Middle East II Midterm

Nizam-i cedid

(1789-1807) The "New Order" imposed on the Ottomans by Sultan Selim III, goal was to modernize the army and make it more European, really only did the easy stuff (uniform changes) and no real institutional changes, big issue was demoting the janissary which had previously been a huge part of the military and culture of the Ottoman Empire; created tension with the "old order" because he had chosen to replace the existing military instead of reforming it, requires lots of revenue which also angers people

Deed of Agreement

(1808) Sultan Mahmud II summons the notables and get them to sign on to "guarantee and undertake to protect the sultan's imperial person, the sultanate's power, and state order" and in return the state will "uphold the position of the leaders of the notable houses as long as the are alive, and support their families afterwards"; new because it's a symbolic relationship focused on loyalty and some sense of "uniting" the various Ottoman "states"; part of the 19th century reform project; local notables and governors were meant to check and balance each other to assure that no one becomes too powerful by making sure neighboring governors aren't being oppressive to avoid riots/revolts; goal is stability on all levels after seeing so much conflict in Europe

Mahmud II

(1808-1839) overthrows Selim III in a coup; gets the Deed of Agreement signed; destroyed the janissary in 1826 and instituted the New Order Army as the primary military tool; focus on centralizing the Ottoman state's power; 1829 clothing law to promote uniformity of state officials as well as society; painting of him on the horse suggests that although there are challenges ahead, he is confident and in control, holding the reins of state

Auspicious Incident

(1826) massacre of janissaries ordered by Sultan Mahmud II; part of the greater goal of the New Order and completely replacing the old ways

Damascus Affair

(1840) arrest of 16 Jews accused of ritual murder after the disappearance of Father Thomas and his servant; an example of how the imperial powers were intervening for their own interests (French consul wanted to show off the French strength in comparison to Britain and offer their protection and abilities to the greater Christian population)

Ahmed Midhat Effendi

(1844-1912) wrote a novel that talked about the confusion Ottomans felt between Ottoman ways of doing things (alaturka) versus the new French ways of doing things (alafranga); discusses family, gender, slavery; cosmopolitanism of Istanbul; born into a modest family (mother was a refugee and father was a cloth merchant), worked in the market and was in the entourage of the governor; characters show the difference between someone who takes on European ways in superficial ways while the other is hardworking, learns new languages, and modern in a deeper way yet he doesn't abandon Ottoman ways for European ones

Islahat Fermani

(1856) decree promulgated by the Ottoman government that reaffirmed and expanded the rights granted to Ottoman citizens by the Hatt-i Sharif of Gulhane; reminding the people of the Hatti-Sharif and of the egalitarian measures to be put in place; tried to make sure that minorities had a voice in running local affairs; equality of citizens is important

D'Arcy Concession

(1901) Persian government granted D'Arcy the right to "obtain, exploit, develop, render suitable for trade, carry away, and sell" petroleum and products thereof from almost all of Persia in exchange for 40,000 pounds in cash and stock and 16% of annual profits; first oil concession granted in the Middle East; not a great deal for the Persians (not paid a lot, had to give up whatever land was necessary)

Abdulhamid II

(ruled from 1876-1918) the last great modernizing Sultan; originally came to power saying he would promote the constitution but he ultimately revoked it; tried to strengthen the empire by centralizing power, promoting an Islamic/Ottoman identity, and undertaking public works such as the Hijaz railway; invests in infrastructure to tie the people to the state; says that Europe was using missionaries as an informal kind of empire and suggests that the Ottoman Empire needs to respond with a stronger and larger Islamic state • Had the ideology of using Islam as a transnational glue to connect all people in the region → religion as political tool to combat invasion. • Interested in modernizing the Ottoman Empire. • Advocated Arabism in the 1870's as a cultural movement focused on an Arab heritage. • Censored writings which led to secret societies

Balta Liman Convention

Anglo-Ottoman Treaty, is a formal trade agreement signed between the Sublime Porte of the Ottoman Empire and the United Kingdom. The trade policies imposed upon the Ottoman Empire, after the Treaty of Balta Limani, are considered to be some of the most liberal, open market, settlements that had ever been enacted during the time. The terms of the treaty stated that, the Ottoman Empire will abolish all monopolies, allow British merchants and their collaborators to have full access to all Ottoman markets and will be taxed equally to local merchants. These agreements did not constitute an equal free trade arrangement, as The United Kingdom still employed protectionist policies on their agricultural markets; in return for British assistance against Mehmet Ali Pasha

Rifa'a Rafi' al-Tahtawi

Egyptian writer, teacher, translator, Egyptologist and renaissance intellectual. Tahtawi was among the first Egyptian scholars to write about Western cultures in an attempt to bring about a reconciliation and an understanding between Islamic and Christian civilizations. He founded the School of Languages in 1835 and was influential in the development of science, law, literature and Egyptology in 19th-century Egypt. His work influenced that of many later scholars including Muhammad Abduh.: • Example of defensive developmentalism because he was sent in an educational mission by Mehmet Ali in Egypt to Paris to learn about how Christian and Muslim populations live together

Ottoman Land Code of 1858

Example of unintended consequences of defensive developmentalism; gave peasants the right to register the lands they were working in their own names as private property (government wanted to increase accountability for taxation, expand agricultural production, and end tax farming); peasants were suspicious that the government wanted to increase their tax burden and conscript their sons into the army, so some fled their land, signed it over to urban-based notables, or lost it. Ended up reducing peasants to landless farmers and absentee landowners came to possess huge agricultural estates

Muzaffar al-Din Shah

Gave out lots of concessions to the Western powers (D'Arcy concession), target of the Persian Constitutional Revolution Handed out concessions to sustain the palace because the central state was not strong enough to collect taxes. accused of economic mismanagement (taking out loans for the palace, not the people)

