Mid-Term Review

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

"Father of microscopy," developed powerful microscopes. First to see and write about bacteria, yeast plants, living organisms in a drop of water and the circulation of blood corpuscles in capillaries.

El Greco

A Greek artist famous in Spain. He painted with contemporary and abstract styles.

"Holy Alliance"

Agreement with Tsar Alexander I of Russia, proposed for all monarchs to sign a statement agreeing to uphold Christian principals of charity and peace throughout Europe. All signed EXCEPT Pope, Sultan and GB. Only Alexander I took it seriously. Liberals viewed it as alliance of monarchies against progress and liberty.

September Massacres

Led by the Paris Commune. Mobs slaughtered over a thousand priests, bourgeosie, and aristocrats who opposed there program; many were in prison.

Suleiman the Magnificent

The most illustrious sultan of the Ottoman Empire (r. 1520-1566); also known as Suleiman Kanuni, 'The Lawgiver.' He significantly expanded the empire in the Balkans and eastern Mediterranean.

Edmund Burke

Wrote Reflections on the Revolution in France. One of the greatest intellectual defenses of European conservatism. He defended inherited privileges.

Hapsburg-Valois Wars

five wars between 1521 and 1555 between France and the Hapsburgs, France tried to keep Germany divided (although France was Catholic, This conflict played an important role in retarding unification of the German states ,Catholic unity in Germany never again occurred

"Time of Troubles"

followed death of Ivan IV without heir early in 17th century; boyars attempted to use vacuum of power to reestablish their authority; ended with selection of Michael Romanov as tsar in 1613.

Fredrick William, the great elector

laid the foundation for the prussian state. built large and efficient standing army.

Act of Supremacy

made the king officially the head of the Church

Spanish Armada

(1588) the Spanish fleet that attempted to invade England, ending in disaster, due to the raging storm in the English Channel as well as the smaller and better English navy led by Francis Drake. This is viewed as the decline of Spains Golden Age, and the rise of England as a world naval power.

Council of Trent

(3 sessions 1545-1563): established Catholic dogma for the next four centuries. Equal validity of Scripture, Church traditions, and writings of Church fathers. Salvation by both "good works" and faith. All 7 sacraments valid; transubstantiation reaffirmed. Monasticism, celibacy of clergy, and purgatory reaffirmed

Spanish Netherlands

10 southern provinces of the Netherlands that remained under control of Philip II after initially joining the Protestant provinces in a short lived confederation during the Dutch Revolt. Modern day Belgium.

Leopold I

1658-1705 Jesuit influence, restricted Protestantism Defended Vienna from Ottoman Turks in Seige of Vienna Hapsburg Austrian Ruler

Treaty of Utrecht

1713, ended War of Spanish Succession between Louis XIV's France and the rest of Europe; prohibited joining of French and Spanish crowns; ended French expansionist policy; ended golden age of Spain; vastly expanded British Empire

Napoleon Bonaparte

1769-1821: Italian descent, born on island of Corsica, Military genius, "child of the Enlightenment," Associated with the Jacobins, advanced in Army early on, inspired a divided nation and unified it during the Directory Period at the price of individual liberties.

Henry VIII

2nd of the Tudor monarch. Had earlier been a conservative and critical of Lutheranism and reform, The pope awarded Henry with the title "Defender of the Faith". formed the Anglican Church

War of the First Coalition

5 years long, 1792-1797. French revolutionary forces were soundly defeated by the Austrian military. Intensified existing unrest and dissatisfaction of unpropertied classes. Only the conflict between eastern monarchs over the division of Poland saved France from defeat.

witch hunts

70,000-100,000 people killed between 1400 and 1700 80% were single, widowed, women. Up to maybe 100,000 people sentenced to burn for witchcraft.

Martin Luther

95 Thesis, posted in 1517, led to religious reform in Germany, denied papal power and absolutist rule. Claimed there were only 2 sacraments: baptism and communion.

Girolamo Savonarola

A Dominican Friar who attacked the government of Lorenzo de' Medici and the corruption of Pope Alexander VI. He became a religious leader of Florence, and was excommunicated and executed by the Pope.

Giotto

A Florentine Painter who led the way in the use of realism; sometimes called the "father of renaissance painting"

Masaccio

A Florentine artist who was the first to start using light and shade to help achieve perspective. He also developed linear perspective. It was first shown in "The Tribute Money". He had a large influence on other Renaissance artists.

Ghiberti

A Florentine sculptor who designed the bronze doors for the Baptistry in Florence after winning a contest in 1401.

Francois Rabelais

A Former monk and French humanist who wrote the comic masterpieces Gargantua and Pantagruel. The stories contained gross humor.

Cesare Borgia

A political leader, son of Pope Alexander VI, and a member of the Spanish Borgia family, he had ambitions of uniting all of Italy under his control. His father tried to exploit his office for the benefit of his relatives.

Balance of Power

A political situation in which no one nation is powerful enough to pose a threat to others

Medici family

A powerful banking family that gained power in Florence in the 15th century. They were major patrons of the arts, and helped majorly in the Florentine renaissance.

Politique

A ruler who puts the success of his state above everything else (Political issues ahead of religious principles)

Contrapposto

A style of Greek sculpture where people are depicted standing and leaning so that the person's weight is being put on one side. People are depicted with their bodies curved like an "S".

Treaty of Westphalia

Agreement that ended the 30 Years' War. It led to the division of Germany by giving princes the power to decide which faith they would follow and making them independent of the HRE. It granted the Swiss and Dutch Republics independence. It gave France some Habsburg lands. It was made at what is seen as the first modern peace conference.

Law of Suspects

Alleged enemies of the revolution were brought before Revolutionary Tribunals that were created to hear cases of treason.

Bramante

An architect who was one of the original architects of St. Peter's basilica in the Vatican.

Civic humanism

An ideology celebrated by many rich merchants in Italian city-states that preached public virtue and serving one's state for the greater good.

French Classicism

Art, literature, and advancements of the age of Louis XIV. France became the cultural center of the world.

Assembly of Notables

Assembled by Louis XVI in hope that they would either approve the king's new tax program or consent to remove their tax exemptions. They refused tax increases and demanded that control of government spending be given to provincial assemblies. Demanded that sweeping tax changes required approval of Estates General. Were later dismissed and the king passed new taxes by decree.

Scientific Revolution

Caused by a desire to discover more about the universe and how thing work practically. Medieval studies provide the framework. Mathematics, Navigation, Methodology, and Astronomy are popular topics of study. Became the major cause of the new world view of the 17th and 18th centuries

Romanov dynasty

Dynasty that favored the nobles, reduced military obligations, expanded the Russian empire further east, and fought several unsuccessful wars, yet they lasted from 1613 to 1917.

Francis Xavier

Early Jesuit missionary often called the Apostle to the Indies. He was an associate of St Ignatius of Loyola, with whom he took the vow founding the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). From 1541 he traveled through India, Japan, and the East Indies, making many converts.

German Confederation (Bund)

End of HRE. 39 states out of the original 300. Maintained Napoleon's reorganization. Loose confederation where members remained virtually sovereign.

Treaty of Luneville

Ended the Second Coalition War.Resulted in Austria's loss of Italian possessions.German territory on the west bank of the Rhine incorporated into France. Russia retreats from western Europe. Great Britain was isolated.

Order in Council

England's response to the Berlin Decree, neutrals might enter continental ports only if they first stopped in Great Britain.

Émigrés

French nobles who fled France beginning in 1789, influenced Prussia and Austria to declare the restoration of the French monarchy as their goal.

Immanuel Kant

Greatest German philosopher of the Enlightenment. Separated science and morality into separate branches of knowledge.

Diego Velazquez

He was considered the greatest court painter, created portraits of the Spanish court and their surroundings.

Henry IV

He was known as "Henry of Navarre". First Bourbon king of France, and converted to Catholicism from Calvinism to bring peace after the French Civil War. ("Paris is worth a Mass"). He passed the Edict of Nantes and was also assassinated in 1610.

Louis XIV

He was known as the Sun King, he was an absolute monarch that completely controlled France. One of his greatest accomplishments was the building of the palace at Versailles.

Lord Horatio Nelson

He was one of the greatest military heroes in English History. Defeated French & Spanish fleet at Battle of Trafalgar.

Thomas Hobbes

He wrote "Leviathan". Negative view of human beings in a "state of nature. Thought that the Government was a monster. The central drive in every person is power

Scientific Method

Inductive method (of Bacon) + Deductive method (of Descartes)

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Issued on August 26, 1789. Became the constitutional blueprint for France. Enlightenment philosophy: classical liberalism. Freedom of expression and religion. Liberty defined as freedom to do anything not injurious to others, which was to be determined only by law. Taxes could be raised only with common consent. All public servants accountable for conduct in office. Separation of powers through separate branches. Confiscation of property from private persons had to be done with fair compensation. "Citizen" applied to all French people, regardless of class. (not women)

Battle of Waterloo

June 1815; Last of the Napoleonic Battles. Napoleon defeated by British and Prussian forces. Afterwards Napoleon is exiled to the island of St. Helena where he died in 1821.

Francis I

King of France who was regarded as Renaissance monarch; a patron of arts who imposed new controls on Catholic church; ally of Ottoman sultan against Holy Roman emperor. He also devised the sale of public offices in France to raise money to pay for the economically disastrous Hapsburg-Valois wars.

Maximilien Robespiere

Led the Committee of Public Safety (COPS) and was influenced heavily by the ideas of Rousseau and fanatically supported revolutionary idealism.

