MSM 6610 Chapter 12-16

team-based structure

Horizontal or vertical teams define part or all of the organization

A learning organization

is an organization that facilitates the learning of all its members and continually transforms itself.51 In a learning organization, continual learning and change become part of the culture. Wikis, blogs, and searchable databases are sometimes used to collect employees' knowledge and make it available to others.

self-monitoring

Having a high concern with others' perceptions of us and adjusting our behavior to fit the situation

direct contact

Managers from different units informally work together to coordinate or to identify and solve shared problems

The four upward influence styles are:

Shotgun: This style uses the most influence and emphasizes assertiveness and bargaining. Shotgun managers tend to have less job tenure and the greatest needs to obtain personal benefits and "sell" their ideas about how the work should be done. 2. Tactician: This style uses an average amount of influence and emphasizes reason. Tactician managers tend to direct organizational subunits involved in nonroutine work that gives them a skill and knowledge power base. 3. Bystander: This style uses little influence with superiors. Bystander managers tend to direct organizational units doing routine work and generally have little organizational power (i.e., little control over budgets, policy, or personnel matters). 4. Ingratiator: This style primarily uses a friendliness strategy but also uses the other influence strategies to some extent. The name of this style reflects the dominant mode by which these managers exercise influence.

artifacts

The physical manifestation of the culture including open offices, awards, ceremonies, and formal lists of values. Cultures are made up of formal and informal practices, artifacts, espoused values and norms, and assumptions.

espoused values and norms

The preferred values and norms explicitly stated by the organization

ethical leadership

The process of leading based on consistent principles of ethical conduct

Centralization

is best thought of as a continuum, and different functions in a company can have different degrees of centralization. Centralizing authority can lead many managers to feel that they are solely responsible for completing their job tasks and responsibilities.

Threatened Expertise

A change in the organization may threaten the specialized expertise that individuals and groups have developed over the years. A job redesign or a structural change may transfer responsibility for a specialized task from the current expert to someone else, threatening the specialist's expertise and building his or her resistance to the change.

radical innovation (sometimes called disruptive innovation)

A major breakthrough that changes or creates whole industries

liaison role

A manager or team member is held formally accountable for communicating and coordinating with other groups

referent power

A personal power based on a manager's charisma or attractiveness to others

organizational culture

A system of shared values, norms, and assumptions that guide members' attitudes and behaviors. essential to organizational performance. Not only does it influence the decisions and behaviors of employees, but it also explains what is happening in an organization and why it is happening.

virtual organization

An organization that contracts out almost all of its functions except for the company name and managing the coordination among the contractors

Organizational culture is a system of shared values, norms, and assumptions that guides members' attitudes and behaviors and influences how they perceive and react to their environment.

An organization's culture is reflected in how it gets work done and how employees interact with each other. It takes a long time for a culture to evolve and a long time to change it.

functional structure

An organizational structure that groups people with the same skills, or who use similar tools or work processes, together into departments

bureaucratic structure

An organizational structure with formal division of labor, hierarchy, and standardization of work procedures

upward influence styles

Combinations of upward influence tactics that tend to be used together

systems innovation

Creates a new functionality by assembling parts in new ways

matrix structure

Employees report to both a project or product team and to a functional manage

leadership neutralizers

Factors that render ineffective a leader's attempts to engage in various leadership behaviors

communities of practice

Groups of people whose shared expertise and interest in a joint enterprise informally bind them together

resource Allocation

Groups that are satisfied with current resource allocation methods may resist any change they believe will threaten future allocations. Resources in this con-text can mean anything from monetary rewards and equipment to additional seasonal help to more computer time.

upward influence

Influencing superiors

virtual leadership

Leadership via distance technologies

continuous production

Machines constantly make the product

overdetermination, or structural inertia

Occurs because numerous organizational systems are in place to ensure that employees and systems behave as expected to maintain stability

informational power

Power derived from control over information

persuasive power

Power due to the ability to use logic and facts to persuade

unit production

Producing in small batches or making one-of-a-kind custom products

mass production

Producing large volumes of identical products

out-group

Receive less of the supervisor's time and attention and are likely to be assigned the more mundane tasks the group must perform and not be "in the loop" when information is being shared

mechanistic organizations

Rigid, traditional bureaucracies with centralized power and hierarchical communications

strategic leadership

The capability to understand the complexities of both the organization and its environment and to lead change in the organization so as to achieve and maintain a superior alignment between the organization and its environment

hierarchy

The degree to which some employees have formal authority over other

culture of inclusion

The extent to which majority members value efforts to increase minority representation, and whether the qualifications and abilities of minority members are questioned.