Mehmet/Muhammad Ali Pasha and Navarino

Governor of Egypt (1805-1848); from Albania but moves to Egypt and fights Napoleon; takes back Mecca and Medina for the Ottoman Sultan (1811) and then appointed governor of Egypt (credited as the father of modern Egypt); real goal was to overthrow the Sultan; asked to go fight during the Greek revolution under the promise of being given control of Syria but he's defeated by Britain, France, and Russia; takes Syria anyway and attempts to take Istanbul but eventually pushed out by the Ottomans and the British; truly understood that his survival depended on his ability to "modernize" his domain and centralize his power

Ottoman Public Debt Administration

Institution created by the governments of European creditors to oversee the repayment of debts owed to their citizens in the wake of Ottoman bankruptcy of 1876

Nazem al-Islam Kermani

Nazem al-Kermani was a cofounder of the Secret Society, which was an Iranian revolutionary group. Kermani and this group pushed mujtahids to protest and focused the revolution with the goal of having a real legislature with the power to appoint cabinet members, adopt legislation, and oversee the national budget. He believe monarchy caused society to fall backward and believed the Qajar state was the reason for the Iranian state being behind Russia, India, and Japan. He later went into hiding and became a bit more moderate in his views, saying that it was necessary to educate the people before a constitution would even be effective.

Krikor Odian

drafted the Armenian constitution, member of council of state, drafter of the Ottoman Constitution; worked in administration of Midhat Pasha; embraced Ottomanism; highest rank in civil administration

Protege

foreigners given passports and privileges; Ottomans of minority status that received berats like the foreigners, granted them protection from the capitulations granted to foreigners

Muhammadan Union

means "sacred society", bound by divine unity, all about belief in God, aim is to uphold the word of God, laws are the Prophet's; mostly concerned with morality, worship, and virtue, only 1% politics; embraced all believers and was a way of overcoming the seriousness differences that had developed between the various societies and political parties in the months of CUP rule; unity of Muslims

Party of Ottoman Administrative Decentralization

political party in the Ottoman Empire founded in January 1913. Based in Cairo, OPAD called for the reform of the Ottoman provincial administration for Arab provinces through decentralization of power and functions, rather than outright independence. Most support for the party came from Syrian intellectuals and Muslims, though Christians were encouraged to join as well. The party was accused of being political propagandists affiliated with European imperialists.

1873-1896 depression

worldwide price and economic recession, beginning in 1873 and running either through the spring of 1879; he Panic of 1873 has been described as "the first truly international crisis".[11] The optimism that had been driving booming stock prices in central Europe had reached a fever pitch, and fears of a bubble culminated in a panic in Vienna beginning in April 1873. The collapse of the Vienna Stock Exchange began on May 8, 1873, and continued until May 10, when the exchange was closed

Khedive Ismail

• "my country is no longer in Africa, it is now in Europe"; relied on British and French funding for education, technology, and the Suez Canal (due to the Egyptian defaulting on debt from the cotton sales and then the depression of 1873; established national courts • Egyptian Khedive from 1863 to 1879. He is known for his push to Europeanize Egypt • He instituted new courts in 1884 which generated pushback from Sharia judges now relegated to judging on issues of personal religious matter. He invested heavily in industrialization, and economic and urban development (e.g. Suez Canal) aimed at modernizing Egypt/securing independence from European domination. Ironically, his efforts drove Egypt into crushing debt, which pulled in more European influence as the Great Powers took control of Egyptian finances.

Caisse de la Dette

• ("Public Debt Commission") was an international commission established by a decree issued by Khedive Ismail of Egypt on 2 May 1876 to supervise the payment by the Egyptian government of the loans to the European governments following the construction of the Suez Canal; This system was under the control of two main countries, France and Britain. This system of 'dual control' represented Europeans direct intervention in Egypt's financial affairs • Administrators took control of 50% of Egyptian revenues • 1880 Law of Liquidation regularized the debt repayment → Caisse had to direct all revenue from railroads ports etc. to repay Egypt's foreign creditors + Caisse had the right to all income from import taxes on Tobacco + reinstatement of taxes on land • Caisse actions infuriated the Egyptian landowners, military elite and political/commercial elite who suddenly had huge tax burden

Selim III

• (1789-1808) reorganized the military (New Order), reformed bureaucracy, established new branches of study (engineering); imported European techniques of warfare and weapons (implement changes that they are seeing in the European wars), overthrown by janissaries and replaced by Mahmud II (technically one other sultan in between)

Ahmad Bey

• (1806-1855) defensive developmentalist along the lines of Mehmet Ali of Egypt. He ascended to the throne of Tunisia (a province of the Ottoman Empire) in 1837; made military reform a top priority (bought weapons from French, conscript army, sent troops to France for training) in fear of Ottoman DD and French ambitions in North Africa; sent a Tunisian contingent to the Crimean War, abolished chattel slavery, and improved the conditions of the Jewish community to win support from the Europeans; it worked because he forced the Ottomans to recognize Tunisian autonomy and the right for his family to rule • The policies were so effective that Ottomans had to recognize Tunisian autonomy, but the borrowing from European creditors → bankruptcy → takeover of finances by the creditors → Tunisia as a French protectorate

