microbiology ch 1-3 exam
prokaryote vs eukaryote ribosomes
In P: smaller ribosomes Sedimentation rate: P: 70s -> 50s subunit and 30s subunit E: 80s -> 60 subunit and 40s subunit
cell walls
In both eukaryotes and prokaryotes Unicellular algae: cell wall is mostly cellulose Fungi: mostly chitin Prokaryotes: peptidoglycan (unique to prokaryotes)->long CHO strands connected together by amino acid cross-bridges (think chain link fence)
reemerging infectious diseases
Increase in antibiotic-resistant forms of microbes Identified in new geographic locations where there's no established immunity Ex: TB, cholera, West Nile virus
BIOCHEMICAL TESTS for classifying unknown bacteria
Indication of types of enzymes present in bacterial cells Organic compound metabolism Carbohydrate fermentation (yes or no) Citrate use (for energy source) Casein digestion (milk protein) (yes/no) DNA digestion (yes/no) Lipid digestion (yes/no) Indole production from tryptophan digestion Ability to photosynthesize Antibiotic sensitivity
what was learned from the golden era
Infectious disease were caused by microbes, not miasma "poisoning of air" Disease transmission could be interrupted/stopped
Cytoskeleton
Internal protein scaffold -> Microtubules, microfilaments (ie actin, myosin), intermediate filaments Used to think Prokaryotes don't have cytoskeleton, but have found they have elements that have same fnc but different compositions in bacterial cells
KOCH'S DEFINITIVE EXPERIMENT WITH ANTHRAX
Isolated a few bacilli from blood of infected animals Inoculated bacilli into fresh, aqueous humor from an ox's eye (sterile medium) Watched growth of bacilli for hours -> multiplied -> produced spores Injected mice with anthrax spores, using wooden sliver Anthrax symptoms developed within hours -> blood filled with bacilli Bacilli were isolated from mice and cultured in fresh aqueous humor from an ox Bacilli multiplied and produced spores -> cycle complete 1876, Koch's work presented at uni of breslau Verified pasteur's germ theory of disease Completing the cycle verified That Bacillus anthracis responsible for producing anthrax
lazzaro spallanzani (1767)
Italian cleric, naturalist 1767 Thought Needham didn't heat gravy long enough Q: Where do animalcles come from? Hypothesis: animalcules arise from other animalcules Experimental design: boiled for longer periods of time -> open, glass sealed, or loosely stoppered with cork Results: Open flask: many animalcules, glass sealed: no animalcules, cork: few animalcules Number of microbes (alpha) proportional to amount of air exposure Conclusion: animalcules arise from other animalcules in the air His work was heavily criticized: "Vital force" destroyed by boiling too long (needham) Air required for life (other scientists)
Francesco Redi (1668)
Italian naturalist 1688 Question: where do maggots come from Observations; flies contain reproductive organs (based on van leeuwenhoek work) and land on exposed meat Hypothesis: flies lay eggs on meat -> eggs hatch into maggots Experimental design: (PIC) open jar, gauze covered jar (air in), sealed jar: maggots only in open jar Conclusion: maggots come from flies, do NOT arise spontaneously from decaying meat Controversy subsided on spontaneous generation for LARGER organisms Redis was one of first recorded experiments in biology
DRESSED FOR PROTECTION Plague 1665
Leather hat (indicating doctor) Mask with glass eyes and beak containing "protective" perfumed sponge Stick to remove clothes of plague victim Gloves Waxed linen robe (to prevent miasma from going through clothes) Boots
PASTEUR AND CHOLERA
