Motivation - 2
What will rewards lead to?
rewards will most often feel as controlling and manipulative (Deci)
What is a a major factor when determing whether or not praise is effective?
-how is that child going to interpret what you say -different kids might interpret differently
What would happen if you give kids pizza for reading?
-if you give kids pizza for reading: they will only read for pizza -if there is no pizza, they will read less
How can praise be contingent?
-if you have a cat: you want them to do use a scratching posting -you give an award for this behaviour: 4 seconds -probably true for people, has to be quickly -one child will be praised for something, and another child won't receive the praise for the same behaviour
What was Brophy's conclusion about praise?
"students do not actually need praise to master the curriculum, to acquire acceptable role behaviours or even to develop healthy self-concepts" -teacher praise is a weak reinforcer, especially after age 8, when kids get out of the adult pleasing mode -students will say that praise is not motivational, most is goals
What were the two conditions in the Soma puzzle experiment that caused competition?
"try to beat the other person" versus "do your best" -the same experiment, except now they were competing with a confederate -during performance period: they told the people they were suppose to beat the other person or to do your best -the confederate always allowed the real participant to win -no competition: the confederate would wait too -told them they were allowed to do the puzzles or read magazines -the participants spent half as much time if they had competed -competition decreases intrinsic motivation
What was the non-controlling competition condition?
"try to outperform the other person by solving the puzzles faster
What are United States Trends in schools?
(school reform, because they do bad on these tests) -more standards: expect more from schools and students -more homework: 10 minutes for each grade starting in kindergarten -more emphasis on math and science: belief that success in school will result in success in economy. They have cut back music, art, and physical education -more classes for gifted -longer days and year: classes on saturday mornings -uniforms: self-control and discipline -merit pay for teachers: pay of teachers is linked to performance on standardized tests -pay for students: if they get good grades -trends: extrinsic motivation, apply more pressure, higher standards, motivate teachers with rewards -->controlling factors: they think this is what is done in Asian countries: follow an intense regimen
What is the generliziability of the finding that extrinsic motivation decreases intrinsic motivaiton?
-Age: negative effects occur most often in children (younger, more powerful) -Culture: works in a variety of countries: both eastern and western -type of activity - doesn't matter as long as it is initially intrinsically motivating -type of reward - doesn't matter whether it is tangible versus symbolic
What is the effect of competition and sportsmanship?
-I respect the official, even if he is not so good -when my opponent injures himself, I do not take advantage of the situation -->e.g hit him in his injured shoulder -they were becoming more competition and extrinsic motivation and less intrinsic motivation at the end you get a hyper competitive, skilled hockey player
-organized versus informal sport involvement - Koestner's basketball and his brother
-Koestner's brother enjoyed basketball and they played together -he was older and he was less americanized because he grew up in germany until he was four -->he was not in organized sports -Richard was in organized sports -his brother was never in organized sports, and he still plays basketball every weekend
Harter's Research on the Impact of School on Children's Intrinsic Motivation:
-Surveys of Children's curiosity/intereset (vs pleasing teacher and getting grades) -does child work to satisfy own interest and curiousity or does child work to satisfy teacher, get marks and grades?
How does praise function as a balance for criticism?
-afraid you will de-motivate the students: package the criticism so it is surrounded by praise -sandwich technique: praise, criticism, praise
What is the sandwich technique?
-after a few times with this technique the person may just want you to tell them about the criticism -concern that they won't get the message (just listen to the positive)
. Richard after holy child basketball game in 5th grade - describe the praise that was received
-he was talking about why the team lost: he told Koestner that it didn't apply to Koestner -Koestner was happy and he wanted to work harder -he responded to the praise
How did Koestner praise his nephew?
-he was gifted: quick, could do things well -he enjoyed drawing: Koestner would praise him for the drawing -the older brother overheard Koestner praise (he didn't draw pictures)
Explain the story of the chipmunk soccer players.
-all kids got equal time: not based on ability -they made it to the playoffs -the league suspended the rule that everyone had to play equally -two girls didn't play -they won the competition: the team rushed in and the girls were upset and stayed on the sidelines -this is the power of our society on winning -the coach was typically nice and not competition centred
How does praise function as student-elicited stroking?
