MGT 321 exam review

attribute process

involves forming beliefs about the causes of behavior or events. Generally, we perceive whether an observed behavior or event it's caused mainly by characteristics of the person (internal factors) or by the environment (external factors).

Openness to experience

people who are imaginative, creative, unconventional, curious, non conforming, autonomous, and aesthetically perspective. Those with low scores tend to be more resistant to change, less open to new ideas and more conventional in fixed ways

trust

positive expectations one person has toward another person in situations involving risk

power distance

refers to the extent which people accept unequal distribution of power in a society. Those with higher power distance value unequal power. THose in higher positions expect obedience to authority; those in lower positions are comfortable receiving commands from their superiors without consultation or debate. People with higher power distance also prefer to resolve differences through formal procedures rather than direct informal discussion. In contrast, people with low power distance expect relatively equal power sharing. They view the relationship with their boss as one of interdependence, not dependence; That is, they believe their boss is also dependent on them, so they expect power sharing and consultation before decisions affecting them are made. People in india and malaysia have high power distance, whereas in denmark and israel tend to have low power distance. Americans in the middle.

Motivation

represents the forces within a person that affect his or her direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior. Direction refers to the path along which people steer their effort. Second element of motivation called intensity, is the amount of effort allocated to the goal. This is about how people push themselves to complete a task. 3rd element is persistence. Refers to the length of time that the individual continues to exert effort toward an objective. (car analogy to remember )

social identiy theory

(external self concept)- says that people define themselves by the groups to which they belong or have emotional attachment. For instance, someone might have a social identity as an american citizen, a University of oregon alumnus, and an employee at boston consulting group

moral sensitivity

- is a characteristic of the person, namely his or her ability to detect a moral dilemma and estimate its relative importance. THis awareness includes both cognitive and emotional level awareness that something is or could become morally wrong

self-efficacy

A person's belief about successfully completing a task. Those with high self efficacy have a "can do" attitude. They believe they posses the energy(motivation) , ability, clear expectations (role perceptions) and resources (situational factors) to perform the task.

Situational factors

Any context beiyong the employees immediate control. Two main influences. 1st, the work context constraints or facilitates behavior and performance. For example, employees who are motivated, skilled, and know their role obligations will nevertheless perform poorly if they lack time, budget, physical work facilities and other resources. 2nd., situations provide cues that guide and motivate people. For example, companies install barriers and warning signs in dangerous areas. The barriers and warning signs are situational forces that cue employees to avoid nearby hazard. Proficient task performance, adaptive task performance, proactive task performance

Counterproductive work behaviors( CWBs)

Are voluntary behaviors that have the potential to directly or indirectly harm the organization or its stakeholders. Ex; harassing co workers, unnecessary conflict, deviation from preferred work methods, untruthfulness, stealing etc.

Conscientiousness

Characterizes people who are organized, dependable, goal focused ,thorough, disciplines, methodical, and industrious. People with low conscientiousness tend to be careless, disorganized and less thorough.

locus of control

Define as a person's general beliefs about the amount of control he or she has over personal life events. Individuals with an internal locus of control believe that life events are caused mainly by their personal characteristics ( Motivation and abilities). Those with an external locus of control believe events are due mainly to fate, luck or conditions in the external environment.

Agreeableness

Describes people who are trusting, helpful and good natured, considerate, tolerate, selfless, generous, and flexible. People with low agreeableness tend to be uncooperative and intolerant of others needs as well as more suspicious and self focused.

affective organizational commitment

Emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in an organization

role perception

Employees require accurate role perceptions to perform their jobs well. This refers to how clearly people understand their job duties. These perceptions range from role clarity to role ambiguity

emotional intelligence

Includes a set of abilities that enable us to recognize and regulate our own emotions as well as the emotions of other people. This refers to four main dimensions.

selective attention

Is influenced by characteristics of the person or object being perceived, particularly size, intensity, motion, repetition and novelty. For example a small flashing red light on a nurses workstation console is immediately noticed because it is bright (intensity), flashing(motion), a rare event (novelty) and has symbolic meaning that a patient's vital signs are failing.

moral intensity

Is the degree to which an issue demand the application of ethical principles. Decisions with high moral intensity have strong ethical implications that usually affect many people, so the decision maker needs to carefully apply ethical principles to make the best choice. Moral intensity of a situation is higher when The decisions will have substantially good or bad consequences Most people view their decision outcomes as good or bad There is a high probability that the good or bad decision consequences will occur Many people will be affected by the decision and its consequences

uncertainty avoidance

Is the degree to which people tolerate ambiguity( low uncertainty avoidance). Employees with high certainty avoidance value structured situations in which rules of conduct decision making are clearly documented. They usually prefer direct rather than indirect or ambiguous communications. Uncertainty avoidance rends to be high in belgium and greece and very high in japan. Low in denmark and singapore and america in the middle.