Napoleonic Code

Legal Unity, provided first and clear complete codification of French Law, longest lasting legacy of Napoleon, this included civil code, criminal code of procedure, penal code and commercial code. Emphasized protection of private property. Resulted in strong central government and administrative unity.

Flight to Varennes

Louis XVI tried to escape France in June, 1791 to avoid having to approve the constitution of 1791 and to raise a counter-revolutionary army with émigré noblemen and seek help from foreign powers.

Albrecht von Wallenstein

Protestant born German mercenary who hired his army out to the Holy Roman Emperor during the 30 Years War. He led his troops to many early victories against protestant forces. He was later assassinated by the HRE after rumors spread that he was negotiating with the Protestants.

Liberum Veto

Required unanimous agreement for the government to act.

Louis XVIII

Restoration of a Bourbon monarch after Napoleon's exile to Elba.

Predestination

Since God is all-knowing, he already knows who is going to Heaven and who is destined for Hell.

conquistadores

Spanish 'conqueror' or soldier in the New World. They were searching for the 3-G's: gold, God, and glory.

Mercantilism

State control over a country's economy in order to achieve a favorable balance of trade with other countries.

Intendant System

System created by Cardinal Richelieu (under Louis XIII) in order to weaken the nobility. The system replaced local officials with middle-class or minor noble civil servants and each of the country's thirty-two districts had an intendant responsible for maintaining justice, police, and finance. As a result of this system, the French government became more efficient and centrally controlled.

Methodism

Taught need for spiritual regeneration and a moral life that would demonstrate one's having been "born again."

Peace of Augsburg, 1555

Temporarily ended the struggle in Germany over Lutheranism, Princes in Germany could choose either Protestantism or Catholicism

Edward VI

Ten-years-old when he became king. Those who governed on his behalf were strongly Protestant. England moved towards Protestantism during his reign by adopting Calvinism

Polish Partitions

Territorial growth under Catherine the Great, annexed Polish territory with Prussia and Austria in 1772, 1793, and 1795.

"elect/visible saints"

The "elect" are church members who have had their conversion experience. They should become model Christians: "visible saints"

Boccaccio

The man who wrote the Decameron which tells about ambitious merchants, portrays a sensual, and worldly society.

ancien regime

The old order in France. The ride of the enlightenment, American ideals, government criticism, and class conflict lead to its breakdown.

War of the Three Henry's

This was the last of the civil wars that occurred over the religious differences and dynastic supremacy in France, between the Catholics (Henry III of France and Henry of Guise) and Protestants (Henry IV). Henry IV emerged as the leader of France.

The Protectorate

This was the name of the military dictatorship that England took on during the reign of Oliver Cromwell

French Civil Wars

Wars of religion and dynastic supremacy that rocked France from 1562- 1598. They ocurred because of the death of the Valois king, Henry II, and his wife's inability to stop the spread of Calvinism in France. The Guise (Catholic), Valois (Catholic), and Bourbn (Protestant) families were involved.

Michael Servetus

a Unitarian humanist from Spain, was burned at the stake in 1553 for his denial of the Trinity

Colloquy at Marburg

a meeting at Marburg Castle, which attempted to solve a dispute between Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli over the Real Presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper

Middle class (bourgeoisie)

consisted of skilled workers, professionals, and wealthy farmer

Nepotism

favoring family members in the appointment of Church offices

robot

labor obligation of "free" (non-serf) peasants to give 3-4 days of labor a week to local lord w/out pay

Alphonse de Albuquerque

1453-1515: laid the foundation for Portuguese imperialism in the 16th and 17th centuries; established strategy of making coastal regions a base to control the Indian Ocean

Amerigo Vespucci

1454-1512 AD Italian explorer and navigator who, upon exploring the American mainland and the South American coast, concluded that Columbus' discovery was actually a new world. It was named "America" in his honor.

Quattrocento

14th century

German Peasants War, Twelve Articles

1525: peasants demanded end of serfdom and tithes, and other practices of feudalism that oppressed the peasantry (e.g. hunting rights) Many of these peasants were inspired by Luther As many as 100,000 peasants died during the uprising

Fronde

1648-1653. Brutal civil wars that struck France during the reign of Louis XIV.

Legislative Assembly

1791-1792. A completely new group of legislators replaced the National Assembly in the new government. Reflected the emergence of political factions.

Catherine of Aragon

1st wife of Henry VIII. Mother of Mary I. Henry's desire for a divorce from her precipitated England's break with Rome.

Anne Boleyn

2nd wife of Henry VIII

Escorial

A Spanish monastery and palace built by Philip II.

General Will

A consensus of the majority, strongly implied democracy, but caused minority viewpoints to not be recognized.

Commenda system

A contract between a merchant and a merchant adventurer who agrees to take goods to distant locations and return with the proceeds for 1/3 of the profit.

Pope Alexander VI

A corrupt Spanish Renaissance pope whose immorality sparked debate about the integrity of the Catholic Church.

Jacob Burckhart

A historian considered the discoverer of the Renaissance as a movement, and asserted the distinction of the Renaissance as compared to the Middle Ages.

Condotierri

A soldier for hire.They were mercenary generals of private armies hired by cities for military purposes.

Sfumato

A style of painting that creates a soft, smoky look and soft edges to the figures and scenery in a painting. It was commonly used in the works of Leonardo Da Vinci.

Bosch

A surrealist painter of the Netherlands who focused his works on symbolism, fantasy, confusion, death and the torments of Hell. He is famous for painting "Death and the Miser".

Encomienda System

A system whereby the Spanish crown granted the conquerors the right to forcibly employ groups of Indians; it was a disguised form of slavery.

Concordat of 1801

Agreement with the Roman Catholic Church, motives to justify economic inequality and weaken monarchists who wanted to restore Bourbon Dynasty to the throne. 1) Papacy renounced lands confiscated during Rev 2) French gov't nominates/dispose of Bishops 3)Priests who resisted Civil Constitution of the Clergy will be rewarded and replace those who pledged loyalty to the state 4) Public worship allowed 5)Church seminaries reopened 6) all religions receive equal civil rights 7) reinstate Christian calendar 8) Napoleon did not want to it to be a sponsored religion-appoints protestants to state payroll

Creoles

American-born Spaniards who owned land, but ranked below "real" Europeans.

Jansenists

Catholics who held some Calvinist ideas.

Rene de Maupeou

Chancellor under Louis XV. Ordered to subdue judicial opposition.

Tragedy at Munster

Combined armies of Protestant and Catholic forces captured the city and executed Anabaptist leaders

Peter Paul Reubens

Flemish baroque painter, worked the for Hapsburg court, emphasized color and sensuality, animated figures, half of his work deals with christian subjects, known for his nudes like roman goddesses, water nymphs saints and angels.

John Wesley

Founder of Methodism

Jean Bodin

He believed that only absolutism could provide order and force people to obey the government.

boyars

Land owning aristocracy in early Russia.

Poland-Lithuania

Large non-unified state joined by two crowns. Comprised of Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, and Bohemia.

Hungary

Largest part of Austria Proper Serfdom intensified

Jacques Necker

Louis XVI's director of finances. Tried to raise taxes but was dismissed.

Battle of Leipzig

October 1813; Napoleon FINALLY defeated. He lost 500k out of 600k grand army. Largest battle in history until 20th century.

Frederick the Great

One of the greatest rulers in German history, profoundly influenced by the Enlightenment.

Meztizos

People who are a mix of Europeans and Natives

Physiocrats

People who opposed mercantilist policies.

Artemesia Gentilleschi

Perhaps the first female artist to gain recognition in the post-Renaissance era. First woman to paint historical and religious scenes.

asiento

Permisson granted from Spain to Britain to send enslaved Africans to Spain's American colonies.

Two Treatises of Civil Government

Philosophical defense for the "Glorious Revolution" in England. Written by John Locke in 1690.

William of Orange

Protestant ruler of the Netherlands who led a revolt for independence against Hapsburg Philip II of Spain.

"Sparta of the North"

Prussia under Frederick William I "Soldier King" highest virtue was unquestioning obedience most militaristic society of modern times

Denis Diderot

Published the Encyclopedia, completed in 1765.

Madame de Stael

Ran a salon and wrote widely read books. Deplored subordination of women to men that the revolution had done so little to change.

Compensation

Reward states that made significant contributions to defeating Napoleon.

Congress of Vienna

September 1814-June 1815. Representatives of the major powers of Europe including France. Met to redraw territorial lines, restore the political and social order of the Ancien Regime. The Big Four: Austria, England, Prussia and Russia.

Heliocentric View

The Earth revolves around the sun and the sun is the center of the universe

Charles VII

The King encouraged to take the throne by Joan of Arc. He managed to push back the English army and end the Hundred Years War.

"Age of Rousseau"

The Republic. 1792-1799.

Nobility of the Sword

The old fashioned nobility who gain their power by fighting for land.

Classical Liberalism

The political outgrowth of the Enlightenment. Belief in the liberty of the individual and equality before the law. Religious toleration, freedom of speed & press, just punishments for crimes, and equal treatment before the law.

Swedish Phase

The third period of the Thirty Years' War marked by Sweden's entrance into the war. During this period, the Protestants began to defeat the Catholics on many fronts.

"God, glory, gold"

The three main reasons Mariners wanted to explore for. God- To Spread Christianity, Glory- to be remembered in history, Gold- to become rich.

Enlightenment

The time period in which cultural and social changes occurred emphasizing reason, analysis and individualism rather than traditional ways of thinking.

