEED to -if you left, you'd feel Anxiety -companies promote this kind of commitment through Pay and Benefits
Affective Commitment
A desire on the part of an employee to remain a member of an organization because of an emotional attachment to, or involvement in, that organization -you stay because you WANT to -if you left, you'd feel Sadness -strongest sense of commitment and loyalty to the organization -the kind of commitment employers really want - employees are invested in the company - display positive citizenship behaviors (go the extra mile)
Exit-Voice-Loyalty-Neglect
A framework that includes potential responses to negative events (1) Exit (Lone Wolves) -ending or restricting organizational membership -low organizational commitment -high task performance (2) Voice (Stars) -attempt to improve the situation -high organizational commitment -high task performance (3) Loyalty (Citizens) -remain supportive and hope for improvement -high organizational commitment -low task performance (4) Neglect (Apathetics) -interest and effort in job is reduced -low organizational commitment -low task performance -the worst** Key Question: -When bad things happen, who withdraws (via Exit or Neglect) and who stays engaged (via Voice or Loyalty) -One answer depends on task performance and organizational commitment
Pay
A hygiene type factor Need it as a necessity but satisfaction at work relies more on other factors Depends on person Kind of a guaranteed thing (relationships with coworkers and satisfaction with the work itself is not guaranteed)
Withdrawal
A set of actions that employees perform to avoid the work situation -one study found the 51% of employees' time was spent working -the other 49% was allocated to coffee breaks, late starts, early departures, and personal things The various forms of withdrawal are almost always moderately to strongly correlated Those correlations suggest a progression, as lateness is strongly related to absenteeism, and absenteeism is strongly correlated to quitting
Job Attitude
An attitude is an evaluation - either favorable or unfavorable - of a person, situation, or object -attitudes reflect how we feel about something Examples: -I feel committed to my organization -I feel like my organization supports me -I feel satisfied with my job
Google Video - How Google Proved Management Matters
Challenge for Google: Engineering-driven culture -How do we convince our engineers that management matters? Approach Stages: Data-Driven Approach (use engineer reasoning but apply it to Human Resources) (1) Unfreezing - taking on the status quo -use research to show that management matters (2) Changing - rolling the findings into organizational processes -take research and use it to adjust management (3) Refreezing - institutionalizing the changes -took the new practices and turned them into reward systems and performance reviews Took a system that was resistant to management and made them recognize the benefits of it and accept it Used a small group of people -Danger: Isolation - hard to sell to a large group based on findings of a small group Socializing the findings - Brought in change agents (tech advisors/leading edge of thinking) and used presentations of statistical analysis to show that management was important Good Managers: -are good coaches -empower, but don't micromanage -productive and results-oriented -communicate clearly Why use your own data? - Ex: Google using their own data to convince their people (1) Credibility - to show that this applies to this unique organization (2) Specificity - distinctive to Google
Value-Percept Theory
Does your job supply what you value? Based on the idea that the amount of satisfaction that you experience depends on whether or not that job gives you what you value Satisfaction = job gives you what you value Dissatisfaction = (Vwant - Vhave) x (Vimportance) Example: (Paywant - Payhave) x (Payimportance) Examples: § Pay Satisfaction § Promotion Satisfaction § Supervision Satisfaction § Coworker Satisfaction § Satisfaction with work itself § These five common themes are all important · Pay is not always the most important Most people say that work itself is the most important: § 1) Work itself § 2) Supervision § 3) Coworker § 4) Promotion § 5) Pay
Does Mood Matter for Organizations?
Job tasks and the work environment can have a significant impact on mood, and mood can in turn inform how satisfied we feel in our jobs in a given moment or day -but some people have a dispositional tendency to be in a "bad mood" Positive Emotion is associated with: -Greater helping -Creativity -Performance -Motivation -Trust -More favorable outcomes in a negotiation Negative Emotion is associate with: -Greater withdrawal -Counterproductive behavior -Turnover intentions
Job Characteristics Theory
Jobs are more intrinsically enjoyable when work tasks are challenging and fulfilling -five "core job characteristics" combine to make some jobs more rewarding than others: (1) Variety -Different activities/tasks requiring different skills and talents (2) Identity -Completion of a whole piece of work; seeing it through from beginning to end (3) Significance -The job's impact on others (4) Autonomy -Level of discretion in decision making; level of freedom in determining how you perform the work (5) Feedback -Amount of direct and clear information on performance from the work itself How to get people to be satisfied with the work itself Can increase satisfaction with the work by explaining the importance of their job to the workers o Meaningfulness of Work comes from § Variety § Identity § Significance o Responsibility for Outcomes comes from § Autonomy o Knowledge of Results comes from § Feedback o Knowledge and Skill + Growth Need Strength (GNS) comes from § Meaningfulness of work § Responsibility for Outcomes § Knowledge of Results
Why Might Reliability Matter for Validity?