Myers-briggs type indicator (MBTI)

Jung explained that people gather information through two ways. Sensing and intuition. Sensing involves perceiving information directly through the five senses. It relies on an organized structure to acquire factual and preferably quantitative details. In contrast, intuition relies more on insight and subjective experience to see relationships among variables. Sensing types focus on here and now, intuition focus on more future possibilities.

Emotional Dissonance

OFten, employees are supposed to show emotions that are quite different from the emotions they actually experience at that moment. This incongruence produces an emotional tension called emotional dissonance. Employees often handle these discrepancies by engaging in surface acting; They pretend that they feel the expected emotion even though they actually experience a different emotion. Another strategy is to engage in deep acting rather than surface acting. Deep acting involves visualizing reality differently. One problem is that surface acting can lead to higher stress and burnout.

recency effect

Occurs when the most recent information dominates our perceptions. This perceptual bias is most common when people make a decision involving complex information. For instance, auditors must digest large volumes of information in their judgments about financial documents, and the most recent information received prior to the decision tends to get weighted more heavily than information received at the beginning of the audit. Similarly, when supervisors evaluate the performance of employees over the previous year, the most recent performance information dominates the evaluation because it is the most easily recalled.

Emotional Labor

People are expected to manage their emotions in the workplace. They must conceal their frustration when serving an irritating customer, display compassion to an ill patient, and hide their boredom in a long meeting with other executives. These are all forms of emotional labor. The effort, planning, and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions. Almost everyone is expected to abide by display rules, norms or explicit rules requiring us within our role to display specific emotions and to hide other emotions

Neuroticism

Refers those who tend to be anxious, insecure, self conscious depressed and temperamental. Those with low neuroticism are poised, secure, and calm

global mindset

Refers to an individual's ability to perceive, know about and process information across cultures. It includes awareness of, openness to, and respect for other views and practices in the world. B. the capacity to empathize and act effectively across cultures. C, the ability to process complex information about novel environments and D, the ability to comprehend and reconcile intercultural matters with multiple levels of thinking.

Values Congruence

Refers to how similar a person's values hierarchy is to the values hierarchy of another entity, such as the employee's team or organization. An employees values congruence with team members increases the teams cohesion and performance. Congruence with the orgs values tend to increase the employees job satisfaction, loyalty, and organizational citizenship as well as lower stress and turnover. Also more likely to make decisions compatible with orgs expectations

categorical thinking

The mostly nonconscious process of organizing people and objects into preconceived categories that are stored in our long-term memory. Gender, age, race, clothing style.

mental models

To achieve our goals with some degree of predictability and sanity, we need road maps of the environments in which we live. These are called mental models which are knowledge structures that we develop to describe, explain, and predict the world around us.

EVLN Model

exit, voice, loyalty, neglect

stereotype threat

a phenomenon whereby members of a stereotyped group are concerned that they might exhibit a negative feature of the stereotype. This concern and preoccupation adversely affects their behavior and performance, which often results in displaying the stereotype trait they were trying to avoid.

confirmation bias

a selective attention problem which is the non-conscious tendency for people to screen out information that is contrary to their decisions, beliefs, values, and assumption, whereas confirming information is more readily accepted through the perceptual process. When we make important decisions, such as investing in a costly projectm we tend to pay attention to information that supports that decision, ignore information that questions the wisdom of decision, and more easily recall the supportive than the opposing information

continuance commitment

an individual's calculative attachment to an organization. Examples: 1. No other jobs 2: Can't afford to quit

ability

includes both the natural aptitudes and the learned capabilities required to successfully complete a task. Aptitudes are the natural that help employees learn specific tasks more quickly and perform them better. Learned capabilities (skills and knowledge) are the main elements of a broader concept called competencies, which are characteristics of a person that result in superior performance.

Individualism

is the extent to which we value independence and personal uniqueness. Highly individualistic people value personal freedom, self- sufficiency, control over their own lives, and appreciation of the unique qualities that distinguish them from others. Americans, chileans, canadians are high individualists. Venezuela and taiwan are low.