Louis XI ("Spider King")

This king of France contributed the most to the consolidation of France. He was often under-estimated as he didn't buy into flashy fashions, and as a result was greatly successful. As many men of the French nobility were killed fighting England and each other, and law dictated that estates without male heirs were inherited by the crown, Louis XI accumulated a great deal of land. He acquired Anjou, Maine, and Bourbon when they had no male heirs, and Brittany and Orleans by arranging marriages involving his children.

Consulate Period

Took power Christmas Day 1799-1804, Constitution gave supreme power to Napoleon Bonaparte, he created an effective bureaucracy, demanded loyalty, rewarded ability although wealth determined status in empire.

Anabaptist

Voluntary association of believers with no connection or allegiance to any state. Rejected secular agreements, refused to take civil oaths, pay taxes, hold public office, or serve in the military

Lorenzo Valla

Wrote "On Pleasure", and "On the False Donation of Constantine", which challenged the authority of the papacy. He is the father of modern historical criticism.

Sack of Rome

a military event carried out by the mutinous troops of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor in Rome, then part of the Papal States in 1527.

Bullionism

a nation's policy of accumulating as much precious metal (gold and silver) as possible while preventing its outward flow to other countries

Clerical Ignorance

many priest were virtually illiterate

Hohenzollerns

ruling family of Prussia

Ecracsez l'infame

"Crush the infamous thing." Quote by John Locke, the infamous thing being religious intoleration.

Petrarch

"Father of Humanism." studied classical Greek and Latin. introduced emotion in "Sonnets to Laura".

Ivan III

"Ivan the Great"; ruled as great prince and first ruler of the independent state called Russia

Ivan IV

"The Terrible"; Russian ruler; cruel and tyranical; murdered nobility; extremely paranoid (killed his own son); taxed people heavily; took title of "czar"

Hernan Cortes

(1485-1547) Spanish conquistador who defeated the Aztecs and conquered Mexico

Henry VIII

(1491-1547) King of England from 1509 to 1547; his desire to annul his marriage led to a conflict with the pope, England's break with the Roman Catholic Church, and its embrace of Protestantism. Henry established the Church of England in 1532.

Cardinal Richelieu

(1585-1642) French Cardinal and politician, also laid foundation for absolutism in France.

Spanish Armada

(1588) In this battle Phillip II tried to attack England but his naval fleet was completely destroyed

English Civil War

(1642-1651) Armed conflict between royalists and parliamentarians, resulting in a victory of Pro-Parliament forces and the execution of Charles I.

3 Laws of Planetary Motion

1. Orbits of planets are elliptical. 2. Planets do not move at uniform speed while in their orbits. 3. The time it takes for a planet to orbit the sun is directly based on its distance from the sun. Developed by Kepler.

Cinquecento

15th century

National Assembly

1789-1791. A new legislative body made of the Third Estate. When Louis XVI locked them out of their meeting place they met in an indoor tennis court. Defections from other estates forced Louis XVI to recognize the it after he dissolved the Estates General.

"Great Fear"

1789. Spirit of rebellion spread to the French countryside, sparking a wave of violence. Peasants attacked manor houses in an effort to destroy the legal records of their feudal obligations. Middle class landowners were attacked. Recent enclosures were undone, old common lands were reoccupied, and forests were seized. Taxes went unpaid. Middle class responded by forming a National Guard Militia to protect property rights.

War of the Third Coalition

1805-1807; Napoleon had plans to invade GB, Austria allied with GB and Russia to form coalition. Napoleon's conquest of Italy signaled he was a threat to the Balance of Power in Europe.

Berlin Decree

1806; Napoleon sought to starve Britain out by closing ports on the continent to British commerce.

Milan Decree

1807; Napoleon's response to the British's "Order in Council" he states that any neutral ship entering a British port, or submitting to a British warship at sea, would be confiscated by it if it attempted to enter a Continental Port.

Battle of Borodino

1812; ended in a draw with Russians retreating in good order. Napoleon overextended himself.

War of Fourth Coalition

1813-1814; Britain, Prussia, Austria & Russia against France.

Concert of Europe

1815-1848; Included arrangements to guarantee enforcement of the status quo as defined by the Vienna Settlement. Highly conservative in nature.

Jesuits (Society of Jesus)

3 goals: reform the church through education, spread the Gospel to pagan people, fight Protestantism

Francesco Ximenes de Cisneros

A Spanish humanist who rigorously reformed the Spanish clergy and Church. He was the Grand Inquisitor of the Spanish Inquisition, and wrote the "Complutensian Polyglot Bible," combining Hebrew, Greek and Latin versions all together.

Miguel de Cervantes

A Spanish writer best remembered for 'Don Quixote' which satirizes chivalry and influenced the development of the novel form.

Commercial Revolution

A dramatic change in the economy of Europe at the end of the Middle Ages. It is characterized by an increase in towns and trade, the use of banks and credit, and the establishment of guilds to regulate quality and price.

Fugger family

A family in Germany who had a great deal of money due to international banking, and they used thir pull to patronize art of the Northern Renaissance.

Consistory

A judiciary made up of lay elders (presbyters) had the power to impose harsh penalties for those who did not follow God's law

Noble Savage

A man in a simpler state of nature was good

Table of Ranks

Allowed government officials to attain government positions based on merit

Michelangelo

An Italian Renaissance artist that painted the Sistine Chapel ceiling and sculpted the statue of David.

Botticelli

An Italian Renaissance painter best known for his painting, "Birth of Venus"; in "Birth of Venus" he painted the ideal for female beauty during the Renaissance; slender, pale skin, a high forehead, red-blond hair, and sloping shoulders.

Baldassare Castiglione

An Italian author who wrote the book The Courtier in 1528. He described the ideal Renaissance man and woman.

Giorgio Vasari

An Italian painter and art historian who wrote "The Lives of the Artists". Massive patronage of the arts came from this and was lead by families like the Medicis and the churches, who saw art as a means of glorifying God.

Holy Roman Empire

An empire established in Europe in the 10th century A.D., originally consisting mainly of lands in what is now Germany and Italy

Columbian Exchange

An exchange of goods, ideas and skills from the Old World (Europe, Asia and Africa) to the New World (North and South America) and vice versa.

Northern Renaissance

An extension of the Italian Renaissance to the nations Germany, Flanders, France, and England. It took on a more religious nature than the Italian Renaissance

City-states

An independent political entity comprised of a city.

Maria Theresa

Assumed the Habsburg empire from her father, Charles VII. Could not assume the title of HRE as she was female. Loses Silesia to Prussia, but saves her leadership of the empire.

Tudor Dynasty

Began by Henry VII after the War of Roses, this began in 1485.

Consulate Era

Beginning with the establishment of a new constitution due to Napoleon seizing control.

Grand Empire

Begins in 1805, Napoleon engages in constant warfare. He achieves largest empire since Roman times. France extends to the Rhine, including Belgium and Holland, the German coast to the western Baltic, and the Italian coast down to Rome. All countries including satellite states saw the intro of some of the main points of the Fr. Rev.

Bishop Bossuet

Believed in Divine Right of Kings during the rein of Louis XIV.

"Age of Montesquieu"

Constitutional Monarchy 1789-1792

Mary Tudor

Daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon who was Queen of England from 1553 to 1558. She re-established the Catholic Church and persecuted Protestants within England. Married to Philip II.

Battle of Austerlitz

December 1805 (Moravia) Tsar Alexander I pulls Russian troops out, Napoleon granted victory. Austria accepts territorial losses for peace. Third Coalition collapses. Napoleon controlled both Western and central Europe.

Cartesian Dualism

Divides all existence into spiritual and material. Spiritual is examined through deductive reasoning, material is examined through the experimental method.

Junkers

Dominated Prussian military officer corps Nobility of the Sword (Prussia) Dominated estates of Brandenburg and Prussia

Tycho Brahe

Europe's leading astronomer in the last-16th century. Built the best observatory in Europe and collected massive data on his observations of the universe. His data proved Copernicus' theory, but he did not accept the Copernican theory.

New Monarchs

European monarchs who created professional armies and a more centralized administrative bureaucracy. The new monarchs also negotiated a new relationship with the Catholic Church. Key new monarchs include Charles VII, Louis XI, Henry VII, and Ferdinand and Isabella.

Peninsula War

First great revolt against Napoleon's power occurred in Spain. Napoleon tightens control over Spain places his brother in power as King of Spain, people revolt in a costly guerrilla war.

Isabella d'Este

First lady of the Renaissance, she was an example for women to break away from traditional roles, and even founded a school for young women. She ruled Mantua, was well educated and a big patron of the arts.

lettre de cachet

Government could imprison anyone without charges or trial.

Rembrantdt

He was a painter, considered the greatest of all Baroque artist.

Jacobins

Named after their political club, came to dominate the legislative assembly.

First Consul

Napleon Bonaparte became "First Consul" behaved as an absolute ruler and considered an enlightened despot

Continental System

Napoleon decided to wage an economic war against Britain, after his losses at the Battle of Trafalgar. He coerced Russia, Prussia, neutral Denmark, Portugal, and Spain to adhere to the boycott via the Treaty of Tilsit.

Antwerp

One of Europe's busiest ports is on the Schelde River in Belgium.

Essay Concerning Human Understanding

One of the greatest works of the Enlightenment, stresses the importance of the environment on human development and education. Written in 1690 by John Locke.

Silesia

Part of the Austrian Habsburg Empire, annexed by Frederick during the War of Austrian Succession.