Measures must be reliable to be valid Example: How reliable and valid are bow and arrow targets? -Reliability: How "compact" is the spread? -Validity: Is the spread "compact" and "on the target"?
How do we know things?
Methods of Knowing (1) Experience -when a belief is consistent with own experience (2) Intuition -when a belief seems obvious or self-evident; "it just stands to reason" (3) Authority -when a respected source confers information (4) Science -scientific studies have replicated the result using multiple samples, settings, and methods Science avoids biases of the other three by using data
Are these job attitudes really distinct?
Not exactly: these attitudes are strongly related -While there is some distinction, there is also a lot of overlap
Verification Phase
Once the variables in a hypothesis are measured in a reliable and valid manner, the hypothesis is tested using statistics like the correlation
Affective, Continuance, and Normative Commitment all lead to
Overall Organizational Commitment Note - 3 Things to Highlight: (1) Referent ("focus of commitment") -you can like the people (boss, coworker), need the location of the job, feel obligated to your team or those you serve through your work (2) Weight -people can with these 3 types differently in importance (3) Time -the 3 types can play a bigger role at different times in your career
Why is Apple more profitable than its competitors in the computer and phone industries?
People = inimitable resource -History - expertise (Steve Jobs to now) -Small decisions -Culture Innovation is deeply embedded in Apple's culture Skills and Leadership
Want to retain employees that are
Performing well Want employees to positively impact the organization
Why are job analyses so important? For the organization? For you?
Provide relevant task-related behaviors necessary in order to get results -help managers make HR decisions -provides input to general human resource decisions (promotions, transfer, and terminations) -identifies skill training and development needs -provides performance feedback to employees -supplies the basis for reward allocation decisions (merit pay increases or other rewards) -evaluations can determine later behavior
Correlation does NOT cause Causation
Proving causality requires 3 things: (1) Temporal precedence (predictor variable occurs before predicted variable) (2) Covariation (two variables are related) (3) Elimination of alternative explanations
Example: Nia is in her mid 30's, married with 2 kids and has been working at her current employer for 6 years. She has recently been approached by a competing organization to interview for a position there
Reasons she may stay: -Job security -Was granted maternity leave and is given a flexible schedule due to her kids -Loyalty to the organization she is working for -Enjoys the culture of her current company -Adjustment (starting over again at a new company) -Like the leadership style of her current place of work -Knows what to expect
Data Phase
Takes hypotheses and ends ways of measuring the variables in them Measures: -Scales - survey items -Behavioral observation -Organizational records
Task Performance
The behaviors directly involved in transforming organizational resources into the goods or services an organization produces (i.e., the behaviors included in one's job description) -typically a mix of: (1) Routine task performance - normal and predictable (2) Adaptive task performance - novel and unpredictable (3) Creative task performance - the degree to which individuals develop ideas or products that are both novel and useful Job analysis is most concerned with task performance
Job Performance
The value of the set of behaviors that contribute, either positively or negatively, to organizational goal accomplishment -not just the consequences (or results) of behavior - the behavior itself is also key
Firms that have good practices in OB have
Turnover: 7% decrease Sales/employee: $27,000 more Market value: $18,000 more Profitability: $3,800 more
Overall, there is a moderate positive relationship between
VISAF and job satisfaction Caveat: § Not everyone has the same reaction to VISAF § Relationship stronger when individual has: · (1) knowledge & skill · (2) GNS - need for development § If you're not very good at your job and you don't care if you get better, having an interesting job doesn't really matter
Why are some employees more satisfied than others?
