Midterm 1 & 2 PSCI 2223

What is "new interventionism"?

"New interventionism" refers to a foreign policy approach advocating a more assertive role in addressing global challenges and conflicts, often opposed to isolationism. It has evolved in response to global interconnected challenges, with proponents arguing for military and non-military interventions to protect national interests and global stability. These interventions can take various forms, but critics express concerns about potential overreach and violations of sovereignty. The application of new interventionism varies based on specific circumstances and policies.

Soft Power Examples

- Diplomacy- NGOs - Cultural Influence/ Media consumption - Human Development

Casualty Aversion Factor

A well-known political scientist, Mueller (1973) argues thatsupport for war drops with the increase in the warcasualtiesAs casualties increase, public support for war decreases

What is just cause in war according to Hugo Grotius?

According to Grotius, "just cause" in war consists of three principles: Self-Defense: Grotius emphasized a state's right to use force for self-defense against external threats, a fundamental aspect of the just war tradition. Recovery of Property/Rights: States can wage war to regain wrongfully taken territory or possessions. Punishment of Wrongdoers: Grotius allowed war as a just response to hold wrongdoers accountable for international law breaches or violations of other states' rights.

According to the balance of power theory, when is conflict between states least likely?

According to the balance of power theory, conflicts between states are less likely when there's a rough power equilibrium among major actors in the international system. In this balanced system, states tend to prioritize peaceful coexistence and cooperation over aggression, as the risks and costs of aggressive actions outweigh potential gains.

What is the relationship between state sovereignty and anarchy?

Anarchy recognizes that states are the primary actors in the international system, and they are considered sovereign entities. This means that each state has the ultimate authority within its own borders, and there is no higher authority that can dictate its internal or external affairs.

How would you define anarchy?

Anarchy serves as a foundational concept in international relations theories. For example, realist theories argue that the competitive and self-help nature of the international system is a result of anarchy, and they emphasize the role of power and national interests in shaping state behavior. While the term "anarchy" in international relations does not imply chaos or lawlessness, it highlights the unique characteristics of the global political system where sovereign states interact in a decentralized and self-help manner. The concept of anarchy is instrumental in understanding the dynamics of international politics, state behavior, diplomacy, and the challenges of creating and maintaining international order and cooperation in the absence of a central world government.

According to your perspective, is it a micro- or macro- level analysis that better explains state behavior in world politics?

As for whether micro-level or macro-level analysis better explains state behavior in world politics, it's essential to recognize that both levels are often interrelated and can provide valuable insights into different aspects of international relations. Micro-level analyses may help understand the role of individual leaders and their decision-making, while macro-level analyses can illuminate the influence of systemic forces and structural factors. The relative importance of these levels can vary depending on the specific situation and the research question, and a comprehensive understanding of state behavior often requires considering both micro and macro factors.

Which one is the distribution that balance of power theorists think is most stable?

Balance of power theorists typically consider a multipolar distribution of power to be the most stable configuration in the international system. The logic behind this perspective is rooted in the principles of balance of power theory, which suggests that when power is distributed among multiple great powers or states in a relatively equal manner, it creates conditions that reduce the likelihood of conflict and enhance stability.

What are the main terrorist tactics that terrorist networks and rebel organizations adopt

Bombings (explosive devices, car bombs, IEDs).Armed Attacks (targeting government forces and installations).Kidnappings (hostages for political demands or ransom).Assassinations (eliminating specific individuals).Hostage-Taking (using hostages in negotiations).Sabotage (disrupting infrastructure and systems).Propaganda and Psychological Warfare.Cyberterrorism (targeting computer systems).Suicide Attacks (with high casualties).CBRN Threats (chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear).Insurgency and Guerrilla Warfare.Social Media and Online Recruitment.

Why do states fight each other?

Causes: Territorial Disputes, Resource Scarcity, Ideological Differences, Historical Animosities, Nationalism,Power and Security Concerns

How are civil wars related to failed states?

Civil Wars and Failed States:Weak Governance: Failed states lack effective governance, creating conditions for civil wars.Ethnic/Political Divides: Unresolved divisions in failed states may fuel civil conflicts.Economic Inequality: Disparities can lead to civil unrest in failed states.Discontent: State failure to address grievances may escalate into rebellion.Impact on State Failure: Civil wars damage infrastructure, displace populations, and erode state legitimacy.Reciprocal Relationship: Failed states are more prone to civil wars, which, in turn, worsen state failure.

According to this definition, how are compellence and deterrence different from each other?

Compellence: Objective: Compellence is a strategy aimed at forcing another state to change its current behavior or take specific actions. It seeks to compel a target state to do something it would not otherwise do or to cease engaging in certain actions. Method: Compellence often involves the threat or use of force or economic pressure to coerce the target state. It may include actions like military strikes, economic sanctions, or other forms of punishment to achieve a change in behavior. Example: If State A wants State B to withdraw its troops from a disputed border region, State A might use military force or the threat of military force to compel State B to comply with its demand. Deterrence: Objective: Deterrence is a strategy aimed at preventing another state from taking a particular action. It seeks to dissuade a potential adversary from engaging in specific behaviors or actions. Method: Deterrence typically involves the threat of retaliation or punishment to discourage a state from pursuing certain actions. It aims to create a credible deterrent that makes the potential costs of the undesirable action outweigh the benefits. Example: State A may seek to deter State B from launching a military invasion by making it clear that any such action would result in a swift and overwhelming military response.

Compellance vs Deterrence

Compellence: To halt an action that is already occurring through influence Deterrence: To stop an action from happening before it happens. Influence state to not do something it would have done otherwise

constructivism

Constructivism emphasizes the role of ideas, beliefs, and social norms in shaping international relations. It argues that state behavior is not solely determined by material interests but is also influenced by the shared understandings and identities of actors in the international system. Constructivism, like liberalism, acknowledges the importance of domestic pressures on foreign policy, but it places a strong emphasis on the role of ideational factors in shaping state behavior.

Which perspectives in international relations focuses on domestic pressures on foreign policy

Constructivism, like liberalism, considers both external and internal factors. However, it emphasizes the role of domestic ideas, beliefs, and social norms in shaping state behavior. Constructivists argue that the perception of threats and opportunities in the international system is constructed socially and can vary over time

Why are the conventions that codify these rights not considered as soft law?

Conventions like the UDHR and ICCPR are not soft law because they create legally binding obligations for states that ratify them. In contrast, soft law consists of non-binding agreements, principles, or declarations that don't establish enforceable legal obligations but can influence state behavior and the development of international law. Human rights conventions are considered hard law due to their legally binding nature.

