Model 2 Exam Study Set: DEP 3054

What are the two stages of the preoperational period?

(1) The Symbolic Function Substage: occurs between 2 & 4 yrs of age. - Child is able to mentally represents an object that's not present and a dependence on perception in problem-solving. (2) The Intuitive Thought Substage: Lasting from 4 to 7 yrs, marked by greater dependence on intuitive thinking rather than just perception (Thomas, '79). -Child asks many Qs as they attempt to understand the world: Immature reasoning.

What are the two word sentences and telegraphic (Txt-Message) speech?

* Occurs when unnecessary words are not used. "Give baby ball" rather than "Give the baby the ball." * Children have a vocab of 50-200 words & begin putting it together.

How do newborns communicate?

*Communicating by body posture (either being relaxed or still), gestures, cries, facial expressions. *A baby has a differ cry for differ needs.

What are intentional vocalizations?

*Cooing: one-syllable -combination of a consonant and a vowel sound (e.g. coo or ba). *replicate sounds from their own languages. cooing: practice for vocalizations, learn pace, and pause. @ about 7 months: babbling begins. intentional vocal. is lacking specific meaning and consonants. repeated vowel: ma-ma-ma, da-da-da. this helps in social and communication language.

What is holophrastic speech?

*One word expression. -"Ju" for "Juice"

Piaget's Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development and Operational.

* Happens @ same time w/ early childhood. -occurs from age 2 to 7 yrs. * Children use symbols to represent words, images, & ideas. the reasoning for why kids are so engaged in play-pretend. * Use language in this stage, but can't understand adult logic or mentally manipulate info. * Operational: logical manipulation of info. -Children are pre-operational. -logic based on their own personal knowledge of the world than on conventional knowledge.

Describe infant-directed speech and the research on it.

* Involves exaggerating the vowel and the consonant sounds using a high-pitch voice and delivering phrases with great facial expressions. -infants are more attuned, aware of the target of speech, and listened longer. -pays more attention to the speaker. -speaker and listener are more in tune w/ each other. -clarify articulate sounds of a word.

What is selective attention?

* Our ability to focus on a single task or stimulus, while IGNORING distracting info.

How do first word and cultural influences language development?

*If child is English speaker: words are nouns. *verb-friendly languages such as Chinese, child learns more verbs. *May also be due to the differ emphasis given to objects based on culture. -Chinese children may be taught to notice action & relationships between objects, while U.S. kids learn to name an object and its qualities (Color, Texture, Size, etc.).

Describe the importance of Social Pragmatics

*Language: tool for humans to communicate, connect, to influence, and inform others. * Need to cooperate. *Social Nature of language: children use several pre-linguistic skills (point or other gestures). to communicate needs, AND what others may need. * serves as understanding one another: mentally.

Describe Classification Errors, Transductive, and Animism

*Preoperational children have trouble understanding that an object can be classified in more than one way. -Transductive: Making faulty inferences from one specific example to another. ex: I haven't taken my nap, bc it is not afternoon yet. -As the child's vocab improves & more schemata developed, the ability to classify objects improves. * Animism: Attributing life-like qualities to objects. ex: Cup is alive, toys need to go home and rest, bc they're tired, etc. After age 3, they don't think so.

What is receptive language?

Infants can understand more than he or she can say. - 6 months: understand own name. - 10-12 months: commonly used words; "doggie" -6-9 months: infants shake heads "No." -9-12 months: respond to verbal requests. * looking @ things when speaking, helps children learn. speaker's emotional expressions are related to the content of their speech.

How can ZPD be accomplished?

With the right kind of teaching.

How does Scaffolding occur?

Gradually w/draws supports until the child can then perform the task unaided.

What is sustained attention?

the ability to stay on a task for a long periods of time.

Describe and Evaluate the theories of Language Acquisition.

* Universal grammar that underlies all human language (Chomsky. '65, '72). * Each of many languages around the world: -some underlying set of procedures that are hard-wired into the human brain. - Children are born w/ a knowledge of general rules of syntax, this determines how sentences are constructed. - Lang. Develops as long as the infant is exposed to it. No teaching, training, or reinforcement is required, this was proposed by Skinner.

Language Theories: Deep and Surface Structure

*Differentiates between the deep structure: How the idea is represented in the fundamental universal grammar that is so common to all languages. - can understand how ideas are expressed, but can't reproduced same surface structure to communicate ideas. *Surface Structure: How idea(s) is expressed in ANY language. -we generally forget how it happened.

What are the components of Theory of Mind?