The one difference that does seem to arise in some cases is that women have a tendency to be slightly more democratic in making decisions, whereas men have a similar tendency to be somewhat more autocratic.

There are two possible explanations for this pattern. One possibility is that women may tend to have stronger interpersonal skills than men and are hence better able to effectively involve others in making decisions. Men, on the other hand, may have weaker interpersonal skills and thus have a tendency to rely on their own judgment.

abuse of power

Using any type of power to demean, exploit, or take advantage of another or influencing someone to do something the person later regrets

leadership motive pattern:

a high need for power (with high impulse control) and a low need for affiliation. He found that an individual's power need could be directed positively if the leader could postpone immediate gratification and not act impulsively

Dominating conflict cultures

are active and disagreeable; open confrontations are accepted as well as heated arguments and threats.

Transformational leadership

focuses on the basic distinction between leading for change and leading for stability. The set of abilities that allows the leader to recognize the need for change, to create a vision to guide that change, and to execute the change effectively

Habit

is easier to do a job the same way every day if the steps in the job are repeated over and over. Learning an entirely new set of steps makes the job more difficult. For the same amount of return (pay), most people prefer to do easier rather than harder work.

Transactional leadership

is essentially the same as management in that it involves routine, regimented activities.

Unfreezing

is the process by which people become aware of the need for change. If people are satisfied with current practices and procedures, they may have little or no interest in making changes. The key factor in unfreezing is making employees understand the importance of a change and how their jobs will be affected by it.

Flatter structures

promote innovation and increase the speed of decision making and can save money as a result of fewer management layers. D

Power

refers to a person's or group's potential to influence another person or group to do something that would not otherwise have been done.3 Power can be held by individuals as well as by groups

Formalization

reflects the extent to which organizational rules, procedures, and communications are written down.12 In highly formalized firms, little flexibility exists in making decisions, and both procedures and rewards follow explicit rules.

disagreeable conflict management norms

resolve conflict competitively.

Agreeable conflict management norms

resolve conflict in a cooperative manner,

The leader-member exchange model (LMX) of leadership, conceived by George Graen and Fred Dansereau,

stresses the importance of variable relationships between supervisors and each of their subordinates. Each superior-subordinate pair is referred to as a "vertical dyad."

cross-functional

team A permanent task force created to address specific problems or recurring needs

division of labor

which reflects the degree to which employees specialize or perform a variety of tasks as generalists.

change agent

—a person who will be responsible for managing the change effort.

leadership substitutes

Individual, task, and organizational characteristics that tend to outweigh the leader's ability to affect subordinates' satisfaction and performance

four types of conflict cultures:

dominating, collaborative, avoidant, and passive-aggressive,

organizational chart

illustrate the chain of command and reporting relationships in your company.

reward power

A position power that involves the use of rewards to influence and motivate followers

GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Research Project). GLOBE identified six leader behaviors that can be observed and assessed across a variety of cultures. These behaviors are:

(1) Charismatic/value-based leadership: the ability to inspire, to motivate, and to promote high performance; includes being visionary, self-sacrificing, trust-worthy, decisive, and performance oriented. (2) Team-oriented leadership: emphasizes team building and creating a sense of common purpose; includes being collaborative, diplomatic, and administratively competent. (3) Participative leadership: the extent to which leaders involve others in making decisions; includes being participative and nonautocratic. (4) Humane-oriented leadership: being supportive, considerate, compassionate, and generous; includes displaying modesty and sensitivity. (5) Autonomous leadership: being independent and individualist; includes being autonomous and unique. ( 6) Self-protective leadership: behaviors intending to ensure the safety and security of the leader and the group; includes being self-centered, status conscious, conflict inducing, and face saving.