Winter palace

Peter the Great in Russia built in St. Peterburg largely on influence of Versailles

Sans-Culottes

Predominately from the working class and they were extremely radical. Became very influential on the National Convention.

Puritans

Pressured Elizabeth I for more reforms but were largely kept at bay. Later established colonies in America in a region that came to be known as New England: e.g. Massachusetts, Connecticut

Mountain

Radical republicans of the urban class led by Danton and Robespierre.

Muscovy

Russian principality that emerged gradually during the era of Mongol domination. The Muscovite dynasty ruled without interruption from 1276 to 1598.

Law of Maximum

a planned economy to respond to food shortages and related economic problems.

Gallican Church

The Catholic church in France that owned 20% of the land.

Janissary Corps

The Christian slaves of the Ottomans who were not eligible for government positions and served instead as a part of the Ottoman military.

"Rump Parliament"

The Cromwell-controlled Parliament that proclaimed England a republic and abolished the House of Lords and the monarchy.

New Model Army

The disciplined fighting force of Protestants led by Oliver Cromwell in the English civil war.

French Phase

The fourth and final period of the Thirty Years' War marked by France's entrance into the war on the side of the Protestants; this gave the Protestants the support needed to defeat the Catholics.

Greek Temple architecture

The inclusion of triangular pediments, Greek columns, Roman arches and domes in Renaissance era buildings.

Johann Gutenberg

The inventor of the printing press and moveable type.

Louis XV

The nobility gained influence during his reign. His ministers and mistresses exercised undue influence on him, controlling affairs of state and undermining the prestige of the monarchy.

Hapsburg

This was the royal dynasty of Austria that ruled over a vast part of Central Europe

Dutch Reformed Church

United Provinces of the Netherlands. The rise of Calvinism in the Netherlands as the dominant religion set the stage for a revolt against the Inquisition of King Philip II of Spain

Mary Wollstonecraft

Vindication of the Rights of Women, 1792. Ideas similar to de Gouges.

Bruni

Writer who outlined the principles of humanist education: Greek, Latin and Christianity; importance of poetry, philosophy and antiquity and importance in the power of expression.

The Encyclopedia

Written by Diderot, perhaps the greatest work of the Enlightenment, completed in 1765.

Adam Smith

Wrote the Wealth of Nations, 1776

Pilgrimage of Grace

a huge multi-class rebellion; the largest in English history

Puralism

an official holding more more than one office at a time

Thirty-Nine Articles

defined the creed of Anglican Church

Simony

sale of church offices

Johann Tetzel

was authorized by Pope Leo X to sell indulgences, his selling of indulgences had become engregious

Deism

"Religious arm of the Enlightenment," stated that God was a cosmic clockmaker - who created the universe and then stepped back and left it running like a clock.

Ignatius Loyola

(1491-1556) Spanish churchman and founder of the Jesuits (1534); this order of Roman Catholic priests proved an effective force for reviving Catholicism during the Catholic Reformation.

Catherine de Medicis

(1518-1589) The widow of Henry II; was the real power behind the throne as regent during the reigns of her sons Charles XI and Henry III; her overriding concern was to ensure her sons' succession and to preserve the power of the monarchy.

Charles V

(1519-1556) Hapsburg dynastic ruler of the Holy Roman Empire and of extensive territories in Spain and the Netherlands

Diet of Worms

(1521) Tribunal of the Holy Roman Empire with power to outlaw and sentence execution through stake-burning. Charles had promised before his election as Holy Roman Emperor that he would not allow anyone in his empire to be excommunicated unless there was a fair trial.Charles demanded that Luther recant his writings, Luther refused

Dutch Revolt

(1566-79) Caused for religious reasons; Protestant Region in Northern Spanish Netherlands/Dutch Republic; they revolted against Spanish authority for political and religious independence from Spain. Recognized as independent after 30 Years' War.

James I

(1603-1625) Stuart monarch who ignored constitutional principles and asserted the divine right of kings.

Louis XIII

(1610-43) He became king after Henry IV was assassinated. As a youth, his regency was beset by corruption and mismanagement. Feudal nobles and princes increased their power and certain nobles convinced him to assume power and exile his mother.

Charles II

(1660-1685) Stuart king during the Restoration, following Cromwell's Interregnum

Peter the great

(1672-1725) Russian tsar (r. 1689-1725). He enthusiastically introduced Western languages and technologies to the Russian elite, moving the capital from Moscow to the new city of St. Petersburg.

Edict of Fountainbleu

(1685) revoked Edict of Nantes- Huguenots lost right to practice Calvinism

Laws of Motion

1. An object at rest will stay at rest. An object in motion will stay in motion unless acted on by an outside force.. 2. Force = mass times acceleration. 3. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction/

"Golden Age of Spain"

1500 - 1600. Newfound wealth from American explorations bring in high point of Spanish military might, art and culture.

Edict of Nantes

1598. Decree issued by King Henry IV to restore internal peace. It defined the rights of the French Protestants and allowed them to build fortified towns and establish courts.

War of Spanish Succession

1701 - 1713 Caused when Charles II of Spain leaves Spanish empire/crown to the grandson of Louis XIV.

Martin Behaim

1st European to make a globe but had some problems. Problems: Africa was too small & the wrong shape, missing Americas, Antarctica, & Austrailia, and made trip from Europe to Asia seem short.

United Provinces of the Netherlands

7 Protestant provinces of Netherlands that declared independence from Spain in 1579; It was different from other European states of the time because people there practiced religious toleration & it was not a kingdom but a republic.

Charles V

A Devoted Catholic, he went against Luther's ideas and controlled the German states.

Peter Brueghel

A Dutch artist who painted realistic portraits and scenes of peasant life.

Erasmus

A Dutch humanist and theologian who was the leading Renaissance scholar of northern Europe. On Praise of Folly.

Jan van Eyck

A Flemish painter who was a founder of the Flemish school of painting and who pioneered modern techniques of oil painting.

Michel de Montaigne

A French thinker and author of essays such as "On Cripples" and "On Cannibals".

Hans Holbein the younger

A German Painter noted for his portraits and religious paintings.

Albrecht Durer

A German painter and engraver he used his observations of nature and anatomy to create portraits and religious painting filled with small details

Ottoman empire

A Muslim empire based in Turkey that lasted from the 1300's to 1922.

Vasco de Gama

A Portuguese sailor who was the first European to sail around southern Africa to the Indian Ocean

Da Vinci

A Renaissance Man. He was a painter, sculptor, inventor, and a scientist. He painted The Mona Lisa and The Last Supper.

Humanism

A Renaissance intellectual movement in which thinkers studied classical texts and focused on human potential and achievements.

Titian

A Renaissance painter in Venice who used vivid color and movement. He is known for "Assumption of the Virgin," among others.

Bernini

A baroque architect and sculptor. Made the Colonnade for piazza in from of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome and was his greatest architectural work, and the Canopy over the high altar of St. Peter's Cathedral, and the altarpiece The Ecstasy of St. Teresa, that shows a lot of emotion

In Defense of the Seven Sacraments

A book written by King Henry VIII of England, criticizing Luther's views on the Catholic Church. This was written in a time of heightened power of the Catholic Church in England; kings had the power to appoint bishops.

Republic of Florence

A city-state run during the Renaissance by the Medici family. It was one of the most powerful city-states in Italy.

Italian Renaissance

A flourishing of art, science, and philosophy between the 14th and 16th centuries

Absolutism

A form of government in which the ruler is an absolute dictator. Also belief in "Divine right of Kings.

Prussia

A former kingdom in north-central Europe including present-day northern Germany and northern Poland

Oligarchies

A government in which the power is held by a small group, such as a family.

Signori

A government ruled by one man in Italian cities such as Milan.

Roundheads

A group consisting of puritans, country land owners, and town based manufacturers, led by Oliver Cromwell; fought against the Cavaliers during the English civil war

Girondins

A group of Jacobins. Became the advanced party of the revolution and led the country into war.

Papal States

A group of territories in central Italy ruled by the popes from 754 until 1870. They were originally given to the papacy by Pepin the Short and reached their greatest extent in 1859. The last papal state—the Vatican City—was formally established as a separate state by the Lateran Treaty of 1929.

syphilis

A highly contagious std from the new world to the old world (part of the columbian exchange)

smallpox

A highly contagious viral disease characterized by fever, weakness, and skin eruption with pustules that form scabs; responsible for killing Native Americans.

Raphael

A leading figure of Italian High Renaissance classicism, Raphael is best known for his "Madonnas," including the Sistine Madonna, and for his large figure compositions in the Palace of the Vatican in Rome.

Louis Saint-Just

A major leader alongside Robespierre in the Committee of Public Safety.

Donatello

A master of sculpture in both marble and bronze; one of the greatest of all Renaissance artists.

Virtu

A person highly skilled in music or another artistic pursuit

Naples, Kingdom of the two Sicilies

A port and tourist center in southwestern Italy, Only Italian city state to official have a "king".

Checks and Balances

A principle that would ensure that no single branch of gov't would overpower another.

politique

A ruler who suppresses his or her religious or personal ideals for the sake of what is best for the state.

Habsburg-Valois Wars

A series of conflicts from 1494 to 1559 between the leading European powers (Austria/ Spanish vs. the French) for control of the Italian states. The French lost their claims to Italian lands, but did help keep Germany from uniting.

Spanish Inquisition

A terrifying period of interrogation regarding heresy, in which many people were tortured, convicted and killed. This was spurred by fear of witches, heretics, Jews, and Muslims and was a byproduct of the reconquista.