Lost 2 daughters to infectious diseases 2 yr old lost to blood poisoning 12 yr old daughter lost to typhoid fever Devoted rest of his work to studying infectious disease 1865, cholera outbreak in paris -> 200 died per day Attempted to isolate cholera bacteria via filtration of hospital air using cotton filters Demonstrated that lab animals became ill when inoculated with filtered material grown in sterile broth Microscopic examination of broth showed mixed bacterial types (diff shapes and sizes) Coccus = circles, bacillus=rods, spirillum= wavy lines Unable to purify (separate out bacteria types) in absence of solid growth media Critics: poison or toxin in broth caused animals to become ill
MICROBIOLOGY AND RELATED DISCIPLINES
Microbiology (studies): 1. living organisms (in the disciplines of) Mycology-the study of fungi Bacteriology-the study of bacteria Parasitology (multicellular)-the study of multicellular parasites --Protozoology-the study of protozoan --Phycology-the study of single celled algae 2. Infectious agents (including) Virology-the study of viruses Virus-like agents
the beginnings of microbiology
Mid 1600s -> A world existed that couldn't be seen with naked eye Microscopes: critical in the study of this world Tow early "microbiologists": Robert hooke Anton van leeuwenhoek
energy organelles of eukaryotes
Mitochondria: cellular respiration glucose -> co2 + h2O + ATP Chloroplasts: photosynthesis: CO2 + H2O -> glucose
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1674)
Netherlands, not well educated, owner of dry goods business Made his own lenses to examine quality of his cloths Developed simple microscope with pin-head sized lenses -> 200x to 300x magnification Inspired by hooke's work, began looking for microbes in 1674 Marsh water-> noticed little moving things, called them "animalcules" Could have been Protozoa? Algae? Then examined Rainwater, dental plaque, feces -> found even smaller "animalcules" Were most likely bacteria or smaller protozoans His microscope was only about 2 inches long, eye sized
VIRUSES
Non-cellular entities, very small Only visible with electron microscope Cannot grow in broth or on petri dish; MUST replicate within a host cell Composed of protein coat surrounding genome Genome: DNA or RNA based Ex: ebola, smallpox, T4 bacteriophage, COVID-19
Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote DNA
P: in nucleoid (region) (no nuclear envelope/membrane) E: in nucleus and nuclear envelope P:single circular chromosome E; linear, 2+ chromosomes
IGNAZ SEMMELWEIS AND PUERPERAL FEVER
"Childbed fever" Caused by infection of uterus within 3 days of childbirth Led to septicemia -> death 1844-1846 a significant number of new mothers contracted the disease and died at Wein maternity clinic in Vienna Hospital run by doctors and medical students Miasma? Overcrowding? 1847, Ignaz Semmelweis (hugarian physician 29 yrs old) appointed chief resident at vienna hospital Collected data and compared to dublin maternity hospital and vienna clinic run by midwives 1824 was when med students starting examining diseased cadavours, that's when there was a spike in puerperal fever Made chlorine hand washing necessary between exams and after autopsies
biofilm steps of formation
1. Attachment (reversible) Attach via organic material to living/non living surface (ie dental plaque, catheter) 2. Irreversible attachment Polysaccharide secretion -> anchored 3. Proliferation Single layer (when examined in human body)-> multiple layers (pillars) Fluids move through and bring nutrients to bacterial communities while removing wastes 4. Maturation Established, fully mature Matrix offers protection (from antibiotics, chemicals, phagocytes) 5. Dispersion Single cells can be shed from the biofilm->start new biofilm elsewhere
Koch's Four Postulates
1. The same microorganisms are present in every case of the disease 2. The microorganisms are isolated from the tissues of a dead animal, and a pure culture is prepared 3. Microorganisms from the pure culture are then inoculated into a healthy, susceptible animal. The disease is reproduced;. 4. The identical microorganisms are isolated and recultivated from the tissue specimens of the experimental animal (spores to spores, same organism)