What is cosmopolitanism? Communitarianism?

Cosmopolitanism emphasizes global citizenship, asserting that individuals have moral obligations to all of humanity beyond their immediate communities or nation-states. It prioritizes universal principles like justice, human rights, and global cooperation, often challenging national interests. Communitarianism stresses the importance of local communities and values. It believes that individuals' identities and moral obligations are shaped by their communities and local contexts. While not against global cooperation or human rights, it prioritizes preserving local values and traditions.

Which systemic changes in history may have increased the overall number of civil wars?

Decolonization: Newly independent states in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East faced governance challenges, leading to civil wars.Cold War: Superpower rivalry between the U.S. and the Soviet Union fueled proxy wars worldwide, exacerbating civil conflicts.State Breakup: Dissolution of multi-ethnic states, like Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union, resulted in ethnic tensions and civil wars.Post-Cold War: The end of the Cold War created power vacuums, leading to a surge in civil wars, notably in Africa and the Balkans.Technology Advancements: Communication and transportation innovations enabled rebel groups to mobilize, access resources, and gain support, increasing civil wars.Economic Factors: Disparities, resource competition, and corruption in states led to civil unrest, particularly in poorly governed regions.International Interventions: Foreign interventions, whether military or peacekeeping, sometimes unintentionally prolonged conflicts.Globalization: Interconnected economies made

Michael Barnett

Described constructivist international relations"International politics is shaped by persuasive ideas, collective values, culture, and social identities."

Which principle of just war tradition is called discrimination? Proportionality?

Discrimination in just war theory involves distinguishing between combatants and non-combatants, ensuring military actions target only the former to avoid harming civilians. Deliberate harm to non-combatants violates this principle, also known as "non-combatant immunity." Proportionality addresses the appropriate use of force in war, requiring it to match the threat. Military actions should not cause excessive harm relative to the military objective. Disproportionate force leading to unnecessary harm breaches the principle of proportionality.

What are the forms that terrorism can take (e.g., dissident terrorism, state terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism)? Which form of terrorism would be considered genocide?

Dissident Terrorism: Non-state groups challenge their own government for political or social change.State Terrorism: Governments use terror against their citizens or other states for political control.State-Sponsored Terrorism: Governments support non-state groups for their political goals using proxies for terrorism.Terrorism against another ethnic or religious group to eliminate that group through mass killings etc. would be considered genocide.

Is there an economic peace just like democratic peace (economic liberalism)?

Economic Interdependence and Peace: The economic peace theory suggests that strong economic connections between countries reduce the likelihood of armed conflicts. This is because economic interdependence creates shared interests in peaceful cooperation, as conflict would disrupt trade and economic stability.Trade and Globalization: Economic liberalism argues that trade and economic integration discourage conflict by raising the costs of war. Economic links between nations make the potential economic losses from conflict a strong deterrent.Institutional Frameworks: International organizations like the World Trade Organization (WTO) and regional trade blocs are viewed as tools that promote economic cooperation and reduce the chances of disputes among member states.Critiques and Limitations: While economic interdependence can contribute to peace, it doesn't guarantee it. Critics contend that interdependence can sometimes lead to competition and conflicts over economic interests.

Are economically interdependent states less likely to fight each other?

Economically interdependent states are less likely to engage in armed conflict with each other, as strong economic ties create shared interests in peaceful relations. This is supported by:Shared Economic Interests: Economic connections lead to stable relations, reducing the incentive for trade disruption through conflict.Costs of Conflict: The economic toll of war is a deterrent, making peaceful cooperation more appealing in interdependent relationships.Incentives for Diplomacy: Economic cooperation encourages negotiation and diplomacy to resolve conflicts.Institutional Frameworks: International organizations like the WTO facilitate economic cooperation and conflict resolution.

Could you name state-level theories of intra-state war (greed and grievance)?

Greed Theories:Resource Competition: Intra-state wars may stem from competition for valuable resources like oil, minerals, or land, with state leaders and rebel groups vying for economic gain.War Economies: Civil wars driven by war economies involve various actors profiting from conflict, often through illegal activities like looting and drug trafficking.Grievance Theories:Political Exclusion: Civil wars can result from political exclusion and discrimination against certain groups, leading them to rebel against marginalization.Ethnic/Religious Tensions: Intra-state conflicts often arise from grievances related to ethnicity, religion, or identity, when disputes over these differences become central to political struggles.

Can you give examples of international relations hypotheses (cause and effect relations) that can be tested using the scientific method?

Hypothesis: "The presence of nuclear weapons acts as a deterrent to interstate conflict." This hypothesis suggests that countries with nuclear capabilities are less likely to engage in military conflicts with each other.

Are there conflicts in which NATO assumed the collective defense function instead of the UN?

In Kosovo (1999), NATO launched a military intervention during the Kosovo War without explicit UN Security Council approval. After the conflict, Resolution 1244 authorized the deployment of the Kosovo Force (KFOR) for peace and security. In Libya (2011), NATO conducted the Operation Unified Protector to safeguard civilians during the government-rebel conflict, with the UN Security Council's Resolution 1973 authorizing the use of force for civilian protection. NATO played a pivotal role in executing the resolution.

According to balance of power's predictions, when there are two states or coalitions of states competing for power, which side is a state supposed to ally with? Do you think that "balancing against the strongest" Would you suggest that states are actually balancing against the United States?

In a balanced system, states aim to maintain equilibrium, not necessarily allying with one side or the other. This involves forming alliances with weaker states to counterbalance stronger ones and pursuing policies to prevent uncontested dominance. Scholars debate the prevalence of "balancing against the strongest" in alliances. Some say it's common, where states unite against the most powerful actor. Others argue for bandwagoning, aligning with the strongest for security or economic benefits. The choice depends on factors like threat perception, capabilities, and diplomatic options. The question of whether states are currently balancing against the United States is complex and depends on evolving geopolitics and state interests. Historically, some balanced against U.S. power, while others sought closer ties for security or economic reasons. The international system is dynamic, and strategies can change in response to shifting power dynamics and events. Assessing current balancing against the United States would necessitate a detailed global politics and state policy analysis.

What is "audience costs", specifically in democracies? How can audience costs tie leaders hands? Or how can audience costs increase the credibility of signals (threats, etc) that democracies issue against other countries?