-any class of 25 students, there will 3 or 4 kids who are good at school and socially confident -whenever they finish an assignment, they will bring it up to the teacher and ask the teacher how is it, and the teacher says it is good, and then the student smiles and says thanks -there is reinforcement: predictable and systematic, but it is working in the opposite direction -->the student is reinforcing the teacher to praise them -the teacher is likely to think well of you: you will get good grades -self-regulation: this is not good, more cut up in getting praise
Why do kids stop playing sports as they get older?
-as you age, things get more competitive and you are more likely to get the message that you are not a good one -many kids stop playing the sport: most kids currently playing don't plan on planning for fun in the future -you want to find sports for kids that they enjoy and they will want to do it for their whole life -there is a selection process, so there is only 10% of the kids still engaged at the end
Which factor was missing from sport involvement?
-competition -compeitive sports, risks undermining intrinsic motivation
How is competition like rewards?
-competition is like rewards: when they are introduced they will be excited, but they will turn the activity into an extrinsic motivated activity
What is Reeve and Deci's conclusion about competition?
-competition is not always bad: if you are focused on the challenge and not caught up in winning -winning a competition will not undermine intrinsic motivation if winning is not a focus -however, winning is a focus on our society, it is difficult to escape these effects -->in reality it is hard to put this into practice
Separated competition as challenge or win/lose - conditions
-competition/lose -competition/controlling -competition/informational
Return to Ballet Director: Is it critical to teach competitive skills?
-consider recent research on skills needed for 21st century jobs: -we need to compete because it is a tough world out there -the place where you have the best jobs is when you combine high level math/computer skills with high social skills (computer can't do the social part) -what we learn in preschool is the most useful things we learn to be school -there is a danger both in classroom and sports activities and extracurricular activities that competition can hurt us
How Students who work with kids react to this lecture? - how should you use praise?
-continue to be warm and encouraging, but avoid evaluating praise -Praise on average enhances intrinsic motivation -praise probably often no effect -undermining praise is probably rare -try some different approaches
What are common functions of why adults use praise?
-create bond, people enjoy praise -motivate, you might want the child to know they are good, so they continue with the activity -protect, kids who are not doing well, you want to give them praise so that they feel better -manipulate, and control, if someone is invested in a child becoming good at an activity, give praise so they practice more and get better, because you are invested in their performance
How does school affect the level of curiousity?
-curiosity decreases the longer we are in school -montessori school: intrinsic motivation stays stable
Is there any way for me to find my intrinsic motivation for reading again?
-don't be self-judgmental: read anything, if you are intrinsically motivating you will progress to more challenging books -find a way to learn about books you might like -->goodreads.com
How can formats re-ignite a person's motivation?
-e-books -graphic books -plays -audio-books
What was the pizza hut reading program?
-eighteen years ago, pizza hut created a reading motivation program for children in grades k-6 called the book it national reading incentive program -you get pizza, praise and recognition for reading books
What is something teachers often do with a child's reading?
-encourage kids to read a variety of genres, more challenging topics
What are ways that promote reading motivation?
-encouraging choice: let them have input in what they read -providing interesting, relevant texts; things that would engaging to kids -facilitating social interaction around books -using hands-on activities to spark interest
Describe the Soma puzzle experiment with engineering students? - money condition
-engineering students: did a visual spatial block design game (called Soma) -put them together to make shapes -half were given money other half were not -free choice period: they are told they can do some puzzles and magazines (time and playboy) -how long would they continue to work on the puzzles -those who were not rewarded showed twice as much free choice time to do the puzzle
What is correlated with intrinsic motivation?
-enjoyment -pursuit of challenge -cognitive flexibility and creativity -spontaneity and expressiveness -positive emotional tone in relating to others -kids who are not working for rewards: smile more, more engaged -same kids who are working for rewards will avoid more challenging tasks -kids who are not working for rewards will increase challenge
What is the focus when extrinsic motivation is introduced?
-focus: how can I most quickly and efficiently do this task to get the reward
How useful is competition in context of roles:
-friend competition: not the best part of our friendships -romantic partner: compete with each other (makes for an unhappy marriage) -parent: american parents compete with one another to produce the best child
Describe the coding of teachers.
-he had undergraduates code what teachers were saying to the students -categorized what they said -common assumption: praise = verbal reinforcement -but, praise will act as reinforcement only if it is: -contingent -specific -credible
How are giving books to kids key in creating motivation?