Butrus al-Bustani

• (1819-1883) al-nadha - cultural solidarity rather than a nationalist movement; preserve and modernize; Arab Christians need to emphasize culture over religion; missionaries created new distinctions (provided Christians with new educational and economic opportunity and social mobility; possible because of mass politics and mass media; opening of schools; writer and scholar from present day Lebanon. He was a major figure in the Arabic Renaissance, which began in Egypt in the late 19th century and spread to the Middle East. He is considered to be the first Syrian nationalist, due to his publication of Nafir Suria which began following the 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war. • (1819-1883); Maronite Christian from today Lebanon • Secular approach to creation of Ottoman identity: emphasis on shared culture rather than religion (Islam) • Downplayed differences between religious identities throughout the empire

Greek Revolt

• (1821) Western European powers don't think that it's right for a Muslim sultan to rule over Christians in the Greek-speaking parts of the empire; also view Greece as classic and in need of civilizing: British and French support Greek revolutionaries (mostly Orthodox Greeks who want more from the state) which leads to 10 years of bloodshed and ultimately Greek independence; put in place Prince Otto of Bavaria as the King (1832) but he's largely unpopular and authoritarian, he is forced to grant a constitution in 1843 but is deposed in 1862 • Battle of Navarino: combined British/French/Russian fleet destroyed Egyptian fleet → OE forced to accept Greek autonomy + Greek Indep.

French Algeria

• (1830-1962) one of France's longest-term overseas territories • 1830. French didn't establish a colony in Algeria. They integrated it to France → Shift from Ottoman territory to a French one • French launched Naval blockade which culminated in the occupation of Algiers. Occupation was justified by the "mission civilisatrice" • French imperialism encouraged spread of market relations, disrupted rural life and increased urbanization • Algerian war of independence (1954-1962) was extremely bloody and led by the FLN (Front de Libération Nationale). FLN still rules Algerian politics today

Hatt-i Sharif of Gulhane

• (1839) decree promising, among other things, equality and rights to all Ottoman citizens; regarded as the beginning of the Tanzimat; a way to centralize power and tie the people to the government • considered cornerstone of liberal reform • Promised Ottoman subjects religious liberty and equality (including non-Muslims) • Attempt to promote Ottoman identity (Osmanlilik) • Goal: empire of equal citizens (not just subjects of the sultan) bound together by common set of rights/responsibilities + allegiance beyond religion

Tanzimat

• (1839-1876) how the Ottomans are trying to cope with instability; tanzimat means "putting in order" or "reorganizing"; principles include equality of all subjects, direct collection of taxes, universal military conscription where "all serve"; overall desire for greater centralization (need to collect resources to build an army to protect against threats; includes the Hatt-I Sharif Gulhane decree of 1839 and the Islahat Fermani decree of 1856 • began with the purpose, not of radical transformation, but of modernization, desiring to consolidate the social and political foundations of the OE • attempts to modernise the OE and to secure its territorial integrity against internal nationalist movements and external aggressive powers. The reforms encouraged Ottomanism among the diverse ethnic groups of the Empire.

Ahmad Urabi

• (1841-1911) colonel in the Egyptian army, led the Urabi revolt and surrounded the khedival palace in 1881 demanding a new cabinet, election of a chamber of deputies (parliament), and return of army jobs to Egyptians whose promotions were going to Europeans; sent to jail and wrote about his experience • Elections were held in 1881 and Urabi was made under-secretary of war, and ultimately a member of the cabinet. • Exiled in 1882 post British intervention

Armenian National Constitution

• 150 articles; drafted 1860 by Armenian intellectuals; ratified by the Ottoman State in 1863; established an Armenian parliament in the Ottoman Empire: limited powers of the Armenian patriarch, clergy, and nobility who were now all subjected to civilian input • Ottoman Empire-approved form of the "code of regulations"

nadha

• 19th century Arabic literary renaissance that was part of a wider movement for social and cultural reform • Poets/Novelists/Playwrights sought to rejuvenate Arabic literature to recover it from what they describe as a decline→ attempt to fuse Arabic + European forms of expression + make Arabic language accessible to a larger audience • Nahda is a part of the generalized current for literacy/political/social reform that spread through the urban centers of ME

Which sultan initiated the construction of the Hejaz Railway and why?

• Abdulhamid II • invests in infrastructure to tie the people to the state • Trying to create a more centralized power • to connect Istanbul with the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. The railroad was built to assist Muslims in making the annual pilgrimage to the two cities and became an Islamic railroad, financed by Muslims.

Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905

• Accused Shah of economic mismanagement, taking out bad loans, and giving too many concessions to Western companies; 1906 the Shah was forced to allow elections and opening of a parliament; fundamental law of 1907 limits political authority of the shah (financial control, appointing ministers) and gives these powers to the legislature • Handed out concessions to sustain the palace because the central state was not strong enough to collect taxes. • accused of economic mismanagement (taking out loans for the palace, not the people).

Jamal al-Din al-Afghani

• Arrived in Egypt 1871 and was exiled to India in 1879; embraces science and human reason; was Muslims worldwide to unite against the encroaching Europeans; corrupt Muslim governments should be overthrown (if opening economies to European powers, if unable to defend territory); hated imperialism and believed it could only be defeated by uniting all Muslims • Advocate of Pan-Islamic Unity. Opposed to European Imperialism in Muslim countries • Rejuvenation of Islamic Culture : Renewed commitment to Scientific excellence, responded to Renan (saying that Islamic culture was backward and unscientific); "Where would be modern Europe without Arabic numerals and algebra?" • Abduh's mentor

Capitulations

• Clauses in treaties between European countries and empires in the Middle East granting the former privileges (trade, religious, and the like) in Middle Eastern domains • First granted in 1569 to the French • Important tool for Ottoman diplomacy: enabled Ottomans to gain favor of European allies • Capitulations encouraged European imports →means by which Europeans were able to penetrate Ottoman Markets • Source of tensions between Ottomans and Europeans, because local merchants felt they had a disadvantage compared to their European counterparts who didn't pay taxes/ custom duties

Discuss the relationship between defensive developmentalism and the life and work of Rifa'a Rafi' al-Tahtawi.