Peace of Lodi

A treaty between Venice and Milan ending the war of succession to the Milanese duchy in favor of Francesco Sforza. It marked the beginning of a 40-year period of relative peace between the Italian city-states.

Cardinal Richelieu

Advisor to French king Louis XIII. His goals were to strengthen the French monarchy and France's position within Europe. He joined the 30 Years' War on the Protestant side in order to weaken the Habsburgs. He weakened the Huguenots and nobles withing France. Established path to French absolutism under Louis XIV.

Pierre Bayle

Advocated complete toleration of idea, believed nothing can be known beyond all doubt. Major criticism was of Christianity and its attempt to impose orthodoxy. Wrote the Historical and Critical Dictionary in 1697.

Pragmatic Sanction

Allowed lands of Hapsburg to pass to Empress MARIA THERESA, who was not a MALE HEIR

Principia

Also known as: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, perhaps the greatest book on science ever written

William Shakespear

An English dramatist and poet; considered one of the greatest writers in the English Language.

John Locke

An English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. Wrote Two Treatises of Civil Government in 1690.

Machiavelli

An Italian political theorist whose book The Prince describes the achievement and maintenance of power by a determined ruler indifferent to moral considerations.

Chiaroscuro

An Italian word designating the contrast of dark and light in a painting, drawing, or print.

taille

An annual direct tax, usually on land or property, that provided a regular source of income for the French monarchy

Brunelleschi

An architect that, by basing his ideas on geometric principles, reintroduced planes and spheres as dominant motifs.

Mannerism

An artistic movement against the Renaissance ideals of symmetry, balance, and simplicity. It went against the perfection the High Renaissance created in art, and used elongated proportions, twisted poses and compression of space.

Perspective

An artistic technique that creates the appearance of three dimensions on a flat surface.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

An economic advisor to Louis XIV; he supported mercantilism and tried to make France economically self-sufficient.

Hanseatic League

An economic and defensive alliance of the free towns in northern Germany, founded about 1241 and most powerful in the fourteenth century.

Joint-stock companies

An economic arrangement by which a number of investors pool their capital for investment.

mercantilism

An economic policy under which nations sought to increase their wealth and power by obtaining large amounts of gold and silver and by selling more goods than they bought (favorable balance of trade)

Christine de Pisan

An educated, privileged, humanistic woman who wrote poetry and "The Treasure of the City of Ladies."

David Hume

Argued against faith in both natural law and faith. Claimed that human ideas were merely the result of sensory experiences.

Baron Paul d'Holbach

Argued humans were essentially like machines, completely determined by outside forces. Wrote the System of Nature in 1770.

German Pietism

Argued need for spiritual conversion and religious experience.

Balance of Power

Arranged the map of Europe so that no one power could ever upset the international order and cause general war. Encirclement of France.

Levellers

Asked for a nearly universal manhood suffrace, equality of representation, a written constitution, and subordination of Parliament to a reformed body of voters

storming of the Tuleries

August 10, 1792. The king's palace in Paris was stormed and the King was taken prisoner, after fleeing to the legislative assembly.

Baroque Art

Began in Catholic Reformation countries to teach in a concrete and emotional way and demonstrate the glory and power of the Catholic Church

Inductive Method

Begin with inductive observation, then form a hypothesis, conduct experiments and then organize the data.

Enlightened Despotism

Believed absolute rulers should promote the good of the people, and believed that people were not capable of ruling themselves.

Index of Prohibited Books

Books that supported Protestantism or that were overly critical of the Church were banned. Possession could be severe

Great Northern war

Broke out as Peter attacked Sweden(with assistance from Poland and Denmark) in his quest to establish a Russian trading port on the Baltic. After being routed initially, Peter re-organized his army on the western model and eventually gained Estonia, Livonia, and Karella on the Baltic. War is decided with the Battle of Poltava, but ends with the Peace of Mystadt in 1721. Sweden becomes a second-rate power after the war.

Spirit of the Laws

By Montesquieu in 1748, called for separation of powers in government into three branches and a system of checks and balances.

Institutes of the Christian Religion

Calvin's foundational work for Calvinism

Protestant work ethic

Calvinists later emphasized the importance of hard work and accompanying financial success as a sign that God was pleased

St. Petersburg

Capitol city created by Peter the Great to resemble a French city. It was built on land taken from Sweden

Thomas Wolsey

Cardinal, highest ranking church official and lord chancellor. Dismissed by Henry VIII for not getting the pope to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.

Jansenism

Catholic sect in France, argued against idea of an uninvolved or impersonal God.

War of Austrian Succession

Caused by Frederick invading and annexing Silesia, violating the Pragmatic Sanction. Prussia defeats Austria. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

Seven Years' War

Caused by Maria Teresa attempting to regain Silesia from Prussia and gaining Russia and France as allies. Goal of Austria, Russia and France was to conquer and divide Prussian territory among them.

Cavaliers

Charles I's private forces that remained loyal to him throughout the English Civil War

"priesthood of all believers"

Church consists of entire Christian community, all individuals equal before God.

Careers Open to Talent

Citizens were in theory able to rise through government positions based on ability, creation of new imperial nobility to reward the most talented generals and officials.

Philosophes

Committed to fundamental reform in society, successful in popularizing the Enlightenment. Believed in progress through discovering the natural laws governing nature and human existence.

Latin Vulgate

Created by Jerome, it was first Bible written in the vernacular.

Quadruple Alliance

Created in March 1814; Each power agreed to provide 150,000 soldiers to enforce terms. Napoleon abdicates throne April 4, 1814 after allied armies enter Paris.

Eramus: In Praise of Folly

Criticized the corruption in the church and the hypocrisy of the clergy, Eramus laid the egg that Luther hatched

Micheal Romanov

Czar of Russia who started the Romanov dynasty. got the throne because he was the Nephew of Ivan the Terrible

Bohemia

Czech nobility wiped out Ferdinand II redistributed Czech lands to aristocratic soldiers from all over Europe Serf conditions declined

Empire Period

December 2, 1804 Napoleon crowned HIMSELF hereditary Emperor of France in Notre Dame Cathedral. Viewed himself as a liberator who freed foreign peoples from oppression and absolute rulers. Period ends in 1814 after defeat.

Diggers

Denied Parliament's authority and rejected private ownership of land.

Galileo

Developed the laws of motion. Wrote the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. Validated Copernicus' heliocentric view with the telescope. His studies were found heretical by the Catholic Church in 1616. He was forced to retract his support of the Copernican Theory in 1633.

Rene Descartes

Discourse on Method advocated the use of deductive reasoning. Demonstrated the relationship between algebra and geometry.

Ferdinand and Isabella

During the late 15th century, they became King and Queen of a united Spain after centuries of Islamic domination. Together, they made Spain a strong Christian nation and also provided funding to overseas exploration, notably Christopher Columbus.

Jan Vermeer

Dutch painter renowned for his use of light and painted everyday scenes.

Bourbon Dynasty

Dynasty in France started by the reign of King Henry IV, powerful and extremely wealthy, rulers of this Dynasty wanted hegemony (dominant power), wanted to see shift of balance of power.

cahiers de doléances

Each estate was instructed to compile a list of suggestions and grievances and present them to the king.

Elizabethan Settlement

Elizabeth and Parliament required conformity to the Church of England but people were, in effect, allowed to worship Protestantism and Catholicism privately

Treaty of Paris

Ended the Seven Years' War in 1763, Prussia permanently retains Silesia, France loses all colonies in N. America to Great Britain, and Britain gains territory in England

Quakers

English dissenters who broke from Church of England, preache a doctrine of pacificism, inner divinity, and social equality; under William Penn they founded Pennsylvania

Oliver Cromwell

English military, political, and religious figure who led the Parliamentarian victory in the English Civil War (1642-1649) and called for the execution of Charles I. As lord protector of England (1653-1658) he ruled as a virtual dictator.

Pugachev Rebellion

Eugene Pugachev leads a huge serf uprising, Catherine needs support of nobility and gives them absolute control of serfs, nobles reached height of position while serfs end up worse off than ever before.

William Harvey

Explained how blood was pumped by the heart and circulated throughout the body. Published his completed treatise on the circulation of the blood, the De Motu Cordis, in 1728.

serfdom

Feudal system, the use of serfs to work the land in return for protection against barbarian invasions

Bartolome de las Casas

First bishop of Chiapas, in southern Mexico. He devoted most of his life to protecting Amerindian peoples from exploitation.

Johannes Kepler

First great Protestant scientist; assistant to Brahe. Mathematically proved the Copernican theory. Developed the 3 laws of planetary motion.

Telescope

First used and built by Galileo, demonstrated that the moon and other planets were not perfectly round.

Peter Paul Rubens

Flemish painter Worked much for the Hapsburg court in Brussels (the capital of the Spanish Netherlands)

Corvee

Forced labor that required peasants to work for a month out of the year on roads and other public projects

Francis Bacon

Formalized empiricism, created the inductive method for scientific experimentation.

League of Schmalkalden

Formed by newly Protestant (Lutheran) princes to defend themselves against Charles V's drive to re-Catholicize Germany

Principle of Universal Gravitation

Founded by Isaac Newton, detailed in Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (or Principia)

Royal Society

Founded in 1660 in England, most prestigious of the scientific societies for collaboration that helped forge an international scientific community.

Diplomatic Revolution of 1756

France and Austria ally against Prussia, Britain supports Prussia with money.