*Diverse-Desires: Two people may have differ desires regarding the same object. *Diverse-Beliefs: Two people have differ beliefs about an object. *Knowledge Access (Knowledge/Ignorance) :People may or may not have access to info. False Belief: One might hold a belief based on false info. Hidden Emotion: People may not always express their true emotions.

Describe gains in info processing during early childhood. including: Executive Functioning, Attention, and Memory.

*Improvements in attention skills, changes in capacity, and the emergence of executive functions in working memory. -Executive function skills gradually emerge during early childhood & continue to develop throughout childhood and adolescence. -Like many cognitive changes, brain maturation, especially the prefrontal cortex, along with experience influence the development of executive function skills. -Early Childhood memory strategies, memory accuracy, and autobiographical memory emerge. -Several factors contribute to the emergence of autobiographical memory including brain maturation, improvements in language, opportunities to talk about experiences with parents and others, the development of the theory of mind, and a representation of "self" (Nelson & Fivush, 2004). -vital time period for memory development (Posner and Rothbart, '07). *Attention: it is comprised of sub-processes.

Describe Egocentrism

*In early childhood: Young children not being able to take the pov of others & instead, child thinks that everyone sees, think, and feels what they do. * Child not able to infer the view of other people & instead attributes his own perspective to situations. Ex: Kenny (3yrsold) picks an Iron Man figure for her 10-yr-old sister b-day present. He like Iron Man and thinks she will like it too. * By age 7, kids are less self-centered. shows some awareness of the views of others.

Describe changes in understanding and expressing emotion during early childhood, citing factors that influence those changes. Include a discussion of the development of emotional regulation and delay of gratification

*Self-Concept, Self-Esteem, and Self Control are important in early childhood social and emotional dep. -Early childhood is a time of forming an initial sense of self. -Self-Concept: our self-description, from external and internal qualities. -Self-Esteem: Evaluating judgments about who we are. -Categorical self: Focus on external qualities. -young children tend to have a generally positive self-image. this often results in a lack of social comparison when making self-evaluations. -It is in early childhood that we see the start of self-control, a process that takes many years to fully develop. -Self-control includes response initiation, the ability to not start a behavior before you have considered all of the information, Response inhibition, the ability to stop a behavior that has already begun, and, Delayed Gratification, the power to hold out for a larger reward by forgoing a smaller quick reward. *Walter Mischel and his colleagues over the years have discovered that the capacity to delay gratification at the age of four envisioned better academic performance and health later in life (Mischel et al., 2011). Self-control is related to executive function.

Describe changes in self-concept and self-esteem in adolescence

-Erikson believed that the primary psychosocial task of adolescence was establishing an identity. including- includes questions regarding their appearance, vocational choices and career aspirations, education, relationships, sexuality, political and social views, personality, and interests. Adolescence experience psychological moratorium where teens put on hold commitment to an identity while exploring , the options.

Describe the parent-teen relationship

-Increases in conflict. teens want to be more independent and responsible. parents fear for their teenagers of harming oneself.

Define Wernicke's Area.

-Next to the Auditory Cortex. -Responsible for language comprehension.

Identify nutritional concerns and describe eating disorders

-men also have a distorted sense of body image, including muscle dysmorphia, which is an extreme desire to increase one's muscularity. Anorexia Nervosa- • Restriction of energy intake leading to a significantly low body weight • Intense fear of gaining weight • Disturbance in one's self-evaluation regarding body weight. -Bulimia Nervosa: • Recurrent episodes of binge eating • Recurrent inappropriate compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain, including purging, laxatives, fasting or excessive exercise • Self-evaluation is unduly affected by body shape and weight. -Binge-Eating Disorder: Recurrent episodes of binge eating • Marked distress regarding binge eating • The binge eating is not associated with the recurrent use of inappropriate compensatory behavior

Describe the role of peers

-very important in support. -having friends who are high-achieving, academically motivated and engaged promotes motivation and engagement in the adolescent, while those whose friends are unmotivated, disengaged, and low achieving promotes the same emotions.

Identify changes in high school drop-out rates based on gender and ethnicity.

. The rate is lower for Whites than for Blacks, and the rates for both Whites and Blacks are lower than the rate for Hispanics. However, the gap between Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics have narrowed. -The dropout rate for males in 1990 was 12%, where it stayed until 2000. -Thereafter the rate has dropped to 7% in 2013. The dropout rate for females in 1990 was 12%, where it dropped to 10% in 2000, and in 2013 was 6%. From 1997 until 2012 the rate for males was appreciably higher than females, while in 2013 the gender differ was minimal.