• Defensive developmentalism: Policy of centralization and "modernization" undertaken by governments in the Middle East to strengthen their power and promote economic activity; goal was to modernize the army and defend against imperialism • Egyptian writer, teacher, translator, Egyptologist and renaissance intellectual. Tahtawi was among the first Egyptian scholars to write about Western cultures in an attempt to bring about a reconciliation and an understanding between Islamic and Christian civilizations. He founded the School of Languages in 1835 and was influential in the development of science, law, literature and Egyptology in 19th-century Egypt. His work influenced that of many later scholars including Muhammad Abduh

Who were the Young Ottomans?

• Diffuse group of 19th century intellectuals who advocated Islamic modernism and constitutional rule in the Ottoman Empire • Ottoman Constitution of 1876: Young Ottomans succeed; guaranteed equal rights and constitutional liberties to all subjects of the Empire alike (similar to the Tanzimat decrees), March 1877 opening of the parliament with 119 deputies • Young Ottomans sought to transform the Ottoman society by preserving the empire and modernizing along the European tradition of adopting a constitutional government. They agreed that the new constitutional government should continue to be somewhat rooted in Islam and syncretized Islamic ideals with liberalism and parliamentary democracy. • Unhappy with the Tanzimat and wanted more • Criticized the state's adoption of the European view that Muslims were oppressing non-Muslims

Young Ottomans

• Diffuse group of 19th century intellectuals who advocated Islamic modernism and constitutional rule in the Ottoman Empire • society established in 1865 by a group of Ottoman Turkish intellectuals who were dissatisfied with the Tanzimat reforms in the Ottoman Empire and believed they did not go far enough. • Believed the only way to protect from European imperial expansion was to root the social/political reform in Islamic principles → these principles could be adapted to modern times and serve as glue to unite society and inspire Ottoman patriotism • Strong belief in government by consultation (islamic principle) → argue for ottoman constitution and parliament • sought to transform the Ottoman society by preserving the empire and modernizing along the European tradition of adopting a constitutional government.

Explain the Ottoman decision to enter the First World War based on WWI docs. Refer to specifics documents.

• Document 4 - knew that the Russians were planning to screw them over; Germans were their only real options • Document 6 - Germans actually need the Ottomans, plays into the sense of how the Ottoman empire was never really needed as an ally but now they are and feel important • Thus, the Ottomans decided to enter WWI to overcome diplomatic isolation, counterbalance against Russia, their main threat, and for the prospect of assistance in rebuilding after the war, since they believed Germany had a bigger chance to win. • "The Ottoman road to war was not paved with a blind faith in German power or a love for German gold, as has been argued but that it was filled with the fears of the empire's partition by Russia, Britain, and France after the war."

Evelyn Baring

• Earl of Cromer, first British consul general in Egypt • During British control of Egypt → theoretically Ottomans ruled but in reality most important political figure was the British consul general • Baring = First consul general o replaced anti-British Egyptian ministers with British appointees o High-handed attitude toward Egyptians, looked down on them and described in his memoirs the shortcomings of the Egyptian people and the comparative strengths of European people

Edward Said and the Eastern Question

• Edward Said: born in 1935 Jerusalem, educated in US comparative literature; argued that the British and French knowledge of the Middle East produced were greatly influenced by their imperialism, empires, and desire to control the Middle East (depicted it as traditional, superstitious, not scientific -not modern); Edward Said: intellectual, author of 1978 book "Orientalism"--> which stated that knowledge about the ME was shaped by British and French imperialist interests so that the region was depicted as primitive, therein also implying that European societies were modern and superior. ME as not-modern and needing to be saved by European modernity. • Eastern Question: 18th and 19th century competition to determine the fate of the Ottoman Empire and its provinces involving Britain, France, Russia, and later Germany; what to do if the Ottoman Empire collapses? What to do with a weakening Ottoman Empire?

Al-Jabarti

• Egyptian scholar of Somali descent that spent most of his time writing in Cairo; talked about Napoleon's occupation (36,000 men on 400 ships June 28, 1789, France tried to set up a colonial regime, really just trying to get to England, justifying more troops by calling the Egyptians barbarians that don't know how to properly use their flourishing resources, caused lots of panic but also pushback from Cairo, not impressed by the claim from Cairo that there were no leaders), some claim Napoleon's invasion set in motion modernity in the Middle East (he did) but then you're buying into the idea that modernity is created in the West and exported East and views the East as lagging behind o Describes Egyptian rebels as riff-raff because he's an elite historian. • Paints an image of terrified Egyptians fleeing the large French army as they arrive off the coast of Alexandria. o But there is evidence of fierce rebellions in Alexandria and Cairo. • Says Napoleon woke up the ME setting in progress the process of modernization (idea that modernity was created in the West and imported to the East).

Identify two major eccentricities of Middle East environmental history, according to John McNeill, and give one example of their effect on 19th-century history.