In democracies, "audience costs" are penalties leaders face from their domestic audiences if they don't follow through on public foreign policy statements. They matter for democratic foreign policy in several ways:Domestic Accountability: Leaders are accountable to voters through elections, so they strive to fulfill foreign policy commitments to avoid appearing weak or unreliable.Credibility of Threats: Audience costs make democratic threats more credible, as leaders are incentivized to follow through to maintain both domestic and international credibility.Consistency in Foreign Policy: Leaders are less likely to backtrack on public statements or negotiations, making their foreign policy positions more consistent and credible.Resolve in Crises: Leaders, aware of domestic scrutiny, display greater resolve during crises, influencing negotiation dynamics and conflict resolution.Effective Deterrence: Audience costs bolster the deterrent effect of democratic foreign policy, making thre

Liberalism is one of the main paradigms of international relations. What is the level of analysis in liberalism?

In international relations theory, liberalism is linked to the international or system level of analysis. It highlights international institutions, norms, and state cooperation as pivotal in shaping global politics.

What do you think is the main difference between inter-governmental (IGOs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs)?

In summary, the main difference between IGOs and NGOs is in their membership and governance structures, with IGOs consisting of member states and having a formal intergovernmental structure, while NGOs are independent, non-governmental entities that operate with autonomy. Both types of organizations play essential roles in international affairs, with IGOs facilitating state-to-state diplomacy and cooperation, and NGOs often advocating for and working directly on various global issues.

Which type of conflict is frequently observed in the post-Cold War period?

In the post-Cold War period, there has been a rise in intrastate conflicts (civil wars) involving armed hostilities within a single state, driven by factors like politics, ethnicity, religion, economics, and social tensions. Additionally, this type of conflict is more frequently observed due to the presence of nuclear deterrents between major powers, economic interdependence, and the increase in international institutions resulting in more diplomacy, negotiations, and peaceful dispute resolution.

Can you name the levels of analysis that international relations scholars commonly adopt?

Individual Level: This level of analysis focuses on the beliefs, attitudes, and actions of individual actors, such as political leaders, diplomats, and decision-makers. It explores how personal characteristics, motivations, and cognitive processes of key individuals can influence international relations. For example, it may examine the role of specific leaders in shaping foreign policy decisions or negotiations. State (National) Level: At the state or national level, scholars examine the domestic factors and attributes of individual countries that impact their behavior in the international arena. This includes studying a country's political system, economy, culture, historical experiences, and government policies. State-level analysis helps explain a country's foreign policy, alliances, and international behavior. It considers factors like regime type, national interests, and the influence of domestic interest groups. Systemic (International) Level: The systemic level of analysis looks at the global or international system as a whole and the structural factors that affect international relations. It includes the distribution of power among states, the nature of the international system (e.g., multipolar, bipolar, unipolar), and the impact of international institutions and norms. Scholars at this level examine how systemic dynamics influence state behavior, international cooperation, conflict, and diplomacy.

Can you build a link between the levels of analysis approach and different perspectives in international relations?

Individual level: This level focuses on the characteristics and actions of individual leaders or decision-makers. Realism, for example, can be linked to the individual level as it emphasizes the role of leaders and their pursuit of power and security. Domestic level: This level looks at the influence of domestic factors, such as interest groups, public opinion, and government structures, on foreign policy. Liberalism and constructivism can be associated with the domestic level as they consider the impact of domestic pressures and ideational factors on state behavior. System level: This level examines the impact of the international system's structure on state behavior. Realism is closely connected to the system level, as it highlights the constraints imposed by the anarchic nature of the international system. Different perspectives in international relations align with these levels of analysis, providing a comprehensive framework for understanding the complexities of state behavior in the global arena.

Are individuals legal subjects of international law? Can national leaders and state officials be legal subjects of international law?

Individuals are legal subjects of international law to some extent, with rights such as human rights, humanitarian law, and refugee protections. National leaders and state officials can also be held accountable for their actions under international legal frameworks, facing prosecution for crimes against humanity, war crimes, or genocide. This dual role means individuals, including state officials, carry rights and obligations under international law, especially in cases involving internationally recognized crimes.

When discussing the causes of state behavior, we have said that such causes can originate from the international system (externally) or from domestic politics (internally). Can you give examples of internal and external pressures on states?

Internal Pressures (Domestic Politics): Economic Factors Political Stability Public Opinion Leadership and Elite Preferences institutional Constraints External Pressures (International System): Security Threats Alliances and Treaties International Norms and Agreements Economic Interdependence Soft Power and Diplomacy Global opinion and Shaming

Is there a distinction between "internal" and "external" sovereignty?

Internal Sovereignty: Definition: Internal sovereignty refers to a state's authority and control over its own domestic affairs within its recognized borders. It encompasses a state's ability to make and enforce laws, govern its population, and manage its internal institutions without interference from external actors. External Sovereignty: Definition: External sovereignty refers to a state's independence and recognition in the international arena. It pertains to a state's status as a sovereign entity with the right to engage in diplomatic relations, negotiate treaties, and participate in international organizations.

When state leaders break the law of nations, which international bodies are authorized to try them for their crimes (permanent versus temporary courts)?

International Court of Justice (ICJ): The ICJ is the main legal body of the United Nations, settling disputes between nations and addressing issues related to state accountability and legal disputes among states, focusing on state responsibility rather than individual criminal responsibility.International Criminal Court (ICC): The ICC is a permanent court prosecuting individuals, including state leaders and officials, for serious international crimes like genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes, emphasizing individual accountability.Ad Hoc International Tribunals: Temporary international tribunals, such as the ICTY and ICTR, are created to prosecute individuals for crimes during specific conflicts, like those in the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda.Hybrid Tribunals: Hybrid courts, such as the Special Court for Sierra Leone, involve both international and national legal systems to prosecute individuals for crimes committed during particular conflicts.

What is the International Criminal Court's function in this framework? How is ICC different from ICJ?

International Criminal Court (ICC): Function: The ICC is a permanent court that prosecutes individuals for the gravest international crimes like genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. Its main role is to ensure justice for victims by holding individuals accountable for their actions. Jurisdiction: The ICC's jurisdiction covers individuals, regardless of their official positions or state affiliations, but not states. Independence: The ICC operates independently of the United Nations, with its own legal framework.International Court of Justice (ICJ): Function: The ICJ, or World Court, is the principal judicial body of the United Nations. It settles disputes between states and provides advisory opinions on legal questions referred by UN organs and agencies. Jurisdiction: The ICJ deals with disputes between states, focusing on state accountability and international law. Role in Dispute Resolution: The ICJ is vital in resolving inter-state conflicts and disputes by applying int

What are the different types of conflict that take place around the world (between states or within a state)?