Perception

is the process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us. It includes determining which information to notice, as well as how to categorize and interpret it within the framework of our existing knowledge.

Primacy Effect

our tendency to rely on the first information we receive about people to quick form an opinion of people of them.79 It is the notion that first impressions are lasting impressions. This rapid perceptual organization and interpretation occurs because we need to make sense of the situation and, in particular, to trust others. The problem is that first impressions—particularly negative first impressions—are difficult to change. After categorizing someone, we tend to select subsequent information that supports our first impression and screen out information that opposes that impression.

Extraversion

outgoing, talkative, energetic, sociable and assertive. Gets energy from people and things around them whereas introverts gain energy from personal reflection on concepts and idea

self-fulfilling prophecy

occurs when our expectations about another person cause that person to act in a way that is consistent with those expectations. In other words, our perceptions can influence reality. Exhibit 3.5 illustrates the four steps in the self-fulfilling prophecy process using the example of a supervisor and a subordinate.The process begins when the supervisor forms expectations about the employee's future behavior and performance. These expectations are sometimes inaccurate, because first impressions are usually formed from limited information. The supervisor's expectations influence his or her behavior toward employees. In particular, high-expectancy employees (those expected to do well) receive more emotional support through nonverbal cues (e.g., more smiling and eye contact), more frequent and valuable feedback and reinforcement, more challenging goals, better training, and more opportunities to demonstrate good performance.The third step in self-fulfilling prophecy includes two effects of the supervisor's behavior on the employee. First, through better training and more practice opportunities, a high-expectancy employee learns more skills and knowledge than a low-expectancy employee. Second, the employee becomes more self-confident, which results in higher motivation and willingness to set more challenging goals.In the final step, high-expectancy employees have higher motivation and better skills, resulting in better performance, while the opposite is true of low-expectancy employees.

halo effect

occurs when our general impression of a person, usually based on one prominent characteristic, distorts our perception of other characteristics of that person.77 If a supervisor who values punctuality notices that an employee is sometimes late for work, the supervisor might form a negative image of the employee and evaluate that person's other traits unfavorably as well. The halo effect is most likely to occur when important information about the perceived target is missing or we are not sufficiently motivated to search for it. Instead, we use our general impression of the person to fill in the missing information

false consensus effect

occurs when people overestimate the extent to which others have similar beliefs or behaviors to our own.Employees who are thinking of quitting their jobs overestimate the percentage of coworkers who are also thinking about quitting, for example. There are several explanations for false-consensus effect. One is that we are comforted believing that others are similar to us, particularly regarding less acceptable or divisive behavior. Put differently, we perceive "everyone does it" to reinforce our self-concept regarding behaviors that do not have a positive image (quitting our job, parking illegally, etc.). A second explanation for false-consensus effect is that we interact more with people who have similar views and behaviors. This frequent interaction causes us to overestimate how common those views/ behaviors are in the entire organization or society.

contact hypothesis

states that under certain conditions, people who interact with each other will be less perceptually biased because they have a more personal understanding of the other person and their group

self-esteem

the extent to which people like, respect, and are satisfied with themselves

Collectivism

the extent to which we value our duty to groups to which we belong and to group harmony. Highly collectivist people define themselves by their group memberships, emphasize their personal connection to others in their in groups, and value the goals and well being of people within those groups. Low collectivism countries include U.S, Japan, germany. Whereas israel and taiwan have high collectivism. Individualism is not the opposite of collectivism.. For example, cultures that highly value duty to one's group do not necessarily give low priority to personal freedom and uniqueness.

stereotypes

the perceptual process in which we assign characteristics to an identifiable group and then automatically transfer those features to anyone we believe is a member of that group.

Personality

the relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize a person, along with the psychological processes behind those characteristics.

self-serving bias

the tendency to attribute our failures to external causes more than internal causes, while successes are due more to internal than external factors. Simply put, we take credit for our successes and blame others or the situation for our mistakes

Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB)

various forms of cooperation and helpfulness to others that support the organization's social and psychological context.

fundamental attribution error

which is the tendency to overemphasize internal causes of another person's behavior and to discount or ignore external causes of their behavior. According to this perceptual error, we are more likely to attribute a coworker's late arrival for work to lack of motivation rather than to situational constraints (such as traffic congestion). The explanation for fundamental attribution error is that observers can't easily see the external factors that constrain another person's behavior. Also, people like to think that human beings (not the situation) are the prime sources of their behavior.