-if you were from a lower SES, you were not exposed to books as much -lower class kids loss about 3 months of reading ability, higher class kids gain one month of reading in the summer -lower class continue to have lower reading ability
Why are recreational sports superior to organized sports?
-informal sport settings appeared to provide better balance between challenges and abilities, and therefore increased enjoyment -when you play in the park: if one team wins a lot then they mix up the players -the goal is to have a good game: not worried about the score -if we weren't in organized sports: less emphasis on winning at all costs -his brother was protected from facing controlling competition or the message that you are not good enough
Why are Finnish students the best in the world?
-international tests: profile of student assessment and it assesses students in 40-50 countries with 15 year olds -age 15 is a good time to assess whether a country is adequately preparing students for adult life -the way the kids are tested are essays and problems: not multiple choice -tests: PISA and TIMMS -there are concerns about countries who zoomed to the top: tests are suppose to be administered in a representative way. Hypothesis that China is not doing this -Finnland: was number one in all three categories (science, math, reading)
What are the effects of using praise?
-introduce rewards for something that is intrinsically motivating, it will be stunted -when you use rewards you feel manipulative (bribing kids) -praise is different: we feel comfortable using praise
What was the controlling competition condition?
-it doesn't matter how fast or slow you solve each puzzle, or whether you figure out how the puzzle works, the only thing that matters is that you win the competition. So focus all of your attention on being the winner -reminded prior to each trial either to: 1) solve your puzzles faster 2) focus all your attention on being the winner
Both boys enjoy basketball...why does only one continue to play basketball?
-koestner peaked in freshman year and then he plateaued -when he was a senior, he was a captain of the team -five wins and nineteen losses -his high school was invited to play at madison square garden: his family was there to watch this game -the other team put two guys on Koestner top player and the guy they left undefended was Koestner -Koestner was asked to shoot from the free throw line: he was unable to make a shot -->his coach kept him in and then after more misses and then the coach pulled him -->Koestner was benched for the rest of the season: he lost his intrinsic motivation
Discuss the reading fair's effect on motivation.
-let kids pick 12 books and they can read over the summer -1000 kids: 500 picked puzzle books and 500 real books -most popular books: britney spears and the Rock -dependent variable: reading achievement three years later -->giving kids books to the kids resulted in an increase in reading ability, more influential in lower SES, equal to summer school
How can reading no longer become a intrinsically motivating activity?
-love of reading starts early: especially for middle-upper class -Sophia could not read at the age of 3: she knew the stories and she enjoyed the pictures -she had a reading contest: you would win a prize if you read the most -she won a dollar store prize -she read differently when the prize was introduced: she read quickly
What are other effects of competition?
-many drop out because they don't feel they are good enough or they feel controlled -if you look at the group that is left: youth sports at the highest levels have the most problems with sportsmanship -sportsmanship decrease as winning at all costs increases
Does praise function as a reinforcer?
-measure outcomes from more or less praise -compare classrooms: high praise versus low praise teachers -no evidence that teacher praise affects student's learning (e.g grades, test performance) -why are teachers praising?
Why does curiousity decrease in junior high?
-more evaluative -more competitive -more impersonal -more forma -in general: more controlling, less autonomy
What is praise and what is feedback?
-praise = to commend the worth of someone's behaviour or to express approval or admiration -feedback is knowledge of the results: feedback is not praise
How can praise to make a child feel controlled or competent?
-praise is usually unexpected: don't feel control but competent: increases intrinsic motivation -you can make praise immediately controlling: add phrase after praise (e.g you did just as well as I expected you to)
How can praise be specific?
-praise needs to be specific
Explain the free choice paradigm experiment with children's drawing.
-pre-test to identify intrinsic activity: identify something they are already interested in (e.g drawing for kindergarteners) -random assignment to control versus reward: control (kids do the drawing), experimental (draw and you can win a special kind of reward) -performance period: they always win: required to draw -explicit ending of required activity -free choice period (with observation): the kids have another chance to do the activity, they waited a week and then during free play they brought out drawing materials
What is Dweck's advice when using praise?
-process-focused -show interest
How did they improve the tennis program?
-program was reward-oriented -when they reduced the rewards: the kids became more relaxed
What was the glendale library contest?