Interstate Conflict: Hostilities and disputes between sovereign states, driven by factors like territorial disputes, resource competition, ideology, or historical animosities.Intrastate Conflict (Civil War): Armed conflicts within a single state, involving internal groups driven by politics, ethnicity, religion, economics, or social issues, leading to suffering, displacement, and instability.Terrorism: Asymmetric conflicts using violence or threats by non-state actors for political, ideological, or religious goals, often targeting civilians and crossing borders.Ethnic and Religious Conflict: Disputes rooted in ethnicity, religion, or culture within or between states, leading to violence, discrimination, and displacement.Ideological Conflict: Conflicts arising from differing political ideologies or systems, causing international tensions or civil strife (e.g., the Cold War).Resource Conflict: Competition over resources (e.g., water, oil, minerals) causing conflicts within and between st

J. David Singer

Introduced the idea of levels of analysis - Discussed two broad levels: the international system and the nation-state - Highlighted a major distinction used in discerning influences on foreign policy: (1) domestic influences, which originate within the boundaries of the nation-state (2) external influences, which arise outside the state's borders

What is unconventional (irregular) warfare?

Irregular warfare, often known as unconventional warfare, involves non-traditional tactics used by non-state actors, often with less military power than their opponents. It features methods like guerrilla warfare, sabotage, and political actions, aiming for political or ideological goals through a blend of military and non-military strategies. These conflicts can be lengthy and protracted.

What is JUSTICE IN WAR as opposed to JUSTICE OF WAR?

Justice of War (Jus ad Bellum) pertains to the moral justification for initiating war. It assesses whether the decision to go to war is morally justified. Key components include:Just Cause: War must have a legitimate reason, like self-defense.Right Authority: Governments should declare war.Last Resort: War should be a last option after peaceful means are exhausted.Proportionality: Force should match the threat.Prospect of Success: A reasonable chance of success is required.Justice in War (Jus in Bello) deals with the ethical conduct during war. It guides how military operations should be carried out once conflict begins. Key components include:Discrimination: Force should distinguish between combatants and non-combatants, avoiding civilian targeting.No Excessive Force: States and combatants should avoid excessive harm.

Which specific assumption in realism are liberal theories relaxing or changing in their study of state behavior in world politics?

Liberal theories in international relations challenge key realist assumptions in state behavior: Anarchy and Cooperation: Liberals believe states can cooperate despite international anarchy, using institutions and norms for mutual benefit. Non-State Actors: Unlike realists, liberals consider non-state actors like international organizations, NGOs, and corporations as influential in shaping state behavior. Interdependence: Liberals stress economic interdependence, arguing that it fosters peace and stability through cooperation in trade and diplomacy. Institutions and Norms: Liberal theories emphasize the role of international institutions and norms in facilitating cooperation, resolving conflicts, and promoting peaceful coexistence. Democratic Peace Theory: This specific liberal theory asserts that democracies tend to avoid war with one another, challenging the realist view of states as inherently self-interested and conflict-prone. Normative Behavior: Realists assume states act solely in self-interest, but liberals argue that states can be motivated by values like human rights, environmental protection, and humanitarian concerns.

Liberalism

Liberalism takes a more optimistic view of international relations, emphasizing cooperation, international institutions, and the potential for peaceful conflict resolution. This perspective recognizes that states are influenced by domestic pressures, but it also acknowledges the role of international institutions and norms in shaping state behavior. It focuses on both external and internal factors affecting foreign policy.

Radicalism

Marxism- Economic interests prevail- Class clash: within the state and among the nation-states- Wars and imperialism in the world are "all thanks to capitalists"- World-systems theory

How does public opinion become a force to be reckoned with in foreign policymaking? What is mass versus elite opinion? Are there any significant differences in between how masses and elites formulate foreign policy preferences? Does public opinion play a role in war and crisis abroad? How? Are there theories/arguments in IR that specifically focus on public opinion to explain war behavior? (casualty aversion, diversionary war, democratic peace, etc.)

Mass vs. Elite Opinion: Mass Opinion: Reflects the general public's views influenced by media and national events. Elite Opinion: Represents policymakers and experts, informed by data and expertise. Differences in Forming Preferences: Masses and elites may diverge in foreign policy views due to access to information. Elites prioritize national interests, while mass opinion is influenced by emotions and media. Public Opinion in War and Crisis Abroad: Public opinion affects decisions in foreign conflicts: Casualty Aversion: Leaders may avoid military actions due to potential public backlash from high casualties. Diversionary War: Leaders may use foreign conflicts to divert attention from domestic issues and boost popularity. Democratic Peace: Public opinion in democracies promotes peaceful foreign policies. Theories in International Relations: Casualty Aversion: Democracies' leaders avoid conflicts to prevent public backlash. Diversionary War: Leaders employ foreign conflicts to divert attention from domestic problems. Democratic Peace: Public opinion fosters peaceful foreign policies in democracies.

When is a state most likely to lose its predominant power position in the system and hence, its major power status?

Military Defeat or Weakening: Economic Decline Loss of Allies or Alliances Political Instability and Governance Issues Failure to Adapt to changing international conditions Resource Scarcity Diplomatic Isolation Loss of Soft Power Global Shifts in Power

How do scientists measure power? Can you give examples to the main indicators that scholars use to measure power?

Military Power: Assessing a state's military capabilities, including the size and strength of its armed forces, its defense budget, and the sophistication of its weaponry. Economic Power: Examining a state's economic strength, such as its GDP, economic growth rate, trade volume, and foreign exchange reserves. Diplomatic Power: Analyzing a state's diplomatic influence and alliances, including its participation in international organizations and the strength of its diplomatic corps. Soft Power: Evaluating a state's cultural influence, attractiveness, and the appeal of its values, institutions, and policies. This includes aspects like a country's culture, education, and global image. Geopolitical Location: Assessing the strategic geographic location of a state and its proximity to key regions, resources, or potential areas of conflict. National Resources: Considering the availability and control of critical resources, such as energy, minerals, and water. Nuclear Capabilities: The possession of nuclear weapons can significantly impact a state's perceived power and its ability to deter potential adversaries. Composite Measures: Some scholars use composite measures, such as the Global Power Index, which combine multiple indicators to provide a more comprehensive assessment of a state's overall power.