FOUR MAJOR CHALLENGES FACING MICROBIOLOGY
1. antimicrobial resistance 2. emerging infectious diseases 3. reemerging infectious diseases 4. bioterrorism
LOUIS PASTEUR: YEASTS AND FERMENTATION
1857, sometimes wine good sometimes wines go sour to vinegar question: why do wines become sour? People at the time Believed: Wines were produced by the random chemical breakdown of grape juice to alcohol Pasteur decided to do microscopic examination: good wine (saw only yeasts) vs sour wine (saw bacteria too) Experiments: removed yeasts from grape juice using heat->no fermentation Add yeasts back to grape juice -> fermentation-> wine Remove bacteria after fermentation using heat->no wine souring Conclusion: bacteria and yeasts were agents of chemical change "Shook the scientific community" Suggested to physicians that bacteria might be CAUSE of disease not the EFFECT of disease
Classical Golden Age of Microbiology
1857-1917
END OF THE GOLDEN ERA
1857-1917 -> ended during middle of ww1 (1914-1918) Pasteur institute closed while paris under siege German labs focussed on treating war related diseases
Second Golden Age of Microbiology
1943-1970
Third Golden Age of Microbiology
1970-present
MICROBES REPRESENT DIVERSE GROUPS
2 categories: cellular and acellular Cellular (living): protozoa, fungi, prokaryote Acellular (non-living): virus, prion
Biofilms depend on
99% of bacterial species reside in biofilms Development depends on: Communication (of bacteria within biofilm) Cooperation (to maintain biofilm)
First taxonomist
Aristotle (4BC) Classified 500+organisms -> based on appearance and habitat
E. coli classification
Bacteria (eubacteria), monera, proteobacteria, gammaproteobacteria, enterobacteriales, enterobacteriaceae, Escherichia, coli
BACTERIAL HOMEOSTASIS
Bacteria are simple in appearance -> are highly complex Carry out similar homeostatic processes as eukaryotes Constantly adjust to changes in external environment to survive Ex: Prochlorococcus (photosynthetic cyanobacteria) pen ^r vs pen^s Staphylococcus aureus
basis of spontaneous generation
Basis of doctrine: Aristotle (4bc): flies, worms, and other small animals arose from decaying matter Ancient greeks: barbarians arose from decaying muck Jean Baptist van Helmont (physician, early 1600s): wheat bran + dirty shirts in closed barrel -> mice arose (therefore mice spontaneously generate) Proposed sweat as active element that produced life
john needham (1748)
British clergyman, naturalist 1748 Question: where do animalcules come from? Hypothesis: animalcules arise from decay of mutton gravy Experimental design: heat gravy in flasks then several days incubation Open or cork-closed flasks -> similar to redi's experiments, animalcules appeared in open AND cork-closed flasks Conclusion: a "vital force" reorganized decaying matter from complex organisms into animalcules His work was well-received by royal society of london
JOHN SNOW AND CHOLERA
British physician 1854 outbreak in soho district of london Question: Why is cholera spreading? Interviewed healthy and sick ppl Plotted each cholera case on a map Traced cholera to sewage contaminated water pump in london Solution: avoid contaminated water supply Removed handle of water pump Cholera no longer spread > disease transmission could be interrupted Conclusions: cholera was water borne (not airborne miasma) Spready by specific "germ" (educated guess)
KOCH AND PURE CULTURE TECHNIQUES
Broth cultures-> extremely difficult to separate one type of microbe from another Method needed to obtain cultures with one type of microbe Koch's observations... Bacteria grew in isolated colonies on potato slices (solid medium) Each colony -> only 1 type of bacterium, a "pure culture" Began adding gelatin to broths -> bacteria grew in isolated colonies Able to "pick" colonies with loop or needle -> place in sterile broth -> grow out pure broth cultures Proved that bacteria, not toxins in broth, caused disease Problem: some bacteria OR higher incubation temperatures liquified gelatin, then resulting in mixed culture not isolated colonies