National Convention

France was proclaimed a republic on September 21, 1792. The Monarchy was abolished and republicanism was installed. It was based on the ideas of Equality, Liberty, and Fraternity. A majority of the members were Jacobins and republicans, largely well-educated middle class.

"King of Prussia"

Frederick I, fought two wars against Louis SIV to preserve the European balance of power

First Servant of the State

Frederick claimed he saw himself as this.

Cossacks

Free groups and outlaw armies of peasants who fled the tzar and service nobility

Huguenots

French Calvinists; brutally suppressed in France. Especially strong among the nobility although Calvinism saw converts from every social class.

"refactory clergy"

French priests who refused to take oath of loyalty. They had the support of the king, former aristocrats, peasants, and the urban working-class.

John Calvin

Frenchman; studied to be a priest and later trained as a lawyer. Influenced by humanism, especially Erasmus (Calvinism)

Geneva

Geneva became the new center of the Reformation in Europe. Geneva became home to Protestant exiles from England, Scotland, and France, who later returned to their countries with Calvinist ideas.

Dutch East India Company

Government-chartered joint-stock company that controlled the spice trade in the East Indies.

Lorenzo de' Medici

Grandson of Cosimo de' Medici, he dominated the city when Florence was the cultural center on Italy.

Philip II

Habsburg king of Spain, Spanish colonies, parts of Italy, and the Netherlands. Son of Charles V. Waged wars against Protestants and Ottomans. Seen as first absolute ruler.

Jean-Paul Marat

Had an independent newspaper and was for the revolution. Sat in his bathtub all day.

Schonbrunn

Hapsburg emperor Leopold I built this in Austria in response to Versailles palace

Hapsburg Empire (Austrian Empire)

Hapsburg: Ruler, HRE Naples, Sardinia, Milan (in Italy) Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) Hungary and Transylvania (Romania)

Cardinal Mazarin

He controlled France while Louis XIV was a child.

Duke of Sully

He was Henry IV's finance minister, he established governmental monopolies and paved the way for French mercantilism.

Thomas More

He was a English humanist that contributed to the world today by revealing the complexities of man. He wrote Utopia, a book that represented a revolutionary view of society.

Jean Baptiste Racine

He was a dramatist. His plays were sponsored by Louis XIV. (classic style)

Moliere

He was a dramatist. Wrote about social struggles. (for Loius XIV)

J.S Bach

He was a great baroque composers-often wrote dense and polyphonic structures-variety of genres, both choral and instrumental

Nicolas Poussin

He was a painter. He painted landscapes, and his work was very organized.

Bartholomew Días

He was an early Portuguese explorer who traveled down the coast of Africa in search of a water route to Asia. He managed to round the southern tip of Africa in 1488, now the Cape of Good Hope.

Jean de Condorcet

His Utopian ideas undermined the legitimacy of Enlightenment ideas. Identified 9 stages of human progress that had already occurred and predicted the 10th stage would bring perfection.

Colonnade in piazza in front of St. Peter's Basilica

His altarpiece sculpture, The Ecstasy of St. Teresa, evokes tremendous emotion

Peace of Alais

Huguenots lost their fortified cities and provinces; calvinist aristocratic influenced reduced; Huguenots still allowed to practice Calvinism.

Cogito Ergo Sum

I think; therefore, I am. Descartes uses deductive reasoning to prove his existence.

Edict of Restitution

Imperial law decreed by HRE Ferdinand II that prohibited all Calvinist worship and restored Catholic ownership of land taken by the Protestant Princes of the Reformation. This occured after early victories in the 30 Years' War.

Artemisia Gentileschi

Important female painter of the Baroque style. Famous for vivid depictions of dramatic sense and her Judith paintings

Concordat of Balogna

In 1516 the French crown got the right to appoint all French bishops and abbots in return for making Catholicism the state religion and recognizing the supremacy of the Pope

Spanish and Italian Inquisitions

In Spain, there was persecution of Christian moors and Jews suspected of returning to their previous faith. In Italy, Pope Paul IV placed Jews in ghettos.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

In essence, secularized religion. Created a national church with 83 bishops and dioceses. Was the biggest mistake made by the National Assembly. Convents and monasteries abolished. Clergy was forced to take a loyalty oath to the new government.

War of the League of Augsburg

In response to another invasion of the Spanish Netherlands by Louis XIV in 1683, the League of Augsburg formed in 1686, HRE, Spain, Sweden, Bavaria, Saxony, Dutch Republic. Demonstrated emergence of balance of power. William of Orange brought England in against France. began Anglo-French rivalry. ended with status quo returning to normal.

conversos

In the 15th century this term was used in Spain to refer to those recent converts to Christianity from Judaism or Islam

Women's march to Versailles

Incited by Jean-Paul Marat, 7,000 women marched 12 miles to Paris to Versailles demanding the king redress their economic problems. Slaughtered body guards while searching for Marie Antionette. Forced King and Queen to move to Paris and live in the Tuleries.

Isaac Newton

Incorporated the astronomy of Copernicus and Kepler with the physics of Galileo into an overarching theory explaining order and design to the universe. Founded the Principle of Universal Gravitation. Theorized that since natural laws are unchangeable and predictable, God's active participation is not needed to explain the forced of nature. Credited to inventing Calculus.

"Price revolution"

Increase in prices in 16th century-inflation-increased demand for goods-influx of gold and silver

Pragmatic Sanction of 1713

Issued by Charles VI and agreed to by the Great Powers that the Habsburg Empire would remain intact under his daughter's rule.

Declaration of Pillnitz

Issued by Prussia and Austria in August 1791. War on France to restore the monarchy.

Christopher Columbus

Italian navigator who discovered the New World in the service of Spain while looking for a route to China

Carvaggio

Italian painter-1st important painter of Baroque era-depicted highly emotional scenes

Pope Paul III

Italian pope who excommunicated Henry VIII, instituted the order of the Jesuits, appointed many reform-minded cardinals, and initiated the Council of Trent.

Brunswick Manifesto

July 25, 1792. issued by Prussia and Austria and threatened to destroy Paris if the royal family was harmed.

Treaty of Tilsit

June 1807. Prussia loses half of population/land to France. Russia accepts Napoleon's reorganization of western and central Europe. Russia agrees to the Continental System. Treaty represents Napoleon's height of success.

Charter of 1814

King created a two-house legislature that represented only the upper classes. 1st constitution issued by a monarch. Maintained Napoleonic Code, Concordat of 1801 and abolition of feudalism.

Fredrick William I

King of Prussia from 1713-1740. Famous for his intensely trained and very large army. During his rule he nearly doubled it's size and pushed it to become the best trained force in Europe.

Philip II

King of Spain from 1556 to 1598. Absolute monarch who helped lead the Counter Reformation by persecuting Protestants in his holdings. Also sent the Spanish Armada against England.

Gustavus Adolphus

King of Sweden who entered the 30 Years' War on the side of the Protestants after Catholic forces defeated and occupied northern Germany and Denmark. His disciplined army, supported by (Catholic) France, drove Catholic forces back to southern Germany. he died in battle.

Duke of Wellington

Leader of British Army, defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo.

Georges-Jacques Danton

Leader of the Paris Commune and the radical group "The Mountain".

Francois Quesnay

Leader of the physiocrats in France, sought to reform the existing agrarian system.

Conspiracy of Equals

Led by "Gracchus" Babeuf and formed to overthrow the Directory and replace it with a dictatorial "democratic" government which would abolish private property and enforce equality. (Regarded as a precursor to modern communism).

Committee of Public Safety

Led by Maximilien Robespierre, by the summer of 1793 it became and emergency government to deal with internal and external challenges to the revolution.

First Estate

Less than 1% of the population, made of clergy. Exempt from taxes.

Arc de Triomphe

Located in Paris, France the Arc was commissioned in 1806 to commemorate his victory, styled after classical Roman Arch that signified victories, clearly emphasizing his conquest of an empire.

Republic of Venice

Longest lasting of the Italian states because it did not succumb to foreign powers unit Napoleon. Also one of the world's great naval and trading powers during the 14th and 15th centuries.

Holy Roman Empire

Loose federation of mostly German states and principalities, headed by an emperor elected by the princes. It lasted from 962 to 1806.

Duke of Enghein

Louis Antoine de Bourbon, was a relative of the Bourbon monarchs of France. More famous for his death than for his life, he was executed on trumped-up charges of aiding Britain and plotting against France.

95 Thesis

Luther criticized the selling of indulgences but went further than others before him by questioning the scriptural authority of the pope to grant indulgences

Teresa de Avila

Major Spanish leader of the reform movement for monasteries and convents. Believed an individual could have a direct relationship with God through prayer and contemplation

Salon Movement

Many of the brightest minds of the Enlightenment assembled in salons to discuss the major issues of the day.

Hundred Days

March 20-June 22 1815; Napoleon returns to France "in the spring" marched with wide scale support into Paris, seized power from Louis XVIII. He raised an Army and defeated the Prussian Army in Belgium on June 16, 1815.

"First" Treaty of Paris 1814

May 30, 1814; France surrendered all territory gained since 1792 (beginning of Fr. Rev.) Allowed powers imposed no reparations. Napoleon exiled to island of Elba with an income from France. Quadruple Alliance agreed to meet to make a general peace settlement.

Estates General

May, 1789. A feudal assembly that represented the Three Estates; it had only met twice: in 1302 and 1614.

Baron de Montesquieu

Member of the French Nobility, hated the absolutism of Louis XIV. Had a significant effect on the creation of the U.S. Constitution and the French Revolution. Wrote Spirit of the Laws in 1748.