• Energy: animal power dominated because it was so cheap, so they didn't look for new energy, the MENA has almost no coal but lots of oil o MENA is thin on biomass but far poorer in coal—hard for the MENA to compete globally o At an unfavorable position compared to Russia which had lots of coal o Needed to buy coal from afar and pay a lot of money • Water • People fail to see the advantages of the seas surrounding the MENA, especially because there are such a strong caravan trading routes in place; but these advantages lead to increased piracy in the region o Unusually poor in aquatic life, especially in comparison to the rest of the world, but the Black Sea is unique in that it has the most fish of all • Uneven distribution of freshwater; aridity - Leads to responsiveness, even in moderate climate change o Since glaciers are one of the only reliable sources of water, major cities are located in close proximity o Also leads to people learning how to make the best of their circumstances, so they know how to make the most of their limited water supply Ex) complex and labor-intensive water management schemes o Decreasing rainfall over decades and even centuries can lead to abandoned villages and fields in the long run. • Grass • mobile pastorialim: Mastery of horseback made pastoralists very powerful because they had the power to move as they pleased (Mongols) o They were often viewed as uncivilized and archaic, but the Ottomans could not exercise any control over them o Benefits: smallpox is not as much of a problem because they developed immunity and also had such a small chance of ever being exposed to it. • higher proportion of herders\ • proximity of grasslands: o Grasslands weren't located as close to cities in warmer latitudes (MENA) compared to cooler latitudes (Europe) because there wasn't as much of a need for firewood to to fuel the cities

How does Gelvin characterize the Anglo-Ottoman Trade Agreement of 1838? What was Great Britain's general policy toward the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century and why?

• Gelvin characterizes it as unfair to the Ottomans; British definitely got a better deal • It was in exchange for the British assisting the Ottomans in expelling Mehmet Ali from Syria • Great Britain had an imperialist policy towards the Ottoman Empire • Views it as diplomatic coerican whereby Europeans forced treaties favourable to their interests on a weaker state • It was seen as part of European penetration of the Ottoman heartland • Britain's actions were guided by a motivation to protect the route to India by suppressing piracy and by establishing special relationships with local rulers that would bid them to Britain • British fears regarding instability in the region, control of the Suez canal and debt repayment to British investors • To this end, Britain established many ruling dynasties that exist to this day

Osmanlilik

• Ideology that can loosely be called Ottoman nationalism; attempt at centralization and unity; as the central state starts showing up in communities, society responds by seeking constitutions and parliaments to make the people a part of it and guarantee participation in state decision making; state's goal is a central army to defend borders so they need money and manpower; preserve the empire; 1869 Ottoman citizenship • Osmanlilik promised equality for all (regardless of ethnic or religious identity) before the law. It was a patriotic concept developed to unite Ottoman subjects against outside influence. • It thrived to set a standard for a single Ottoman identity that achieved consensus between the different religious and ethnic communities of the Ottoman Empire. From 1908 to 1918, the vast majority of Arabs in the Empire supported Ottomanism

According to Campos, what effects did the Constitutional Revolution have on the population of Jerusalem?

• Jerusalem was 41% Jewish, 34% Muslim, 25% Christian • Spatial mixing local set of norms about communal, ethnic, and religious boundaries and borders. Live all together peacefully (except during holidays)

Discuss popular responses to the New Order in the Balkans.

• Military was pissed, also the people were pissed because the janissary was more than just the military but also key to their culture • Change modeled by Europeans - angered people because anti-imperialist • Janissaries and tax farmers were directly affected • Regarded imperial policies as a threat o For peasants, the policies of the imperial government threatened to bring about more efficient taxation and conscription o For ulma, the policies threatened to bring a loss of prestige and limit their educational and judicial functions o For the notables, the policies meant loss of power • The state was placing more demands on the people without giving anything in return • Strong opposition in the Balkans because they were still traumatized by the previous wars • Financial reforms were burdensome; guild-based economy struggled • Taxed the poor (who were formerly in the military and hadn't gotten paid) to pay the new army (so it angered them because now they're getting paid); janissary also hadn't been paid well • Religious pushback - previously had fought for Islam but now the army is based on Christian European ideas, so it raises the question of why they are fighting and angers those that were fighting for Islam

Baha'i Movement

• Movement in Persia, emerging as a result of integration, peripheralization, imperialism and defense developmentalism • Origins: 1844, a merchant proclaimed himself to be the "bab" (gate) through which the hidden imam communicated then revealed that he was in fact the hidden imam → started a movement • Demanded abolition of taxes and private property and supported equal rights, in response to a society affected by economic and social dislocations resulting from 19th century developments • The movement was modern and progressive within the Persian framework of conventional religious images and languages • Suppressed by Persian government and many followers became pacifists who were prosecuted on and off by the government from then on

Sanussiyya

• Muslim political-religious tariqa (Sufi order) and clan in colonial Libya and the Sudan region founded in Mecca in 1837 by the Grand Senussi; concerned with what it saw as both the decline of Islamic thought and spirituality and the weakening of Muslim political integrity • Encouraged return towards austerity. Emphasis the Quran and hadith only (return to Islam for anti-imperialist motivations). • The Sanusiyya united surrounding populations and controlled trading networks in eastern Libya and the Sudan. • They fought against French colonialism and the 1911 Italian occupation of Tripoli

Young Turks

• Name given to an amalgam of groups opposed to Abdulhamid II; in 1908 they staged a revolt and restored the Ottoman constitution • political reform movement in the early 20th century that consisted of Ottoman exiles, students, civil servants, and army officers. They favored the replacement of the Ottoman Empire's absolute monarchy with a constitutional government. Later, the leaders led a rebellion against the absolute rule of Sultan Abdul Hamid II in the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. With this revolution, the Young Turks helped establish the Second Constitutional Era.

Namik Kemal

• Ottoman democrat, writer, intellectual, reformer, journalist, playwright, and political activist who was influential in the formation of the Young Ottomans and their struggle for governmental reform in the Ottoman Empire during the late Tanzimat period, which would lead to the First Constitutional Era in the Empire in 1876. He is often regarded as being instrumental in redefining Western concepts like natural rights and constitutional government; movements fueled by the expansion of the Ottoman state and a desire to push back against that • Wanted a parliamentary system, believed that the Tanzimat reforms did not do enough. • Criticized the state's adoption of the European view that Muslims were oppressing non-muslims. Believed that this was a European self-serving argument defending minorities in order to intervene and serve their own interests. Kemal argued that non-muslims already had government rights and did not need European intervention.