Prokaryote Energy
Cell respiration: rxns occur in PM and cytoplasm Some, photosynthesis: occur in PM and cytoplasm
cytoskeleton functions 3
Cell structure Transport within cells (think gondola) Physical movement of cells from one place to another (for those capable of mvmnt)
Carolus linnaeus (1750s)
Classified thousands of plants and animals -> 2 kingdoms (Plantae, Animalia) Credited with classification of : 7700 plants, 4400 animals Sent out expeditions of students to collect new life forms for identification Popularized system of binomial nomenclature -> genus + species (descriptive modifier) Ex: Micro/coccus luteus (small/berry yellow) Staphylo/coccus epi/dermidis (cluster of grapes/berry above/skin) Microbes didn't fit well into this scheme -> proposed own classification system: Vermes (from "vermin" which means "worm") category= "chaos" which means confusion, "chaos" means "void"
MECHANICS OF CLASSIFICATION
Consistent since Linnaeus (as molecular techniques advanced) Domain (proposed by Carl Woese in the 1970s; further supported by Craig Venter in 1996): most inclusive -> Kingdom Monera further expanded into two distinct groups: Archaea and Eubacteria
EPIDEMIOLOGY AND DISEASE TRANSMISSION
Def: studies in which the source, cause, and mode of disease transmission are identified 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro (italian poet, scientist) Proposed disease was transmitted by direct contact, lifeless objects, or air -> "contagion" a minute body that caused disease (no experimental evidence, just observed) Proposed first germ theory of disease 1680, Athanasius Kircher (german priest, scholar, scientist) Observed microscopic "worms" in blood of plague victims Did not connect these observations with disease ( G-rods, Yersinia pestis) Late 1700s, Johann Frabricius (danish naturalist) Proposed rust and smut diseases were of fungal origin 1798, Edward Jenner (english physician) -> worked with smallpox (see other flashcard)
BERGEY'S MANUAL OF SYSTEMATIC BACTERIOLOGY
Developed by David Bergey (1923) Devised one of the first systems to classify prokaryotes Classifies all recognized eubacteria and archaebacteria Late 1970s: 3 volumes -> now 5 volumes From 2010 to 2015, Approximately 100 new genera, 600+ new species added per year Developed an electronic manual with frequent updates Extensive use of dichotomous keys to identify prokaryotes Based on physical characteristics and various biochemical tests
Ernst Haeckel (1866)
Developed more "true" classification scheme for microbes Established third kingdom -> Protista Newly identified microbes that didn't fit into Plantae or Animalia Included bacteria, protozoa, and fungi Shared plant and animal characteristics, but did not belong to those kingdoms Critics didn't like it: put bacteria and fungi->Plantae And Protozoa-> Animalia
TWO TYPES OF CELLULAR ORGANIZATION REALIZED
Development of electron microscope:1940s-1950s Significantly greater mag (1000s) compared to light microscopes 1. Eukaryotic cells Nucleus present, ie fungi, protists 2. Prokaryotic cells Nucleus absent, DNA located in nucleoid, ie true bacteria and archaea 3. Viruses-visualized for the first time Lack cellular organization NOT prokaryotic or eukaryotic
the three-domain system
Development of new molecular techniques in biology and biochemistry -> Identified unique ribosomal RNA sequences in some types of bacteria compared to others, how we developed domain containing: archaea, eubacteria (or bacteria), eukarya
Taxonomic Rankings
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
eukaryotic vs prokaryotic flagella
E: covered by PM; tubulin subunits; whip (undulate) P: NOT covered by PM; flagellin subunits; rotate CW/CCW Ex: Trichonympha (?)