Describe the four parenting styles and explain how parenting practices influence development. Explain why authoritative parenting is effective

1. Authoritative: Supportive, show interest in their kids' activities, but aren't overbearing & allow them to make constructive mistakes. -Children develop greater competence and self-confidence when parents have high, but reasonable expectations for children's behavior, communicate well with them, are warm, loving, and responsive, and use reasoning. -The authoritative style is the best because this style is designed to help the parent raise a child who is independent, self-reliant, and responsible. 2. Authoritarian: the traditional model of parenting in which parents make the rules and children are expected to obey them. - Maturity demands are unreasonably high and tend to be aloof and distant. causing children to develop a fear of their parents than respect, and leading them to be bullies to their peers. 3. Permissive: Holding expectations of kids that are below what could be reasonably expected from them. kids make own rules and determine own activities. parents are warm and communicative, but provide little structure for their kids. kids fail to learn self-discipline, which may lead to insecurity- don't know the limits. 4. Uninvolved: Disengaged from their children. No demands on their kids and are non-responsive. kids suffer in school and in their relationships w/ peers.

Discuss the major categories of peer acceptance and describe the role of peer acceptance in children's adjustment, including popularity and rejection

1. Popular- lots of + peer nominations with few - 2. Rejected -lots of - peer nominations with few + 3. Controversial -love them or hate them; they know it; mix 4. Neglected -no one's nominating them + or - -it is important to look out and worry about the ones who got rejected, b/c they wanted to be in a group, but were rejected because they are actively doing something that people don't like; need therapy to rid self of - and replace +

Describe the major characteristics of formal operational thought.

adolescents are able to understand abstract principles which have no physical reference. -adolescents demonstrate hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which is developing hypotheses based on what might logically occur. understand the concept of transitivity, which means that a relationship between two elements is carried over to other elements logically related to the first two

Describe Vygotsky's Theory on Child Development; his perspective on social origins

* Argued that culture has a major impact on a child's cognitive dep. -Acknowledged intrinsic dep., he stated that it is language, writing, and ideas arising from the culture that elicit the highest level of cognitive thinking. *Social interactions w/ adults and more learned peers can help a child's potential for learning. -w/o this, kids mind's wouldn't advance very far as their own knowledge would be based o own discoveries.

Evaluating Chomsky's Theory: Universal Grammar

* Evans & Levison ('04) surveyed world languages and found NONE of the theory's that language acquisition device is entirely universal. * Found languages that didn't have noun or verb phrases, no tense(past, present, future). * some have no nouns or verbs at all, though a basic assumptions of a universal grammar that all languages should be these features.

Describe the role of siblings on child's development.

* Offer unique relationship, not found in w/ same-age peers or w/ adults. * Important role in developing social skills. * Cooperative and pretend play: Younger & Older siblings: teach empathy, sharing, cooperation, negotiation and conflict resolutions. -Quality of sibling relationships is often mediated by the quality of the parent-child relationship and the psychological adjustment.

Define Divided Attention or Multitasking

* Our ability to switch our focus between tasks or external stimuli.

Describe play during early childhood and the research on the benefits make-believe play.

* Pretending is a fav activity @ this time. -Piaget believed that children pretend play helped children solidify new schemata they were developing cognitively. -Reflected changes in their conceptions or thoughts. - learning environment for pretend and experiment.

Describe Environmental Factors that support and influence language learning during infancy and childhood.

* The concept of critical periods highlight the importance of both nature and nurture for language development. - Two known ex's: -Victor = "Wild Child" who was left abandoned as a baby in France, was discovered till he was 12. - Genie, whose parents locked her in a closet from 18 months till 13 yrs of age. *Both made some progress in socialization, but never developed language. -this is very important to know early if a baby is deaf, so sign language needs to be developed early on.

Define Broca's Area. - Who first localized this in the 1860s?

*Area in front of the left hemisphere near the motor cortex, the main job is language production. - Paul Broca, a French Physician, studied patients w/ lesions to various parts of the brain.

Describe lack of conservation, Errors in logical thought

Conservation: Ability to recognize that moving or rearranging matter doesn't change the quantity. Centration: Focused on ONLY one characteristic of an object to the exclusion of others. Children lack to perform mental operations.

What is the significance of children private speech?

Kids talk to themselves in order to SOLVE problems or Clarify thoughts. -Inner speech is not as elaborate as the speech we use when communicating w/ others.

What is underextension and overextension?