Midhat Pasha

• Ottoman theorist, democrat, and one of the leading statesmen during the late Tanzimat period. He is most famous for leading the Ottoman constitutional movement of 1876 and introducing the First Constitutional Era, but was also a leading figure of reform in the educational and provincial administrations. He was part of a governing elite which recognized the crisis the Empire was in and considered reform to be a dire need. Midhat Pasha is described as a person with a liberal attitude and is often considered as one of the founders of the Ottoman Parliament

Defensive Developmentalism

• Policy of centralization and "modernization" undertaken by governments in the Middle East to strengthen their power and promote economic activity; goal was to modernize the army and defend against imperialism • Early 19th cen: Ottoman sultans, Shahs and Egyptian dynastic rulers undertook policies to reverse the process of fragmentation and to centralize and expand their authority • Goal: strengthen their states in the face of internal and external threats to make their governments more proficient in managing their populations and their resources. • Steps taken: military reform, expanding sources of revenue, coordinating their activity, disciplining their populations, collecting more taxes. • Problems: local resistance, new vs old class differed in implemented policies, European resistance.

Constitutionalism

• Push for a constitution, pushback against the expansion of the central Ottoman state • The 19th century saw movements for constitutions across the Middle East. These resulted in the 1860 Armenian Constitution, the 1876 First Ottoman Constitution, Urabi's 1881 Constitution (met by a British attack and Urabi's subsequent deposition), and the 1908 Second Ottoman Constitution. The constitutional movement of Iran of 1905/1906 was aborted and Iran was partitioned between Britain and Russia. • Some constitutional movements arose from underground revolutionary movements that used terror tactics and violence to get what they wanted (e.g. Armenian Revolution Federation (ARF), Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), and many others together known as "Young Turks"). The goals of constitutional movements were to (1) limit the powers of the sultan/shah/khedive, (2) limit foreign influence over leaders, and (3) limit the exclusive power of economic elites and landowners.

Dar al-Funun

• School established in Persia in 1851 during a brief attempt at defensive developmentalism • One of Persia's Qajar dynasty's only successful attacks on defensive developmentalism • school founded in 1851 to train military officers and bureaucrats • Many graduates later participated in the Constitutional Revolution of 1905

Committee of Union and Progress

• Secret society, aligned with the Young Turks; intended to copy the Japanese example and modernize the Ottoman Empire to end its status as the perpetual "sick man of Europe". The ultimate aim of the CUP was to return the Ottoman Empire to its former status as one of the world's great powers. Once the party gained power in the Young Turk Revolution in 1908 and consolidated its power in the 1912 "Election of Clubs" and the 1913 Raid on the Sublime Porte, it grew increasingly more splintered and volatile • Wanted a constitutional regime • founded as a secret protest society in 1889 by students who felt the repression under sultan Abdulhamid was an impediment to essential reforms. o Sultanate was not protecting and strengthening the Ottoman Empire. • The CUP gained power in the 1908 revolt and gradually gained full control of the government. • Though originally a reformist movement, the CUP became increasingly oppressive after 1913. Its policies were well-intentioned but often offended key groupings within Ottoman society.

According to Gelvin, what is sectarianism? Describe an example of its significance in the 19th-century Middle East.

• Sectarianism: the phenomenon whereby religious affiliation becomes the foundation for collective identity in a multireligious environment • arises as a result of political circumstances, such as where a religious community is treated differently from others by another religious community, a colonial power, or a state as a matter of policy. It is different from nationalism, where the objective of nationalism is sovereignty; sectarianism demands for autonomy or rights. • For example, as the Ottoman Empire became increasingly integrated into the world economy, the prosperity of the Christian community along the Mediterranean coast increased dramatically. Non-Muslims had many advantages: acting like middlemen in the European trade, knowing these European languages, having contacts; they were even granted special certificates known as berats, where they paid lower customs duties and received tax breaks. This affected Mount Lebanon in that the inhabitants of this area interpreted every act of injustice as an assault onto their religious community, especially because members of different religious communities lived so close to one another. Eventually led to massacres.

The Great Game

• Term popularized by Richard Kippling to refer to 19th century British-Russian competition in Central Asia (really all about India—Britain needs buffer states between the Russian and British empires) • On northern frontier of Persia, competition between Russia and Britain for control of Central Asia • Prevented 19th century technology and institutions from entering Persia

Tawfik Pasha

• Tewfik had been blamed for his failure to take a firm line with the rebels, but his attitude was governed by his relations with Britain and France, and he was unable to control events. The dissatisfaction culminated in the anti-foreign movement headed by Urabi Pasha, who had gained complete command of the army; khedive of Egypt and the Sudan between 1879 and 1892

Briefly describe the history and significance of refugee movement in the Ottoman Empire in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

• The military losses displaced millions. This made the empire considerably more Muslim. It also placed a great financial burden on an already broke Ottoman Empire. Mostly Muslim, brought about the rise of Pan-Islamism, which then affected politics. • Refugee movement: influx of Muslims and causes some non-Muslims to leave • 5-7 million refugees come from 1783-1915 (majority Muslim) from Crimea, Caucus, and Balkans • Impacted religious and ethnic identity in the empire • In 1850 50% residing in the Balkans were non-Muslim, 1906 it's down to 25% • Brings stories of expulsion and loss lots of resentment • Integration into society wasn't always smooth • Informed the role of the Ottoman Empire, power relation between Muslims and non-Muslims, informed about European goals and how they'd treat people

"Holy War Made in Germany"

• The phrase given to the belief that the Germans pushed the Ottomans into declaring jihad in 1917; that fact is disputed however • In this text, Aksakal argues against the common historical narrative that Germany engineered a scheme whereby they convinced the Ottoman Empire to declare jihad in 1914 against the UK, France, and Russia to put pressure on them in their colonies and the false belief that Ottomans sought the formation of a pan-Islamic empire from Istanbul to Western China. Aksakal believes that the jihad declaration had, in fact, Ottoman roots. • The text also discusses the multiple meanings of jihad and explains that in the beginning of the 20th century, the definition were a little blurred. We see a 'secularization of jihad' and an 'islamization of politics', pointing to a new convergence between politics and religion.