-read books and the librarian asked you questions on the book -Koestner only read the last pages of the books -short books with large print became ideal -they were no longer reading in a meaningful way
What Happens to IM for Reading in School?
-rewards -punishment -negative reinforcement -surveillance -deadlines -evaluation -goal imposition -competition --->all of these conditions resulted in a decrease in intrinsic motivation
How does praise function as positive guidance?
-say something positive that sounds like praise (e.g you are all staying awake), it is general, it is to create positive atmosphere
What effect does positive guidance (1), transition ritual (2), balance for criticism (3)?
1,2: doesn't damage, doesn't help 1,2,3: influenced by teachers
What is the humanistic approach to parenting?
-secure/happy person: unconditional love -use praise, in this conditional way will result in children who will be overly concerned with how their parents are appraising them -positive conditional regard: praise for good behaviour -negative conditional regard: withhold positive emotion/love during bad behaviour
Richard called before his 8th grade class - describe the praise that was received
-she called richard up and announced that richard has been accepted in a special school for advanced students -he was unaware that he had been accepted: he didn't want to go to this school, his mom was obsessed with her kids becoming professionals
How can praise be credible?
-sincere, varied, and believable -often teachers give superficial praise -the non-verbal language contradicts their praise
How do parenting books describe the use of praise?
-socialize your children to act appropriately -give praise when they behave well -no praise when they behave poorly: or even withhold warmth -positive reinforcement is better than punishment
How does praise function as vindication of predictions?
-students have good ability but they don't try hard or come prepared -they will say you did well, because you studied this time or you brought a pencil this morning (just like I told you) -->you are not validating the child, but yourself -->comes off as controlling
What were the results of the drawing experiment?
-the children who were not reward spent 17% of their time drawing, reward kids 9% spent their time drawing -introducing a reward undermines their interest in the activity: doesn't make it more fun -the reward group drew pictures of lower quality, but they drew more pictures -->focused on quantity
What is intrinsic motivation?
-the natural propensity to engage one's interests and exercise one's capacities -kids see something that looks interesting and they go and try to figure it out (curious) -->adaptive we learn, gain abilities -intrinsic motivation will fuel their development and learning: best fuel -doing activities for their own sake (you are interested in it and you enjoy the process)
Discuss why it is a problem that many of us feel it is important to use praise?
-the problem: many of us feel it is important to use praise -it creates a warm and close connections -if you do it publicly than other kids may not feel good
How does praise function as an icebreaker or peace offering?
-the teacher would criticize or punish a rule breaker, then later the teacher would try to send a message that they dealt with that and now we are moving on -they would give praise not on academic, but clothes, hair -they are not trying to reinforce the clothes, but let's get along again -elicited by the rebellious students
Csikzentmihalyi's opinion on competition
-there are sports that competition is apart of the sports -competition adds challenge and it makes you feel more competent -sometimes it may increase intrinsic motivation: it is about challenge and competence
How do adults try to encourage kids?
-they offer awards -they will praise you (e.g you are a good reader) -get kids to compete -all three: it will motivate the kids, but the way they approach the activity will change -->it will change from meaningful into doing it for the 'award'
How does praise function as spontaneous expression of surprise or admiration?
-this has a good effect -they indicate the a student did a good achievement -contingent, specific, and credible -->it feels validating and genuine
Why does the school of ballet endorse competition?
-we need to adapt to competition because real life is competitive
How does praise function as a consolation prize or as encouragement?
-when the student is not doing well, older kids feel more incompetent with this praise
How does competition impact intrinsic motivation?
-when you are intrinsically motivated you are doing the activity for their own sake -many activities we do are based on extrinsic motivation (e.g make parents happy, make teachers happy)
How competent and controlled did you feel?
-when you lose a competition you feel less competent: this accounts for loss of intrinsic -if you win, but feel controlled and pressured: you will feel controlled: you will lose your intrinsic motivation
What happens when the only thing that matters is winning?
-winning is all that matters: and the experiment sets it up so you lose -controlling + lose -if you win and non-controlling than competition is okay
How does praise function as attempted vicarious reinforcement?
-worse kind of praise -there is a model student: teacher often points out this student and tells the class to be more like this student -problem: embarrassing, you feel alienated, students may get upset with you, not sincere (they want the other kids to do this, sacrificing the model student
what about children who do not like to read?