eukaryotic vs prokaryotic cilia
E:Tubulin subunits, used for mvmnt and feeding P: NONE Ex: Paramecium
SANITARY MOVEMENT
Efforts by semmelweis and snow -> contributed to development of sanitary movement Studies indicated disease is associated with bad air and filth Therefore Public health systems developed Began Cleaning streets, installing new sewer lines Improving overall working conditions of working class
Robert Hooke (1665)
England. Natural philosopher Utilized primitive, compound microscopes with 2 lenses (25x mag)--similar to dissecting scopes today Made detailed studies of various organisms Submitted letters containing his work to Royal society of london -> Micrographia (1665) Numerous laborate drawings and descriptions of various organisms First to describe and draw microbes Cork : noticed made of squares that looked like monk's cells, coined term cells Drew first Mold on book cover
Protists
Eukaryotic Single celled protozoa and single celled algae Movement: pseudopodia (like amoeba), cillia, flagella Most are heterotrophic (require preformed nutrients) (amoeba, bortichella) Some are photosynthetic (euglena, volvox)
Fungi
Eukaryotic Unicellular yeasts and multicellular, filamentous molds (ex bread mold) Not photosynthetic Secrete enzymes extracellularly to absorb nutrients
IGNAZ SEMMELWEIS results
Few physicians initially heeded his mandatory instructions Saw significant decrease in childbed fever deaths Showed disease transmission could be interrupted by simple action Strengthened belief of other physicians March 1849, semmelweis terminated at vienna hospital (scorned, ridiculed for his efforts) Left vienna and moved to hungary 1860 experienced nervous breakdown and committed to mental asylum 1865, died possibly from puerperal fever
Motility Structures
Flagella: long, thin projections Cilia: short, more numerous projections
Louis Pasteur experiment 3
Flask 1: Sterile broth in swan neck flask, air microbes settle in lower portion of s shaped tube, no organisms appear in broth, but when neck is snapped off the organisms appear, Flask 2: tilts flask so broth enters tube neck, then organisms appear in flask, indicating they'd settled
spontaneous generation controversy
French academy of sciences sponsored a contest (mid 1800s) Louis pasteur: french chemist 1861, Designed series of experiments that were variations of those performed by spallanzani and needham (each begins with boiled broth solution)
THE COMPETITION PERIOD: POST 1870S
French vs german scientists and infectious diseases Other global pioneers contribute to microbiology
why did common people believe in spontaneous generation
Frequently observed toads arising from slime in marshes Maggots arising from decaying meat
emerging infectious diseases
From non-human sources (ie animals) ie aids (viral), lyme disease (bacaterial)., mad cow disease (prions), swine flu (viral), covid 19 (viral) No "cure" at this point How do we detect these in human populations? How do we treat those infected?
Robert Koch and anthrax
German physician, country doctor (pasteur's contemporary (same time period)) Primarily interested in anthrax -> Bacillus anthracis (a=coal) Deadly disease in cattle and sheep when spores are ingested Blood and other tissues would fill with bacilli (microscopic exam) Internal organs filled with bloody "black" fluid-how get species name Bloody dark discharge from eyes nose, mouth, anus, vulva, and udders of dead animals Can also be cutaneous anthrax -> black lesions on skin 1875, Koch injected mice with diseased blood from cattle or sheep Mice died, same symptoms appeared in mice when autopsied at death
Louis Pasteur's final experiment
Pasteur: no microbes from air appear in flask because cant reach broth-> Conclusion: microbes arise from other microbes in air Critics: life force needs more time to induce spontaneous generation of microbes Days later... flask still free of anything living Pasteur has refuted the doctrine of spontaneous generation!!