What were the consequences of the Ottoman-Russian War of 1877-78?

• To avoid prolonging the hostilities, Otto von Bismarck organized the Congress of Berlin in 1878 to find a peaceful dismantling of the Ottoman Empire. The Balkan states achieved their independence and other parts of the Empire fell into European control. Also called for reforms in the Armenian provinces of the empire to protect Ottoman Christians. As a result of this tremendous territorial loss, Sultan Abdul Hamid canceled the Constitution of 1876 and devoted a lot of money to military modernization. Ottomans also feared that Europe felt like it could intervene for Christians in the Ottoman empire.

Balkan Nationalism

• Until mid 19th cen. ½ of Ottoman Empire lives in the Balkans • Uprising caused by perception of injustice in the Ottoman Empire • Christians + Muslims work together in the revolts (no religious division)

Crimean War (1853-1856)

• War pitting the British, French, Piedmontese, and Ottomans against an expanding Russia • Russia lost to alliance of OE, France, Britain, and Sardinia. • immediate cause: involved the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land, which was a part of the OE. French promoted the rights of Roman Catholics, while Russia promoted the rights of Eastern Orthodox Church. • longer-term causes: involved the decline of the OE and the unwillingness of Britain and France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at Ottoman expense.

Ottoman Constitution of 1876

• Young Ottomans succeed; guaranteed equal rights and constitutional liberties to all subjects of the Empire alike (similar to the Tanzimat decrees), March 1877 opening of the parliament with 119 deputies (71 Muslim, 44 Christians and 4 Jews) • During the Eastern crisis of 1873-1875 Grand Vizier Midhat Pasha said that only a constitution and parliament would prevent and invasion.

Tobacco Protest

• a Shi'a revolt in Iran against an 1890 tobacco concession granted by Nasir al-Din Shah of Persia to Great Britain, granting British control over growth, sale and export of tobacco. The protest was held by Tehran merchants in solidarity with the clerics; acting out against imperialism • Because the Qajar dynasty was in great financial difficulty, Nasir al-Din Shah granted Major G.F. Talbot a 50-year full monopoly over tobacco production

Reutter Concession

• a contract signed in 1872 between Baron Julius de Reuter (born Israel Beer Josaphat), a British banker and businessman, and Nasir al-Din Shah, Qajar king of Persia. The concession gave him control over Persian roads, telegraphs, mills, factories, extraction of resources, a national bank, and other public works in exchange for a stipulated sum for 5 years and 60% of all the net revenue for 20 years; later canceled by the Shah • Caused domestic outrage in the form of local protests but the Russian government was also hostile towards the concession. Under immense pressure, Nasir al-Din Shah consequently canceled the agreement despite his deteriorating financial situation. • While the concession lasted only a year, the debate set the foundation for the revolts against the tobacco concession in 1890

Wasif Jawhariyyeh

• composer, oud player, poet and chronicler. He is known for his memoirs, The Diaries of Wasif Jawhariyyeh, that spans over six decades from 1904 to 1968, covering Jerusalem's turbulent modern history, including four regimes and five wars; father was a prominent member of the Eastern Orthodox community and was on the counsel and was a lawyer; discusses the fluid cultural barriers (religious, gender, wealth) • Influenced by nahda literary culture → selection of themes that are Western • Spoke Greek, Turkish, Arabic, educated in Quran despite having orthodox father → demonstrates fluidity of boundaries in Ottoman Jerusalem at the time • When he began writing, Jerusalem was in the background/not important in OE, Wasif witnessed the great 19th century transformation of Jerusalem • Example of micro-history: Records of daily life at a critical point in Jerusalem history

Russo-Ottoman War of 1877-1878

• conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the Eastern Orthodox coalition led by the Russian Empire and composed of Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro. Fought in the Balkans and in the Caucasus, it originated in emerging 19th-century Balkan nationalism. Additional factors combined Russian goals of recovering territorial losses endured during the Crimean War, re-establishing itself in the Black Sea and supporting the political movement attempting to free Balkan nations from the Ottoman Empire. The Russian-led coalition won the war. • The war began due to: • Rising Balkan nationalism of the 19th century • Russians wanting to recover territorial losses suffered during the Crimean War • Re-establishing itself in the Black Sea • Supporting the political movement attempting to free Balkan nations from the Ottoman Empire. • Russia came out more strongly positioned

Salafism

• method of arriving at religious truth in Islam by returning to the foundational texts of Islam and using the first Islamic community as a source of emulation • Puritanical movement: Salafis advocate for a reform in society through the adoption of the first generation of Muslims model, "the pious ancestors" → al-salaf al-salih • Rely only on the Qur'an and the Hadith o Example of Islamic movement rising in 19th century as a result of challenges created by imperialism (see Wahhabism)

Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab

• mobilizing ideology is the Tawhid, Quran and hadith; capture Mecca by 1803 but are later expelled by the son of Mehmet Ali; religious leader and theologian from Najd in central Arabia who founded the movement now called Wahhabism. • Believed that cause of European invasion in Arabia and exploitation of resources was that there was a breakdown in study of Quran causing inability to maintain power • Founder of the 18th century Wahabi movement (mobilizing ideology), which was aimed at purging and purifying new practices and innovations (seen as corrupted) and reinstating the Quran and hadith. He successfully created a confederation and captured Mecca in 1803 before being expelled by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt (the son of the governor Muhammad Ali Pasha).