How do we categorize international systems in different historical epochs?

Multipolar System Bipolar System Unipolar System Non-Polar System Feudal System Colonial System Empire System:

Which perspectives in international relations talk about external (system level) pressures on states' foreign policymaking?

Realism primarily talks about external (system level) pressures on states' foreign policymaking because it sees the international system's structure as a key determinant of state behavior. Realists argue that states are constrained by the inherent competition and anarchy of the international system, which shapes their pursuit of security and power. Liberalism recognizes both external and internal pressures on foreign policy. It acknowledges that international institutions and norms can influence state behavior but also considers the role of domestic pressures, such as interest groups and public opinion.

Domestic Sources of Foreign Policy

Realism: military and security Liberalism: economic and social development Radicalism: economic development of a particular class, not the society as a whole

What are the three main forms that distribution of power in the international system can take?

Multipolar System: Characteristics: A multipolar system is characterized by the distribution of power among multiple great powers or major states. No single state or group of states dominates the system, and there is a balance of power among these major actors. States often form alliances or coalitions to counterbalance the influence of others. Examples: The 19th century is often considered a classic multipolar era, with major powers like Great Britain, France, Russia, Prussia, and Austria competing for influence and control. Bipolar System: Characteristics: A bipolar system features two dominant superpowers or blocs that hold most of the global power and influence. These superpowers or blocs often maintain a balance of power, and the international system is divided into two major camps. This division can lead to intense competition and rivalry. Examples: The Cold War era (1947-1991) is the most well-known example of a bipolar system, with the United States leading the Western bloc and the Soviet Union leading the Eastern bloc. Unipolar System: Characteristics: A unipolar system is characterized by the dominance of a single superpower that holds significantly more power and influence than any other state. This dominant state often has the ability to shape global events, set the international agenda, and act as a hegemon. Examples: Some scholars describe the post-Cold War era, particularly the 1990s, as a unipolar moment with the United States as the sole superpower.

What are positive rights versus negative rights?

Negative rights are "freedom from" rights, ensuring the absence of interference or coercion by others, and include rights like life, liberty, and freedom from torture. They require non-interference for individuals to live freely.Positive rights are "freedom to" rights, obligating the state to provide goods and services like education and healthcare to enhance well-being. Fulfilling positive rights involves addressing social and economic issues.

Can you give examples to "non-state actors"?

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) International Organizations Transnational Corporations (TNCs) Sub-State Entities Terrorist Organizations Cultural and Religious Groups Civil Society Groups Media Outlets Academic and Research Institutions Militant Groups IGOs (Intergovernmental Organizations)

Bureaucracies

Non-elected state officials Ex: police officers, EPA, DOD, CIA, etc

Can you name the major elements/steps in the scientific method?

Observation: The process begins with making observations about the natural world or a specific phenomenon. Research and Background Information: Reviewing existing literature and gathering relevant information about the topic under study to understand what is already known. Hypothesis: Formulating a testable statement or educated guess that predicts the outcome of an experiment. Experimentation: Designing and conducting controlled experiments or investigations to test the hypothesis. Data Collection: Collecting data through measurements, observations, or other methods during the experiment. Data Analysis: Analyzing and interpreting the collected data to draw conclusions. Conclusion: Drawing conclusions based on the data analysis, either supporting or refuting the hypothesis.

Could you give an example of a state-level theory of inter-state war?

One state-level theory of inter-state war is the "Diversionary War Theory," where leaders facing domestic issues or declining popularity may start a conflict with another state to divert attention, boost domestic support, and create unity. This theory highlights how leaders may use inter-state conflicts to strengthen their domestic political standing.

Which type of conflict is potentially disappearing from the world scene?

One traditional type of conflict that has shown a decreasing trend and is potentially disappearing from the world scene is large-scale interstate warfare between major powers.

When is an inter-state war most likely to take place according to these theories?

Power Imbalance: Inter-state wars are more likely when there is a significant power imbalance between states. Dominant powers may perceive threats from rising or declining powers, leading to conflicts as they seek to maintain or change the existing power structure.Power Transitions: Power Transition Theory suggests that wars are most likely during periods of power transitions. When a rising power challenges the established order, and the current dominant power resists this shift, the potential for inter-state conflict increases.Realist Assumptions: According to Realism, states are driven by self-interest, and conflicts are seen as a natural consequence of the anarchic international system. As states seek to maximize their security and influence, conflicts may arise due to competition for power and resources.Diversionary War Theory: inter-state wars are most likely to take place when leaders in a state believe that starting a conflict with another state will help them address domestic

Power is a core concept in the study of international relations; especially in realist theories of state behavior. Can you suggest a definition of power? What is it used to achieve?

Power is the capacity or capability of a state or actor to achieve its goals and objectives in the international system, which may include securing its own interests, influencing the behavior of other states, or shaping the outcomes of international events. Power can manifest in various forms, including military, economic, diplomatic, cultural, and informational capabilities, and it is a central determinant of a state's ability to protect and advance its national interests in the global arena.

Can you suggest a system-level explanation of intra-state war?

Proxy War Theory:External Backing: External powers supporting factions in intra-state conflicts can intensify the violence. Support may include military aid and funding.Superpower Rivalry: During the Cold War, the U.S. and the Soviet Union backed opposing sides in intra-state conflicts worldwide, fueling civil wars.Regional Power Play: Regional powers may support rebel groups or governments to further their interests or counter rival states.Prolonged Conflicts: External support can prolong intra-state conflicts, making them protracted and complex, hampering conflict resolution.

Can you name the main perspectives in international relations?

Realism Liberalism constructivism

Among the perspectives in international relations, realism is the dominant one. What are the certain assumptions that realists are making?

Realism in international relations is marked by key assumptions, including: Anarchy: The global system lacks a central authority, with states acting in their self-interest. State-Centrism: States are seen as the primary actors, pursuing their interests in a self-help system. Power and Security: States prioritize power and security for survival. National Interest: States act to advance their interests, often related to security and well-being. Rationality: States make decisions based on a cost-benefit analysis. Zero-Sum Game: International relations are viewed as competitive, with one state's gain potentially causing another's loss. Balance of Power: States form alliances to prevent one from becoming too dominant. Self-Help: States rely on themselves for security. Pessimistic View of Human Nature: Realists have a negative view of human nature, assuming self-interest and conflict. Historical Realism: Learning from history, realists identify patterns in international behavior.