VPT -satisfied if job gives what we value JCM -characteristics that inspire satisfaction Mood -emotional component (varies daily)
Meta-Analysis
a quantitative, formal, epidemiological study design used to systematically assess the results of previous research to derive conclusions about that body of research -Typically, but not necessarily, the study is based on randomized, controlled clinical trials. Example: Effects of Job Satisfaction on Performance and Commitment (1) Job Satisfaction has a moderate positive effect on Job Performance -people who experience higher levels of job satisfaction tend to have higher levels: -Task Performance -Citizenship Behavior and lower levels of -Counterproductive Behavior (2) Job Satisfaction has a strong positive effect on Organizational Commitment -people who experience higher levels of job satisfaction tend to feel higher levels of: -Affective Commitment -Normative Commitment -effect on Continuance Commitment are weaker
Correlation
an index of the relationship between two variables -Perfect positive relationship = 1 -Perfect negative relationship = -1 Strength of the correlation inferred from judging the compactness of a scatterplot of the X-Y values -More compact = Stronger correlation Relationship becomes stronger as it approaches 1 or -1 -weakens as it approaches 0 r = 0.50 (strong) r = 0.30 (moderate) r = 0.20 (weak)
Coping
behaviors and thoughts people use to respond to stress Some cope better: -Hardiness (tough skin) Others cope worse: -Type A Behavior Pattern (strong sense of urgency, impatient, competitive, hard driving) - affects all aspects of framework 1) More stressors 2) More stress 3) More strain Social support can also help manage stress (buffers the effects of stress on strain)
Hypotheses
developing simple, formal statements about the expected relationship between variables that are based on our theory Ex: "There is a positive relationship between supervisor recognition and employee performance"
Little can be learned from a single study in a single organization
due to -Sampling Error -Moderators
Counterproductive Behavior
employee behaviors that intentionally hinder organizational goal accomplishment Organizational - Minor (1) Production Deviance -wasting resources -substance abuse Organizational - Serious (1) Property Deviance -sabotage -theft Interpersonal - Minor (1) Political Deviance -gossiping -incivility Interpersonal - Serious (1) Personal Aggression -harassment -abuse People who engage in one form of counterproductive behavior also engage in others Counterproductive behavior has: -strong negative correlation with citizenship behavior -weak negative correlation with task performance
Motivation
one of the biggest parts of the organizational behavior field
Emotional Contagion
people can "catch" emotions of others via facial feedback, subconscious mimicry
Jennifer Anston Clip (her as a server)
people come for atmosphere and attitude -attitude toward the job isn't the best - isn't investing more into her job and the customers
Challenge stressors have a moderate positive relationship with Organizational Commitment
people who experience higher levels of challenge stressors tend to have higher levels of Affective Commitment and Normative Commitment -relationships with Continuance Commitment are weaker
Challenge stressors have a weak positive relationship with Job Performance
people who experience higher levels of challenge stressors tend to have higher levels of task performance -not much is known about the impact of challenge stressors on Citizenship Behaviors and Counterproductive Behavior
Challenge Stressors
perceived as opportunities for learning and growth
Scientific Method
scientific research is systematic, controlled, empirical, amoral, public, and critical investigation of natural phenomena -it is guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations among such phenomena -the goal of science is to establish a relationship between two or more variables Cycle of: -Theory -Hypotheses -Data -Verification
Validity
the degree to which a measure assesses what it is meant to assess -Can be judged in two ways: (1) Content validity (2) Predictive validity -e.g., Job Satisfaction -> Job Performance
Reliability
the degree to which a measure is free from random error (and therefore more precise) Sources of random error (1) Interviews - unusual circumstances, distractions (2) Tests - poorly worded questions, scoring mistakes (3) Surveys - ambiguous items, judgment calls
Does OB Matter?
the resource-based view of the firm: -companies can't buy a strong history (e.g., information & wisdom) -many little decisions are more difficult to copy than big ones -complex resources (like culture) are difficult to create, let alone copy - "it factor"
Transactional Theory of Stress
the ultimate impact of stressors depends on the extent to which we appraise them as stressful (1) Primary Appraisal -"Is it stressful?" -evaluate the significance and meaning of stressors (2) Secondary Appraisal -Yes -> "How can I cope" -No -> "Benign job demand"
Moods
§ Tend to be diffuse, longer, and less intense § Connection to eliciting event is unclear (i.e., don't always have a single clear cause of target)
Emotions
§ Tend to be discrete, shorter, and more intense § Connection to eliciting event is clear