Islamic Modernism

• movement that has been described as "the first Muslim ideological response" attempting to reconcile Islamic faith with modern values such as nationalism, democracy, civil rights, rationality, equality, and progress. It featured a "critical reexamination of the classical conceptions and methods of jurisprudence" and a new approach to Islamic theology and Quranic exegesis (Tafsir). It was the first of several Islamic movements - including secularism, Islamism, and Salafism - that emerged in the middle of the 19th century in reaction to the rapid changes of the time, especially the perceived onslaught of Western Civilization and colonialism on the Muslim world. Founders include Muhammad Abduh, a Sheikh of Al-Azhar University for a brief period before his death in 1905, Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani, and Muhammad Rashid Rida • Modernism differs from secularism in that it insists on the importance of religious faith in public life, and from Salafism or Islamism in that it embraces contemporary European institutions, social processes, and values • Re-embracing of human reason and science; Muslims worldwide need to unite against encroaching Europeans • The concept that true Islam is compatible with Western notions of progress

Huda Shaarawi

• pioneering Egyptian feminist leader, nationalist, and founder of the Egyptian Feminist Union. • Participated in Salon for women where they discussed social/political issues

Wahhabism

• puritanical religious movement founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in the 18th century; described as "ultraconservative", "austere", "fundamentalist", or "puritan(ical)"; as an Islamic "reform movement" to restore "pure monotheistic worship" (tawhid) by devotees; and as a "deviant sectarian movement", "vile sect" and a distortion of Islam by its opponents; rejects everything except the Quran and the hadith • Believed that Arabian peninsula went "backwards" under the Ottoman rule as local folk practices were considered as the worship of idol (fundamentally forbidden in Islam) o Example of Islamic movement rising in 19th century as a result of challenges created by imperialism (see Salafism) • Originating from the Arabian Peninsula as a rebellious group; followers of Muhammad bin Abd al-Wahhab and spread by the tribe of Ibn Saud → Traditionalist militant reform movement. • Mehmed Ali (governor of Egypt) led campaign against them when Wahhabi-Saudi forces spread towards Iraq and Syria.

The Madhist State

• religious and political movement launched in 1881 by Muammad Ahmad bin Abdullah (later Muhammad al-Mahdi) against the Khedivate of Egypt, which had ruled the Sudan since 1821. After four years of struggle, the Mahdist rebels overthrew the Ottoman-Egyptian administration and established their own "Islamic and national" government with its capital in Omdurman. Thus, from 1885 the Mahdist government maintained sovereignty and control over the Sudanese territories until its existence was terminated by the Anglo-Egyptian forces in 1898; used jihad • Islamic state established by the al-Mahdiyya movement in Khartoum, Sudan, in 1885 • Founded by Muhammad Ahmad (1844-1885): declared himself to be al-Mahdi in 1881 and declared Jihad against Egyptian rule in Sudan. He mobilized and united populations and captured Khartoum in 1885 and declared an Islamic State under a caliph. He also pushed out joint Egyptian and British forces - movement against Imperialism. Lasted until 1899 when British defeated them. o al-Mahdiyya movement: mission to reform/revitalize Islam (same as Wahhabism and Salafism)

Circle of Justice

• term used to describe the relationship between the state and the people in the pre-modern states of the Middle East: no royal authority without the military, no military without wealth, subjects produce the wealth, justice preserves subjects' loyalty to the sovereign, justice requires harmony in the world, the world is a garden and its walls are the state, the Holy Law orders the state, there is no support for the Holy Law except through royal authority • considered to be the baseline for understanding the Ottoman Empire during its Ancien Régime period

Sectarianism

• the phenomenon whereby religious affiliation becomes the foundation for collective identity in a multireligious environment; Europeans tried to exploit these differences (Damascus Affair) • Sectarianism is NOT nationalism = object of nationalism is sovereignty but sectarianism does not demand independence, only autonomy + rights • Example of sectarian strife → Mount Lebanon where Maronite Christians coexist with Druze (sect of Islam). • Sectarianism emerges when a religious community is treated differently from others by another religious community/colonial power/state as a matter of policy → it is NOT the default in the ME

Morgan Shuster

• was an American lawyer, civil servant, and publisher, who is best known as the treasurer-general of Persia by appointment of the Iranian parliament, or Majles, • The American financial advisor hired by the Iranian Assembly in 1911 to reorganize state finances and administration. • Shuster cut the palace budget, eliminated the salt tax on the poor, and increased revenues from wealthier citizens. • The Democrats used this increase in revenues to implement compulsory free education and build a secular judiciary • However, Shuster's tax collectors stepped on Russian prerogatives in northern Iran. • This caused Russia to issue an ultimatum: fire Shuster or Russia would invade • On Dec 1 the Assembly rejected the ultimatum and the Russian army occupied Tabriz, Rasht, and Khurasan, essentially ending the constitutional movement in Iran by Dec 24

Suez Canal

• waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea through the Isthmus of Suez • cut the British route to India in half. • construction was a financial disaster for Egypt. It became British and French managed in 1872 and brought 80,000 European businessmen under consular protection. By 1882, Egypt was under British rule.