Realism

Realism is a perspective that emphasizes the importance of power and national interest in international relations. It argues that states are primarily motivated by the pursuit of their own security and that the international system is characterized by competition and conflict. Realism focuses on external (system level) pressures on states' foreign policymaking, as it sees the anarchic nature of the international system as a significant constraint on state behavior.

What is the major criterion that scholars use to categorize conflicts?

Scholars categorize conflicts based on criteria, with a major one being the "interstate" vs. "intrastate" distinction. Interstate conflicts involve hostilities between sovereign states, while intrastate conflicts (like civil wars) are armed hostilities within a single state among internal groups. This distinction aids scholars in analyzing and addressing conflict dynamics and policies for resolution and prevention.

Have scholars reached a consensus on the fatality threshold for a case to qualify as an intra-state war?

Scholars have not reached a single, universally agreed-upon fatality threshold for defining intra-state wars. Different conflict databases and scholars may use varying thresholds for factors such as the number of battle-related deaths, the duration of the conflict, or the intensity of violence. Common thresholds for battle-related deaths in intra-state wars can range from 1,000 to 1,000,000 or more, depending on the source and the specific research project.

If anarchy is the defining characteristic of the international system, then, how does this affect state behavior?

Self-Help and Survival: States exist in a self-help environment where they are responsible for their own security, well-being, and survival. They must rely on their own resources, capabilities, and strategies to protect their interests and ensure their security. Competition and Conflict: Anarchy can lead to competition and conflicts among states, as they pursue their own interests without a global authority to mediate or enforce agreements. States may engage in power struggles, alliances, and security dilemmas in this environment.

What is an inter-state war? What are the two main conditions for a conflict to qualify as an inter-state war?

Sovereign States Involved: An inter-state war must involve the participation of sovereign states, meaning that the entities engaged in the conflict must be internationally recognized as independent political entities with defined borders and governments.Hostilities and Armed Conflict: An inter-state war involves armed hostilities between the participating sovereign states, which can range from minor military clashes to full-scale, declared wars. This criterion distinguishes inter-state wars from diplomatic or non-military disputes between states.

Broadly speaking, who are the two main types of actors that international relations study?

States (or Nations): States are the primary actors in international relations. They are sovereign political entities with defined territories, governments, and populations. States play a central role in the international system and are key participants in international diplomacy, negotiations, conflicts, and cooperation. The behavior of states, their foreign policies, alliances, and interactions with other states are central topics of study in international relations. Non-State Actors: Non-state actors encompass a wide range of entities that are not traditional states but have significant influence and participation in international affairs. This category includes:

Who are the subjects of international law?

States: The primary subjects, they have legal personality and can enter into treaties, make claims, and exercise rights and obligations under international law. International Organizations: Entities like the United Nations and the European Union that are created by states and have international legal personality. Individuals: Increasingly recognized as subjects, especially in the context of human rights law. Individuals can file complaints with international bodies. Non-State Entities: Such as national liberation movements, rebel groups, or corporations that may have a limited status and rights under international law. Other Entities: Indigenous peoples, international courts and tribunals, and, in some cases, non-governmental organizations can also be subjects of international law to varying degrees.

Which regions of the world experience the greatest number of intra-state conflicts?

Sub-Saharan Africa: Conflicts driven by ethnic, religious, and political tensions, e.g., civil wars in Sudan, Somalia, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.Middle East and North Africa: Marked by political instability, ethnic/religious divides, and regional power struggles, e.g., Syrian Civil War, Yemeni Civil War, and conflicts in Libya and Iraq.South Asia: Intra-state conflicts related to ethnicity, religion, and politics, e.g., the Afghan insurgency and Sri Lankan civil war.Southeast Asia: Conflicts involving separatist movements, instability, and ethnic divisions in countries like Myanmar, the Philippines, and Indonesia.Eastern Europe and the Caucasus: Conflicts linked to the dissolution of the Soviet Union and Yugoslav Wars, e.g., Chechnya and Nagorno-Karabakh conflicts.

What is the institutional explanation of democratic peace?

The institutional explanation of democratic peace theory emphasizes that it's not just democracy itself but specific democratic institutions that promote peaceful relations between democratic states. Key elements include checks and balances, ensuring peaceful dispute resolution; accountability through elections, discouraging leaders from pursuing war; transparency, as democratic governments are open to public opinion; a norm of peaceful conflict resolution; and participation in international institutions that promote cooperation. This institutional perspective underscores the role of democratic structures in fostering peaceful interactions among democracies.

Can you categorize some of the current conflicts in the world based on the criterion of interstate vs. intrastate conflict

Syrian Civil War: intrastate conflict refers to a protracted and devastating armed conflict that occurred within the boundaries of the sovereign state of Syria. This conflict involved various internal groups and factions, including government forces, opposition groups, and extremist elements. The war was primarily driven by political, ethnic, religious, and social tensions within the country.Ukraine War: The Ukraine War, also known as the Russo-Ukrainian War, can be defined as interstate conflict as a protracted armed conflict between two sovereign states: Ukraine and Russia. This conflict began in 2014 when Russia annexed Crimea, a region formerly part of Ukraine, and escalated in 2022 when Russian military forces entered the country from Belarus, Russia, and Crimea.

Can you name the system-level (power-based) theories of inter-state war?

System-level (power-based) theories of inter-state war center on the international system and power distribution as key factors explaining conflicts, including:Realism: States driven by self-interest in an anarchic system engage in inter-state conflicts to enhance their security and influence.Balance of Power: Conflicts may arise from power imbalances between states, with dominant powers perceiving threats from rising or declining ones.Power Transition Theory: Wars are more likely during power transitions when rising and established powers vie for control.

Could you suggest a definition of terrorism?

Terrorism is a form of asymmetric warfare in which non-state actors or groups use violence, or the threat of violence, to create fear, intimidate, or coerce a population, government, or society for political, ideological, religious, or social objectives.

Are there conflicts in which the UN authorized collective use of force?

The UN Security Council has authorized collective use of force in several conflicts, including the Gulf War (1990-1991), where Resolution 678 authorized the expulsion of Iraqi forces from Kuwait, leading to Operation Desert Storm. In Bosnia and Herzegovina (1995), the UN's involvement and support from the NATO-led Implementation Force (IFOR) were sanctioned to enforce the Dayton Agreement. Resolution 1244 allowed the NATO-led Kosovo Force (KFOR) to enter Kosovo in 1999 after the Kosovo War. In Libya (2011), Resolution 1973 enabled the use of force to protect civilians during the government-rebel conflict, leading to NATO's intervention. The UN Security Council also approved the deployment of missions like MINUSMA in Mali (2013) and MINUSCA in the Central African Republic (2013) to address instability and conflicts.