Mennonites, Quakers & Unitarians

Mennonites: founded by Dutch leader Menno Simmons became descendants of Anabaptists Quakers in England shared similar beliefs; thousands came to America where they founded and controlled Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Delaware Unitarians: (who reject the trinity) also were influenced by the Anabaptists

Frankfurt Proposals

Metternich's idea to reduce France to it's historic size (prior to Fr. Rev) Napoleon refuses.

Reign of Terror

Most notorious event of the French Revolution. Louis XVI convicted of treason and executed on January 21, 1793. Marie Antoinette was executed later in the year.

Confederation of the Rhine

Napoleon consolidated 300 independent German states into 15 German States minus: Austria, Prussia, and Saxony. Napoleon named himself "Protector" of the Confederation. Abolishes HRE and feudalism . New Kingdom of Westphalia created. Beginning of the rise of German Nationalism since they are seen as 1 entity, thanks a lot Napoleon.

Russian Campaign

Napoleon invaded Russia in June 1812 with his grand army of 600k soldiers, only 1/3 of his forces were french, invasion was due to Russian withdrawal from the Continental System due to economic hardships that it caused.

War of Second Coalition

Napoleon's navy destroyed by Lord Nelson in the Battle of the Nile 1798, by the end of the war Napoleon won.

potato

New World crop that increased the food supply; it may have accounted for the population explosion

The Directory

New constitution written in 1795 which set up a republican form of government. A new assembly chose five-member executive to govern France.

Nobility of the Robe

New nobles who purchased their titles from the monarchy, became high officials in govt. and remained loyal to king.

assignats

New paper currency that was guaranteed by church property.

Second Estate

Nobility. 2-4% of the population; exempt from taxation. Owned about 25% of the land and experienced a great resurgence since the death of Louis XIV in 1715. They enjoyed certain manorial rights that dated back to medieval times that allowed them to tax peasants for their own profit.

Dutch Style

Not baroque, reflected the dutch republics wealth and religious toleration of secular subjects, reflected teh urban and rural settings of dutch life during the "golden age of the netherlands".

"Temple of Reason"

Notre Dame Cathedral. Renamed this by the Cult of the Supreme Being.

Coup d'Etat Brumaire

November, 1799. Upon returning from Egypt with his forces Napoleon drove legislators from the Legislative Assembly.

Battle of Trafalgar

October 21, 1805. French and Spanish fleets defeated by the British Navy led by Lord Horatio Nelson off the Spanish coast. French invasion of GB no longer feasible.

Austria proper

Old hereditary provinces were centralized by Ferdinand III. Ferdinand created a permanent standing army, unprecedented fro the Hapsburg empire

Catherine the Great

One of the greatest rulers in European history. German princess who became Queen after Peter III was assassinated. Lover of French culture, considered herself a child of the Enlightenment. "The sexy beast"

Thermidorian Reaction

Opposition to Robespierre. Constituted a significant swing to the right and respectable bougeosie lawyers and professionals reasserted their authority.

Vendée

Part of the Reign of Terror. Many were killed for open revolt against the Convention in western France.

Voltaire

Perhaps the most influential of all Enlightenment philosophers, challenge traditional Catholic theology. His influential social criticism inspired many to call for change. Advocated "enlightened despotism" believing that people were capable of governing themselves.

Winter Palace

Peter the Great in Russia built this in St. Peterburg, largely influenced by Versailles

Hermandades

Popular groups in Spanish towns given royal authority to serve as local police forces and as judicial tribunals with the goal of reducing aristocratic violence.

Ferdinand Megellan

Portuguese captain in spanish service; began the first circumnavigation of the globe in 1519; died during voyage; allowed Spain to claim possession fo the Philippines

Jaques Lefevre d'Etables

Produced 5 versions of the Psalms that challenged a single authoritative version of the bible, and was later condemned for heresy.

Mary Wollestonecraft

Promoted political and educational equality for women.

Elizabeth I

Queen of England from 1558 to 1603. She re-established the Anglican Church in England. The church she established was a compromise b/w Catholic (ritual/ organization) and Protestant (doctrine). Under rule, England defeated the Spanish Armada.

Enragés

Radical working class leaders of Paris- seized and arrested 31 Girondist members of the National Convention and left the Mountain in control.

Star Chamber

Reign of Henry VII 1485-1509 used this royal council as a new court to deal with property disputes and infractions of the public peace. Room decorated with stars. Operated without a jury. Popular at first - restored law and order - later denounced as an instrument of despotism.

Louis XVI

Reinstated Old Parliament. Dismissed Maupeou and repudiated Maupeou's laws.

Vesalius

Renewed and modernized the study of anatomy. Published De humani corporis fabrica libri septem (On the fabric of the human body in seven books) in 1543.

83 Departments

Replaced the old provincial boundary lines. New system of law courts gave France a uniform administrative structure: 83 dioceses, departments and judicial districts.

Klemens von Metternich

Represented Austria at the Congress of Vienna. Highly conservative. Opposed to liberal reforms that would impact the HRE.

Legitmacy

Returning to power the monarchies that existed prior to Napoleon: Bourbons restored in France, Spain, and Naples. Papal states returned to Pope. Dynasties restored in Holland, Sardinia, Tuscany and Modena.

Strelski

Revolt of the Strelski put down by Peter in 1698 Moscow guards had overthrown previous leaders.

Paris Commune

Revolutionary municipal government set up in Paris, which effectively usurped the power of the legislative assembly. Led by George-Jacques Danton.

Caravaggio, tenebrism

Roman painter Perhaps 1st important painter of the Baroque era, Used sharp contrasts of light and dark to create drama (tenebrism)

Versailles Palace

Royal palace built during the reign of Louis XIV that became the most impressive palace in all of Europe.

Duchy of Milan

Ruled by the Sforza Family after 1450, it was a principal adversary of Venice and Florence until the Peace of Lodi created a relative 40- year period of peace among the Italian city states.

Joseph II

Ruled with his mother, Maria Theresa, as co-regent until her death. Perhaps the greatest of the "Enlightened Despots" in terms of reforms but in many ways was among the least effective.

"Third Rome"

Russia, with Moscow as its capital, claimed to be the successor of the Roman and Byzantine empires.

"old believers"

Russians who refused to accept the ecclesiastical reforms of Alexis Romanov (17th century); many exiled to Siberia or southern Russia, where they became part of Russian colonization.

Battle of Lepanto

Sea battle (1571) in which Spain and Venetian forces defeat the Turkish navy off the coast of Greece. Ended Ottoman threat in western Mediterranean. Seen as Philip II's greatest victory.

Danish Phase

Second phase of the Thirty Years War. Began when King Christian IV intervened on behalf of the Protestant cause and led an army into northern Germany. He was defeated and his nation was controlled by the Holy Roman Emperor.

Prince Henry the Navigator

Sent others to explore for him, made very first explorer school, first person to value exploring

Bank of France

Served the interest of the state and financial oligarchy, balanced the national budget, established sound currency and public credit, and economic reforms to stimulate the economy

St. Bartholomew Day Massacre

Six week nationwide slaughter of Huguenots in France. Started when Huguenot nobles were in Paris attending the marriage of Catherine de Medici's daughter to a Huguenot prince, Henry of Navarre.

Marquis de Beccaria

Sought to humanize critical law based on Enlightenment concepts of reason and equality before the law. His views influenced the Enlightened Despots. Known for his treatise On Crimes and Punishments, published in 1764.

Francisco Pizzaro

Spanish conquistador who conquered the Incas

Vasco Nuñez de Balboa

Spanish explorer who became the first European to see the Pacific Ocean in 1510 while exploring Panama

Escorial

Spanish imperial palace built by Philip II from1563-1584, combining a monastery, the tomb of Spanish Habsburgs, and a royal residence. It was built in the shape of a grill to commemorate the martyrdom of St. Lawrence.

"Window on the west"

St. Petersburg on newly acquired lands on the Baltic Sea

Charles I

Stuart son of James I, ruled England 1625-1649. Had visions of being an absolute ruler and fought with Parliament over money, taking advantage of ancient taxes to avoid calling Parliament to meet. He was the first European monarch to be beheaded by his own people.

Ulrich Zwingli, Zurich

Student of humanism who preached from Erasmus edition of the New Greek Testament. Zwingli established what amounted to a theocracy in Zurich.

Baroque

Style of art that reflected Absolutism. Showed glory to the Catholic Church.

Siege of Vienna, 1683

Successfully repelled Turks from gates of Vienna in 1683

Third Estate

The Bourgeoisie or middle class. Consisted of merchants or professionals, the middle class, urban artisans, unskilled workers and the mass of peasants. Bore a vast majority of the tax burden.

Maximilian I

The Holy Roman Emperor that attempted to centralize the administration by creating new institutions common to the entire empire, but he was successful in marriage alliances.

Olympe de Gouges

The Rights of Women, 1791. The female version of the Declaration. Asserted the right of women to file for divorce, to control property in marriage, and equal access to higher education and civilian careers and public employment.

Tennis Court Oath

The Third Estate swore to remain together until it had given France a constitution. Third Estate thus assumed sovereign power on behalf of the nation.

Bourse

The exchange in Antwerp, in which merchants from many nations gathered daily (near the harbor which could dock up to 2500 vessels at once).

Cosimo de' Medici

The first major patriarch of the Medici family. He presided over the family's banking empire as it grew, and financially supported the rise of multiple popes.

Bohemian phase

The first phase of the Thirty Years' War which culminated in the Catholic victory at the Battle of White Mountain.