JOSEPH LISTER: ANTISEPSIS
Professor of surgery, scotland 1865 >50% of amputees died from postoperative complications associated with infection If Pasteur's germ theory was true.. Could disease transmission during surgeries be interrupted? Began using carbolic acid spray on wounds during surgery-> Bc knew Carbolic acid was effective in controlling sewage No infection occurred during the healing process! Led to the use of antiseptics (chemicals on LIVING surfaces)->antisepsis Note: Disinfectants are used on NON LIVING surfaces
true bacteria
Prokaryotic, small, single celled 3 basic shapes: bacillus, spiral, coccus Some photosynthetic, ie Anabaena (cyanobacteria)
GERM THEORY OF DISEASE
Proposed by louis pasteur in his paper on wine souring in 1857 Theory: "Some microorganisms are responsible for infectious diseases" Proven to be correct 1876 (robert koch) Pasteur's experiment led to process of Pasteurization: Solution to sour wine problem Heat grape juice to destroy all living organisms (agents of chem change) in juice Then add yeasts back to ferment the juice
Eukarya
Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
functions of cell walls 3
Provide support Give cell shape Resist differences in osmotic pressure (so they don't explode in hypotonic solution)
endomembrane system of eukaryotes
RER (passage of channels that begins with nuclear memb., dotted with ribosomes) -> protein synthesis SER-> has enzymes for lipid synthesis (no ribosomes) Golgi apparatus -> sorts, modifies, and repackages proteins and lipids -> Bud off golgi in vesicles-> Destination: plasma membrane insertion, secreted, remain in cell as lysosomes lysosomes-> filled with digestive enzymes
Van Leewenhoek saw
Rbcs in human blood, neutrophils Spirillum volutans In feces: Giardia intestinalis (protozoa) Drawings: of paramecium, other protozoans Duckweed root-associated -> Rotifers Hydra Vorticellids Protozoans in pepper water, hay water, seminal animalcules, First recorded drawings of bacteria: from his mouth
TRANSITION PERIOD: LATE 1600S THROUGH 1700S
Scientists focused on classification of plants and animals via binomial nomenclature (carolus linnaeus, swedish botanist) Some work done with microbes-> 1718 louis joblot protozoan review 1725 abraham tremblay: hydra description infection /disease due to "miasma" Believed Source was: arose from diseased or decaying bodies Correct source, but incorrect cause
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS (for describing unknown bacteria)
Shape (rod, spirillum, coccus), size, and organization of bacterial cells (singlets, chains, clusters Oxygen needs Optimal pH and temperature requirements Growth characteristics: in broth, on agar slants, on agar plates Staining reactions; Gram stain, spore stain, acid-fast stain, etc. Type of movement: via gliding? Via flagella (in broth)? Flagella: number, location on bacterial cell
1798, Edward Jenner (english physician)
Smallpox: 40% mortality rate, most left with pock scars Observations: Cowpox (udders of cows) -> could be transmitted to humans Formed skin lesions on humans Ppl who had experienced cowpox were immune to smallpox Experiment: Human donor (dairy maid) with cowpox lesions -> scraped lesions Scratched into skin of young boy 6 weeks later, inoculated boy with smallpox -> no smallpox developed Successfully immunized boy without knowing the cause of disease!
Prochlorococcus (photosynthetic cyanobacteria)
Some reside 80-200 m below ocean surface -> produce more chlorophyll than those closer to surface where there's more light
golden era led to
Sterilize practices in hospitals Pasteurization of milk Purification of water Control of insects Care of food prep Improved sanitation Improved personal hygiene
van leewenhoek's legacy
Submitted over 300 letters to royal society of london Origin and purpose unknown Died in 1723 -> 90 yrs old (42 yrs avg lifespan at the time) Interest in microbes waned due to his lack of collaborative efforts -> preferred to work secretly Took over 100 yrs for scientists to develop methods to grind lenses with magnification similar to van leeuwenhoek's microscopes Microbes still considered "curiosities of nature"
taxonomy: the science of classification
Systematic arrangement of all living things into logical categories Based on shared, similar characteristics Allows easier and more accurate communication between scientists worldwide ex:US: corn, England:maize -> Zea mays
spontaneous generation
Theory: life results from nonlife (via putrefaction or decay) without need for a parent organism
KOCH'S POSTULATES (1875-1876) context
These postulates (requirements) are used to relate a single organism to the cause of a single disease 4 postulates assoc with his mice and anthrax experiment 1875-1900 approx. 20 diseases were assoc with a specific microbe Method still used today! NOT used for viruses
synthetic biology: microfocus 1.1
To rebuild or create new "life forms" from scratch by recombining molecules taken from other organisms Synthetic mycoplasma bacterial cells Frankenstein microbes?? Why?? For what purpose??
pen ^r vs pen^s Staphylococcus aureus
Treated with penicillin Resistant vs sensitive (to antibiotics) strains, sensitive strains die, resistant survive
Bioterrorism
Use of biological agents to instill fear and/or induce disease or death How do we detect these in a human population? How do we treat these when "unleashed"? Individuals? Whole pop?