-wouldn't it be okay to use a reward to get them interested -if there is a lack of motivation, then they feel they need to offer rewards to these kids
What is the problem with trying to create intrinsic motivation with extrinsic motivation?
-you can't increase intrinsic motivation with extrinsic motivation -extrinsic motivation crowds out intrinsic motivation: they do the activity for extrinsic motivation
How does praise function as transition ritual?
-you have done very well with this part, now we are going to the next part -not specific or contingent: signals we are moving on
you can ask children why are you working on problems?
-you want to solve them or you have to do them
3 main affects of positive and negative conditional regard
1) anger and resentment towards parents: the child will feel controlled and manipulated 2) when the child is younger the child will be intrinsically motivated: motivation is interjected: the child is evaluating themselves based on how the parent's have evaluated them 3) the child does not have self-esteem: don't trust themselves low quality of behaviour in academic with this approach
How is praise used in boys and china?
Age, gender, cultural background -boys like praise for ability -rare to praise children in China -differen types of praise in east: effort and appropriate behaviour
What is America not looking at in these test scores?
Asian countries do well but Finnland always is on top
Why do people stop pursuing activities that formerly seemed to be highly self-rewarding? What are some example of activities that people stop pursuing?
Childhood sport Musical Instrument, often kids play instruments and they no longer play when they are in their adulthood Reading for Pleasure, reading to learn can become associated with reading to get grades (impress parents/teachers), we still read but it is functional/instrumental
Why do high school students enjoy basketball?
asked high schoolers why they like basketbal -competition/measuring self versus others -development of personal skills -friendships -activity itself -enjoyment of experience/use of skills
why do some people do activities where they get no external reward?
e.g the activity itself is rewarding (flow) it is also intrinsic motivation
Sports enjoyment
affective reaction that each of us have to certain sports. We will find something that connects with us
What is commitment?
commitment = desire and resolve to continue sports participation
How are external events interpreted?
external events can have one of three meanings; negative effects of rewards are almost instant. Changing basic process that affect basic needs -informational -controlling -motivating
Personal Investments
how much has the child invested, if they bought a lot of equipment, a lot of time training, if their parents spent a lot of money. Might just be pressure to stick with the activity
What happens when praise is not contigent, specific, and credible? How often is praise used in the classroom?
if praise is not contingent, specific and credible it will not be reinforcing -praise is only used 5% of the time in classrooms -10% criticism -no contingent praise, rare specific praise
When is reading not intrinsically motivating?
if you have never been exposed to reading, you won't be intrinsically motivating -reading in university has become so caught up in external rewards
How does a person's grades affect their intrinsic motivation?
intrinsic motivation decreases as grades decreases -kids who remain intrinsically motivated perform better on tests of achievement and learning
Social Constraints
negative factor, sometimes you are expected by your parents, teachers, and teammates to do this sport and continue with it. You will feel controlled and this can backfire and undermine your commitment
How does reading get affected with the basic needs?
no effect on relatedness with reading 1) IM varies with perceived Autonomy: you are endorsing your behaviour (ideal). Teachers coming in asking you to read certain books threatens autonomy. They will feel controlled. 2) IM varies with perceived competence: more competent we feel the more intrinsically motivated we become. Complicated because rewards can increase competence usually they control us
What were the results?
non-controlling win: you were more likely to continue doing the puzzles during the free-choice paradigm
Involvement Opportunities
sense of mastery, to see skills building, boost your self-esteem, get to work on a team. Things you get from the sport, that you don't get from other activities. If you have these opportunities then you are more likely to continue with the activity. Shy kids are able to do something with kids (it is structured enough that their anxiety decreases)
What effect do icebreaker (4), prize (5), and predictions (6) have?
specific students, not positive, often negative
What happened when they gave a child a reward but they did not tell them they were going to receive a reward?
third condition: given a reward, but did not tell them beforehand -it didn't have a negative effect -awareness and expectancy of reward that changes things -unexpected rewards don't undermine intrinsic motivation
involvement alternatives
what are the alternatives to the activity, and what do the alternatives provide. In high school you could join drama club, you can date. If there are compelling activities than there is risk you will lose your commitment to the sport