U.E.: word can be used ONLY for that particular object. ex: "Doggie" O.E.: Label applies to all objects that are similar to original object. ex: animal's become "doggies"

Evaluate Vygotsky's Theory and Major Ideas

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): kids should be taught in this. this occurs when they can ALMOST perform a task, but not quite on their own w/o help. Scaffolding: Temporary support that parents or teachers give a child to do a task. Private Speech: Inner Speech. He stated that thinking out loud is connected to inner speech. inner speech becomes a practice when one is trying to LEARN and REMEMBER something. Inner speech is not elaborate as the speech we use when communicating with others.

Describe types of discipline, including punishment, inductive techniques, power assertion, and withdrawal of love, and the effectiveness of each type

*Spanking: Smith (2012) states "many studies have shown that physical punishment, including spanking, hitting and other means of causing pain, can lead to increased aggression, antisocial behavior, physical injury and mental health problems for children" (p. 60). 1. Power Assertive: involves adult behavior like spanking, withdrawal of privileges, and threats of punishment or physical harm. kids respond to an adult's demand out of fear-rather than respect. Therefore, children's motivations for appropriate behavior are external, and they coordinate with expectations to avoid punishment. But when children find themselves in circumstances where they will probably not be "caught," they are likely to engage in improper conduct. 2. Love Withdrawal: involves adult behavior like refusal to speak or listen to children, threats to leave children, or expressions of dislike and disappointment. When parents give children the "cold shoulder" when inappropriate behavior occurs. As an outcome, children conform to expectations because they fear abandonment or the loss of adult love and affection. this produces external motivation for appropriate behavior. 3. Induction: This type contains the true nature of discipline: teaching. Adults who practice induction deliver children with reasons for appropriate behavior as well as suitable consequences for inappropriate behavior. kids will understand why certain actions are expected and others are prohibited, and they internalize reasons for these behaviors. -their motivation to behave appropriately comes from within, and are more likely to encounter expected behaviors when they are in situations where they are not being watched. -children will be more likely to understand the effects of their behavior on others and then display compassion.

How do babies develop language?

*Starting before birth: Beginnings of language & communication skills. * At birth: babies recognize their mother's voice and can discriminate between language(s) spoken by their mom and foreign language. - Preferences for faces: are moving in synchrony w/ sound language.

Describe the development: Erikson's stage of Initiative Versus Guilt

*Virtue developed: Purpose. - able to pursue goals independently w/o guilt. -important for kids to come out of early childhood w/ high curiosity and little guilt. -Caregivers should offer praise for the child's efforts and avoid being critical of messes or mistakes.

Describe typical reactions of adolescents that result from their advancing cognition. Include Personal Fable and Imaginary Audience

- Elkind thought that the imaginary audience contributed to the self-consciousness that occurs during early adolescence. The desire for privacy and reluctance to share personal information may be a further reaction to feeling under constant observation by others. - "The imaginary audience is the adolescent's belief that those around them are as concerned and focused on their appearance as they themselves are" - a personal fable or belief that one is unique, special, and invulnerable to harm.

Describe the young child's theory of mind and how this is affected in autism.

- the ability to think about other people's thoughts. This cognitive mind-reading helps humans to understand and foretell the reactions of others, therefore playing a crucial role in social development. Autism leads to a delay in the development of the theory of mind, and that people with autism have hardship comprehending the mental states of others.

Describe the influence of the media on young children's social development

Research has consistently shown that too much television adversely affects children's behavior, health, and achievement (Gentile & Walsh, 2002; Robinson, Wilde, & Navracruz, 2001). -Young children are less able to focus on active, hands-on play while the television is on, and background TV can negatively affect cognitive and language development as well as be linked to attention problems later in childhood (Schmidt, Pempek, & Kirkorian, 2008; Courage, Murphy, & Goulding, 2010) -The immaturity of the cognitive functions in infants and toddlers makes it difficult for them to learn from digital media as effectively as they can from caregivers.

Evaluate the accuracy of Piaget's Preoperational Stage based on follow-up research.

Research has shown that Piaget also underestimated the intellectual capabilities of the preoper. child, by many psychologists. EX: Children's specific experiences can influence when they're able to conserve. - Pottery kids understand that reshaping clay doesn't change the amount of clay @ much younger than kids who don't have similar experiences. - Kids think rationally on mathematical and scientific tasks, aren't as egocentric as Piaget implied. -Kids overcome this by age 4 or 5, which is sooner than what Piaget implied.

What is language?

System of communication, including symbols: used in a regular way to create meaning. -by reading, talking, and writing.