Parlement

The high court of Paris. Was restored with the power to approve of disapprove the king's decrees. The judges were members of the middle class under Louis XIV who had purchased their titles. King could not levy taxes without their consent.

Tabula Rasa

The human mind was born as a blank slate and registered input from the senses passively. Theorized by John Locke.

Equality, Liberty, Fraternity

The ideas the National Convention was based on.

Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots

The leader of Scotland who Catholics wanted to place on the throne after getting rid of Queen Elizabeth. She was exuctied by Elizabeth in 1587 to remove the threat she posed.

Marsilio Ficino

The man who founded the Platonic Academy at the behest of Cosimo de' Medici in the 1460s. Translated Plato's works into Latin, giving modern Europeans access to these works for the fist time.

bourgeoisie

The middle class. Demanded that political and social power be congruent with their emerging economic power. Resented the First and Second Estates who help political and social power. Wanted reduction of privileges for nobility and tax relief for themselves. Hated the lettre de cachet.

Abbé Sieyès

The most influential writer of the third estate, wrote What is the Third Estate? Claimed that third estate should have the power in France. Stated nobility should be abolished. Believed the third estate represented the vast majority of French Society. Brought the ideas of Rousseau's Social Contract to the forefront.

Catholic (Counter) Reformation

The movement in the 16th century within the Catholic church to reform itself as a result of the Protestant Reformation.

Treaty of Tordesillas

The preparation was that the New World divided between Spain and Portugal. A north-south line was drawn down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean where Spain's territory was west of the line and Portugal's was east. Portugal retained Brazil and its claims to Africa while Spain received the rest of the Americas.

Deductive Reasoning

The process of logically reasoning ones way to a logical conclusion.

Sforza family

The ruling family of the Duchy of Milan after the disposal of the Visconti family.

Empiricism

The theory that all knowledge is derived from sense-experience. It developed in the 17th and 18th centuries, expanded by John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume.

Treaty of the Pyrenees

The treaty that ended fighting between France and Spain that continued after the Thirty Years' War; the treaty marked the end of Spain's status as a major European power.

Ecstasy of St. Teresa

The two central sculptural figures of the swooning nun; who is Teresa; and the angel standing over her, having just withdraw his arrow from her "entrails".

Treaty of Cateau-Cambrèsis, 1559

This ended 60 years of conflict between the Valois (Charles VIII, then Francis I, then Henry II of France) and the Hapsburgs (Charles V). At this point, both sides were spent in money and energy, and there was no clear winner, but the French did lose theri claims to Italian lands.

Valois line of French monarchs

This was a dynasty, later replaced by the Bourbons, that often had conflicts with the Habsburgs that often involved other countries and papal troops, French Catholic royal house

Alexander I

Tsar of Russia during wars against Napoleon. Formed the Holy Alliance.

Thirty Years' War

War within the Holy Roman Empire between German Protestants and their allies (Sweden, Denmark, France) and the Holy Roman Emperor and his Habsburg allies. It began as a religious war, but ended as a struggle for national superiority. 1618- 1648.

Marie Antoinette

Wife of Louis XVI. Wore giant wigs and threw lavish parties. She was a Hapsburg and would contact her family for help during the Revolution.

Confessions of Augsburg

Written by Luther's friend, Philip Melanchthon This was an attempted compromise statement of religious faith to unite Lutheran and Catholic princes of the HRE, Rejected by Catholic princes

Social Contract

Written by Rousseau, stated that too much of an emphasis on property, and not enough consideration of people, was a root cause of social injustice.

Wealth of Nations

Written in 1776, considered the "Bible" of capitalism.

Pico Della Mirandola

Wrote "On the Dignity of Man" which stated that man was made in the image of God before the fall and as Christ after the Resurrection. Man is placed in-between beasts and the angels. He also believed that there is no limits to what man can accomplish.

Copernicus

Wrote On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres. Argued a heliocentric view of the world, his theory was proclaimed false by the Church in 1616 and anyone who advanced his views were persecuted.

Thomas Paine

Wrote the Rights of Man. Defended enlightenment principles and France's revolution.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Wrote the Social Contract, believed a man in a simpler state of nature was good and was corrupted by the materialism of civilization.

William Tyndale

a humanist, translated the English Bible in 1526

Canopy over St. Peter's Tomb

a large ceremonial canopy of bronze over the high altar in St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican City, Made by Bernini to mark the place of St. Peter's tomb underneath

storming of the Bastille

"parisian" revolution began in response to food shortages, soaring bread prices, 25% unemployment, and fear of military repression. On July 14, an angry mob invaded in search of gunpowder and weapons. The heads of the prison's governor and the mayor were put on pikes and paraded through the streets. Saved the National Assembly.

Jacques-Louis David

(August 30, 1748 - December 29, 1825) was a highly influential French painter in the Neoclassical style, considered to be the prominent painter of the era. Paintings included "Death of Marat," "Tennis Court Oath," "Napoleon Crossing the Alps" and "Napoleon in his study"

Absenteenism

an official not participating in benefices but receiving payment and privilages

"Long 16th-Century"

begins with the discovery of the Americas and ends with the English Revolution

"Old Imperialism"

characterized by establishing posts and forts on coastal regions but not penetrating inland to conquer entire regions or subjugate their populations., First Wave of Imperialism, 1500 - 1800, motivated by "gold, God, and glory."

reconquista

conquered Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella; drove Muslims out of Spain

John Knox

established Presbyterianism

Presbyterianism

established Scotland by John Knox (1505-1572) in 1560. Presbyters governed the church, Became the dominant religion in Scotland

Church of England (Anglican Church)

formed by Henry III

plebiscite

general referendum overwhelmingly approved the new constitution 3,011,007 to 1,562.

Price revolution

increase in prices in 16th century-inflation (due to increase of population)-increased demand for goods-influx of gold and silver

Cult of the Supreme Being

introduced in June, 1794. Deistic natural religion, in which the Republic was declared to recognize the existence of God and the immortality of the soul.

John of Leyden

led a In 1532, a radical group of Anabaptists took control of the northwestern German city of Münster. Polygamy was instituted, All books except the Bible were burned in the cityThe Anabaptists began killing some Lutherans and Catholics

Defenestration of Prague

marked the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, the Catholic King of Bohemia closed some Protestant Churches which caused Protestants to throw 2 of the kings officials out of a castle window.

"Divine Right" of Kings

meant that the king was placed on the throne by God, and therefore owed his authority to no man or group.

Stylized faces

medieval faces in art--more stylized and generic- faces expressed unique characteristics.

Madame de Pomadour

most famous mistress of the 18th century who influenced Louis XV in making important government decisions and giving advice on appointments and foreign policy.

corvee

obligated peasants to work for nobles several days a year.

Henry IV

of Navarre. 1st Bourbon king of France. Ended French civil wars by converting to Catholicism and passed the Edict of Nantes. Laid foundation for absolutism. Assassinated in 1610.

Johann Eck

one of the great Catholic theologians

First Estate

part of French Society. Clergy (priests/church officials), 1% of population.

Third Estate

part of French society. Bourgeoisie (middle class, peasants, etc.) 95% of population

Second Estate

part of French society. Nobility, 3-4% of population.

Sale of Indulgences

people paying money to the Church to absolve their sins or sins of their loved ones

Interregnum

period between reigns

Bernini

personified baroque architecture and sculpture

Jacques Hébert

radical social democrat who led the "angry men" - Hébertistes were his followers

Lazare Carnot

reorganized the French army.

Thomas Cranmer

replaced Wolsey and convinced Henry in 1533 that he could divorce Catherine by breaking away from Rome

English Reformation

result of the disagreement between Henry VIII and the Pope, created the Church of England or Anglican Church which was separate from the Catholic Church, still left little room for religious freedom

Katerina von Bora

runaway nun who Luther married after he left the Church

Angela Merici, Ursuline order of Nuns

she Founded the Ursuline Order of Nuns in the 1530s to provide education and religious training.

Politique

she was a practical politician who carefully navigated a middle ground between Anglicanism and Protestantism

Charles V

sought to stop Protestantism and preserve the hegemony of Catholicism, he was trying to maintain religious unity in Europe.

War of the Roses

struggle for the English throne (1455-1485) between the house of York (white rose) and the house of Lancaster (red rose) ending with the accession of the Tudor monarch Henry VII

Tomas de Torquemada

the Spaniard who as Grand Inquisitor was responsible for the death of thousands of Jews and suspected witches during the Spanish Inquisition (1420-1498)

"divine right" of kings

the belief that the authority of kings comes directly from God

Lèvee en masse

the entire nation would be conscripted into service as war was defined as a national mission.

Pride's Purge

the removal of all Presbyterian members of Parliament, reshaping of Parliament after Charles I's execution, created Rump Parliament

Statute of the Six Articles

upheld the seven sacraments, maintained Catholic theology, and replaced the authority of the pope with that of the monarch; Anglican Church maintained most of the catholic doctrines

liberum veto

voting in Polish parliament had to be unanimous for changes to be made; thus, little could be done to systematically strengthen the kingdom

Philip Melanchthon

wrote the Confessions of Augsburg, became an important figure in education for girls in the Protestant German states.

Flemish style

A Northern Renaissance Art with more detail throughout painting, the use of oil paints, more emotional than the Italian style, and works often preoccupied with death.

Christian humanism

A movement that developed in northern Europe during the Renaissance combining classical learning (humanism) with the goal of reforming the Catholic Church.