What are the strategies that the UN adopts to prevent conflict, and make and keep peace?

The UN employs various strategies to prevent and address conflicts. These include diplomatic negotiations and mediation to promote peaceful settlements, peacekeeping operations to monitor ceasefires and ensure security, conflict prevention by identifying potential sources of conflict, post-conflict peacebuilding efforts encompassing governance and development support, sanctions for compliance with international law, monitoring and advocacy for human rights protection, deployment of political missions to aid political processes, humanitarian aid coordination, promotion of gender equality in peace processes, collaboration with regional and international partners, in-depth conflict analysis, and support for legal and justice systems to promote accountability and reconciliation in post-conflict settings.

Can you give examples of conflicts to which the UN sent a peacekeeping mission?

The UN has deployed peacekeeping missions to various conflict zones worldwide, including Cyprus (UNFICYP since 1964), Bosnia and Herzegovina (UNMIBH since 1995), Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL from 1999 to 2006), Kosovo (UNMIK since 1999), Liberia (UNMIL since 2003), South Sudan (UNMISS since 2011), Mali (MINUSMA since 2013), the Central African Republic (MINUSCA since 2014), the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO since 1999), and Lebanon (UNIFIL since 1978). These missions aim to promote peace and stability in their respective regions.

Do you think that the UN is breaking the law laid out in the UN Charter by intervening in these conflicts?

The United Nations (UN) generally complies with the UN Charter when intervening in conflicts involving terrorist or extremist groups under specific conditions. This compliance is based on the following factors: UN Security Council authorization, which empowers the UN to take action to maintain peace and security; Chapter VII mandates that provide the legal basis for using force in situations posing threats to international peace; self-defense, as recognized under Article 51 of the UN Charter, allowing states to defend themselves against armed attacks and report to the Security Council; cooperation with regional organizations to address conflicts in line with collective security principles; and the UN's fundamental mission to protect international peace and security. While debates and controversies may arise in specific cases, the UN typically operates within the Charter's framework and in accordance with international law, based on consensus and legal justifications.

What is the traditional versus modern mission of the UN?

The United Nations (UN) has evolved from its traditional mission of maintaining international peace and security, focusing on conflict prevention and peacekeeping, to a modern mission that addresses a broader range of global issues. In addition to peace and security, the UN now emphasizes sustainable development, human rights, poverty reduction, and responding to humanitarian crises. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development guides its commitment to tackling challenges like climate change, gender equality, and access to education and healthcare. The UN also plays a vital role in post-conflict peacebuilding and preventing the return of conflict. This adaptability allows the UN to address a wide array of global challenges beyond state-to-state conflicts.

What is the role of the United Nations (UN) in managing conflict around the world? When is collective use of force legitimate according to the UN Charter?

The United Nations (UN) is central to global conflict management and resolution, focusing on diplomacy, peacekeeping, conflict mediation, sanctions, and post-conflict peacebuilding. It aims to maintain international peace and security by promoting peaceful negotiations, deploying peacekeeping forces, and mediating in conflicts. The UN also has the authority to impose sanctions and assist in post-conflict reconstruction. According to the UN Charter, the legitimate use of collective force is permitted under two circumstances: self-defense against armed attacks and Security Council authorization, primarily for maintaining international peace and security. Collective force requires explicit Security Council approval, and its use without such authorization is generally inconsistent with the UN's principles, though some instances have sparked debate and controversy.

Who is the International Relations scholar who first systematically theorized about the levels of analysis (problem) in the subfield?

The concept of "levels of analysis" in the field of international relations is often attributed to Kenneth Waltz, an influential international relations scholar known for his work on international relations theory. In his book "Man, the State, and War" published in 1959 and his later work "Theory of International Politics" published in 1979, Waltz introduced the idea of different levels of analysis as a way to examine and understand international relations. Waltz's approach is closely associated with the structural realism or neorealism school of thought in international relations. He categorized the levels of analysis into three main levels: the individual level, the state (national) level, and the systemic (international) level

The core characteristic of the international system is anarchy. Does this mean that there are no rules in the system to govern states' behavior? For instance, are there any rules that govern states' behavior in wartimes (just war tradition)?

The international system's anarchy doesn't mean a lack of rules. While there's no global authority to enforce them, rules stem from various sources like international law, treaties, and agreements. They govern issues from diplomacy to conflict resolution.In wartime, the "just war tradition" assesses the morality of military actions. Key components include:Just Cause: War must have a legitimate reason.Right Authority: Governments should declare war.Last Resort: Peaceful means must be exhausted.Proportionality: Force must match the threat.Discrimination: Civilians shouldn't be targeted.No Excessive Means: Avoid excessive harm.Prospect of Success: Reasonable chance of success. Enforcement of these rules relies on state cooperation and international organizations, like the United Nations.

What is the main hypothesis of the democratic peace theory?

The main hypothesis of the democratic peace theory is that democracies are less likely to go to war with each other. This theory suggests that democratic states, which are characterized by representative governments, political freedoms, and open and transparent decision-making processes, tend to have peaceful relations with other democracies. In other words, the hypothesis is that democratic countries are more inclined to resolve their disputes through diplomacy, negotiation, and peaceful means, rather than resorting to armed conflict when dealing with other democracies. This theory has been influential in the field of international relations and has been used to explain trends in global conflict and diplomacy.

What is the methodological question that drives the levels of analysis approach, and which specific entities are the levels focusing on?

The methodological question that drives the levels of analysis approach is "What level of analysis best explains or accounts for the behavior of states in international relations?" The levels of analysis approach focuses on specific entities as follows: Individual Level: Key individuals, leaders, or decision-makers. State Level: The state as a whole, including its government, institutions, and society. Systemic Level: The broader international system and its structural features.

Which level of analysis might be the most problematic one?

The most problematic level of analysis can vary depending on the context and the specific international relations issue being studied. However, systemic-level analyses can sometimes be the most challenging because they deal with abstract concepts such as the distribution of power and the impact of international structures, which may not always offer straightforward explanations for state behavior.

What is the goal of the scientific method?