MICROBES USED AS MODEL SYSTEMS
Used to advance field of microbiology Primarily used bacteria and fungi (ie yeasts) as model systems Purpose: to answer basic biology questions that could apply to other more complex living organisms or non-cellular entities like viruses Ex: Are mutations spontaneous or induced? How are genes related to proteins? Are proteins or nucleic acids the genetic material? How does the genetic code produce proteins?
(1665): THE PLAGUE (MIASMA) TIME
Van leewenhoek and hooke's time Bathed 3 times in life: birth, marriage, after death No indoor plumbing, cesspools mixed with drinking water, ate rotten food, life expectancy: 42 yrs
FANNY HESSE: A TALE OF JAMS AND JELLIES
Wife of walter hesse, one of koch's associates Lab assistant to walter Since she used agar powder to solidify jams and jellies, maybe could add it to nutrient broth? Walter makes suggestion to koch, it works, still used today (agar plates)
Louis Pasteur experiment 1
boiled broth, open to air and sealed, organisms appeared in open air one only Concluded broth provides nutrients for growth of unseen microbes in the air: life from life Critics: decomposed products in broth give rise to life through spontaneous generation Pasteur: heat killed microorganisms in air Critics: sealing flask prevents entry of life force needed for spontaneous generation
PROKARYOTES VS EUKARYOTES
both have: DNA, plasma membrane of phospholipid bilayer with proteins on/in it (fluid mosaic model), cytoplasm, ribosomes
miasma
chemical poisoning of the air Believed Source was: arose from diseased or decaying bodies
Human Classification
eukarya, animalia, chordata, mammalia, primates, hominidae, Homo, sapiens
brewer's yeast classification
eukarya, fungi, ascomycota, saccharomycotina, saccharomycetales, saccharomycetaceae, Saccharomyces, cerevisiae
Animalia
multicellular, have "mouth" structure Intracellular digestion
Plantae
multicellular, photosynthetic Cellulose in cell walls
Fungi
nongreen, Non Photosynthetic organisms Have chitin as cell wall (only group with chitin) Coenocytic: share cytoplasm with adjacent cells, not really multicellular, cross walls have pores in them Digest nutrients extracellularly and then absorb them into cytoplasm
Only eukaryotes have
organelles: Discrete, intracellular compartments usually bound with membranes
antimicrobial resistance
overuse of antibiotics-> resistant strains flourish, some resistant to multiple antibiotics Number of resistant strains increasing faster than ability to develop/find new antibiotics
Archaea
prokaryotic , small, single celled Often extremophiles Barophiles-high pressure, deep ocean May see odd shapes, ie Stella (star shaped
Robert Whittaker (1959)
proposed five kingdoms: monera protista fungi plantae animalia
Louis Pasteur experiment 2
sterile broth plus sterilizes air, but leaves open top, no organisms appear Pasteur: heat killed microbes in air Critics: sterilizing air kills the life force
Eubacteria or Bacteria
true bacteria, cyanobacteria
Monera
true prokaryotes Ex: bacteria, cyanobacteria
Protista
unicellular or colonial eukaryotes Lack tissue organization pattern Default kingdom
Archaea
unique rRNA sequences compared to true bacteria Over 50% DNA contains unique sequences compared to true bacteria Lack peptidoglycan in cell wall Diff types of lipids in PM Different sensitivities to antibiotics (bc diff cell wall)