The scientific method is a systematic and organized approach that scientists and researchers use to investigate and understand natural phenomena, solve problems, and generate new knowledge. It is a structured process for conducting experiments, making observations, and drawing conclusions based on empirical evidence. Goal: figure out a general theory of behavior Disciplined thought acquired as a result of systematic testing - Choose your subject and ask your question - Collection of Data - Draw Inferences Ex: States with resource-dependent economies are more likely to experience civil wars

What is the scientific method?

The scientific method of analyzing, explaining, and classifying has become conscious of its limitations, which arise out of the fact that by its intervention science alters and refashions the object of investigation.

Kenneth Waltz

Theories for causes of interstate war. (1) individuals and groups who make decisions (temperament/ personality of leaders)(2) political, economic, and other social processes within nation-states that provide inputs into decision making (democratic vs authoritarian government, constraints and the processes under which the governments work)(3) interactions between states and other actors in a global setting (Ongoing relations and pattern of interactions: trade partners, IGOs, treaties)"Man the State and War"

When does a political entity acquire "statehood" and what does sovereignty mean in international relations study?

To acquire "statehood" a political entity has to have: A Defined Territory: A state must have a clearly defined and recognized territory with fixed borders. A Permanent Population: It must have a permanent population that resides within its defined territory. A Government: A state must have a functioning government capable of exercising control and authority over its territory and population. Capacity to Enter into Relations with Other States: A state should have the capacity to enter into diplomatic relations with other states and be recognized by other sovereign states. To have "sovereignty" a state must have: Territorial Integrity: States have the right to maintain the territorial integrity of their borders and protect their sovereignty from external threats. Exclusive Jurisdiction: States have exclusive authority within their borders to enact and enforce laws, regulate commerce, and govern their citizens. Recognition: Sovereign states are recognized as equal entities in the international system, with the right to engage in diplomatic relations, negotiate treaties, and participate in international organizations. Non-Interference: The principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of sovereign states is a core aspect of sovereignty. States are generally considered to have the right to manage their own domestic affairs without external intervention.

What are the main sources of international law (think about international treaties and customary law in this context)?

Treaties: Formal written agreements between states or international organizations. They encompass a wide range of subjects, from human rights to trade and armed conflict. Examples include the UN Charter and the Geneva Conventions. Customary International Law: Based on state practice and general acceptance as legal norms. Arises when states consistently behave in a particular manner. It includes principles like state sovereignty and the prohibition of the use of force. General Principles of Law: Derived from legal systems of various states, considered common to most legal systems. They serve as supplementary sources when treaties or customary law don't apply. Judicial Decisions and Legal Writings:International court decisions and scholarly work contribute to the development and interpretation of international law. Jus Cogens (Peremptory Norms): Fundamental principles of international law, non-derogable, and universally accepted. Includes norms against genocide, slavery, and aggressio

international conventions that expand the domain of international law? Which one of these documents is considered as soft law?

UDHR (Universal Declaration of Human Rights): A 1948 UN General Assembly document that outlines fundamental human rights principles and has influenced international human rights law.Geneva Conventions: Treaties dating from the 19th and 20th centuries setting standards for humanitarian treatment in armed conflicts, considered hard law.ICC (International Criminal Court): A 1998 treaty establishing the ICC for prosecuting individuals for international crimes, considered hard law.UNCLOS (UN Convention on the Law of the Sea): A 1982 treaty governing maritime boundaries, resources, and environmental protection in the world's oceans, a key maritime law treaty and considered hard law.UNFCCC (UN Framework Convention on Climate Change): A 1992 framework for addressing climate change, considered hard law.Soft Law Instruments: Non-binding documents that influence international law development, including the "Rio Declaration on Environment and Development" from the 1992 Earth Summit, which out

According to liberalism, who are the domestic actors that can play a role in the foreign policymaking of states? Can you give examples of these domestic actors?

a. Elected Officials: Government leaders and legislators shape foreign policy based on their priorities. b. Interest Groups: Advocacy organizations pressure policymakers to align with their agendas. c. Bureaucracy: Government agencies provide information and expertise for foreign policy decisions. d. Public Opinion: In democracies, public sentiment can affect foreign policy choices. e. NGOs: These organizations impact foreign policy by advocating for specific issues or providing expertise on global challenges.

Which type of conflict is increasingly on the peacekeeping agenda of the UN?

UN peacekeeping efforts increasingly focus on conflicts involving extremist or terrorist groups. These conflicts are complex, encompassing terrorism, insurgency, and radicalization, creating security and humanitarian challenges. Peacekeeping missions are more frequently deployed to address these issues, aiming to counter extremism while promoting overall peace and stability. Activities include disarmament, reintegration, protection of civilians, and supporting peace and state-building. Addressing such conflicts is demanding due to their regional and global dimensions, posing risks to international security. The UN adapts its peacekeeping strategies and mandates to address these evolving conflicts effectively.

Types of Systems

Unipolar/ Hegemonic Systems: One great power - 19th Century: Britain - Post-Cold War Bipolar Systems: Two great powers - Cold War Era: US and Soviet Union Multipolar System: Three or more great powers - During the 1930s the system moved to tripolarity; US, Soviet Union and Germany (these three accounted for more than 70% of the total power capabilities in the system)

How does universal jurisdiction play out in war crimes?

Universal jurisdiction allows a country to prosecute individuals for serious crimes, like war crimes, regardless of where they occurred or the perpetrators' nationality. When an accused enters a country with universal jurisdiction laws, that country's legal system can potentially prosecute them. Countries pass legislation specifying covered crimes and legal frameworks, often based on international treaties. Its application can lead to diplomatic tensions and raise impartiality concerns. International courts like the ICC can step in when national courts can't effectively prosecute. Universal jurisdiction combats impunity for international crimes, but its use varies by country and is complex and politically sensitive.

How does universal jurisdiction play out in war crimes? How is this different from the traditional norm of sovereign immunity? Immunity from what?

Universal jurisdiction is about holding individuals accountable for serious international crimes, even if committed in another country.Sovereign immunity is about protecting foreign states and their officials from the jurisdiction of other countries' courts, to avoid diplomatic conflicts and maintain state sovereignty.

Substantive Theories

Whom and what to observeLiberalism, Realism, Radicalism

What is the role that the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) played in establishing the sovereignty of the state?

the Treaty of Westphalia is often regarded as a crucial moment in the consolidation of state sovereignty. It had several key implications in establishing the sovereignty of the state: Recognition of Statehood Territorial Integrity Non-Interference in Internal Affairs Religious Freedom and Toleration Diplomatic Practices and Recognition - Recognized the existence and defined the rights of sovereign states - Gave religious freedom to European princes