Essentially, empowerment requires two things:

(1) that managers allow those employees being empowered to have more power and control over their work and (2) that managers provide training, resources, and coaching to give those individuals and groups the skills and confidence to act empowered.

The final step is measurement, evaluation, and control. The change agent and the top management group assess the degree to which the change is having the desired effect; that is, they measure progress toward the goals of the change and make appropriate changes if necessary.

... Through the measurement, evaluation, and control phase, top management determines the effectiveness of the change process by evaluating various indicators of organizational productivity and effectiveness or employee morale

Eugene McKenna identified these common political tactics in organizations:

1. Controlling information: restricting information to certain people 2. Controlling lines of communication: establishing gatekeepers to restrict access to information 3. Using outside experts: outside consultants may seem neutral, but are paid and directed by management to "do their bidding" 4. Controlling the agenda: to ensure only certain topics are discussed 5. Game playing: leaking information, getting only friends to provide feedback, and so on 6. Image building: enlisting "spin doctors" to project a desirable image 7. Building coalitions: befriending powerful others or starting small subgroups to promote specific aims 8. Controlling decision parameters: trying to influence decisions before they are made 9. Eliminating political rivals: this may even mean getting them promoted to get them out of the way

Here are six common bases for grouping employees:

1. Employee knowledge and skills: Employees are grouped by what they know; for example, pharmaceutical organizations have departments like oncology and genetics. 2. Business function: Employees are grouped by business function; for example, many organizations have departments of human resources, marketing, and research and development. 3. Work process: Employees are grouped based on the activities they do; for example, a retailer may have different retail store and online departments reflecting two different sales processes. 4. Output: Employees are grouped based on the products or services they work on; for example, Colgate-Palmolive has two business divisions: One division includes oral, personal, and home-care products and the other focuses on pet nutrition. 5. Client: Employees are grouped based on the type of clients they serve; for example, Dell Computer has different departments supporting home, medium and small business, the public sector, and large business customers. 6. Location: Employees are grouped based on the geographical areas they serve; for example, many retailers including Lowe's Home Improvement divide employees by regions.

There are six primary upward influence tactics

1. Ingratiation: using flattery and acting polite, friendly, or humble to put the supervisor in a good mood 2. Exchange: offering to trade favors or rewards for compliance 3. Rationality: using logic, planning, reason, and compromise 4. Assertiveness: using aggression, nagging, and verbal confrontations or giving orders 5. Coalition formation: seeking the support of other organization members to show a united front 6. Upward appeals: making informal or formal appeals to organizational superiors for intervention

organization development

A system-wide application of behavioral science knowledge to the planned development and reinforcement of organizational strategies, structures, and processes for improving organizational effectiveness

As a manager, how can you create the conditions that enable communities of practice to flourish? Here are some experts' tips:

1. Start with a clear area of business need: Build communities that help the company work more effectively. For example, Hewlett Packard's Work Innovation Networks are a means of focusing effort on developing a creative approach to a current problem. 2 . Start small: Test ideas and try several formats to see what employees like and what works best. For example, any Hewlett Packard business can create a network by announcing itself as the host for a series of presentations, conferences, and seminars on a topic it is currently striving to understand. An invitation is broadcast to the rest of the company, and if the "market" responds, then the subject area takes on a life of its own in a community of practice. 3. Recruit management involvement: If lower-level employees see their bosses actively participating in the community, they are more likely to participate as well. 4. Use technology that supports the community's needs and that community members are able to use and are comfortable using: Some training in using wikis, portals, and other technologies may be necessary. Some companies, including Ford Motor Company and Delta Airlines, have even provided home computers and Internet connections for employees for a very low price. 5. Respect and build on informal employee initiatives already underway: Employees may have already created a type of community of practice to help them do their jobs better—determine what is already in place and working, and build on it. Employees will already be somewhat familiar with the community's processes and practices and more willing to use it. 6. Celebrate contributions and build on small successes: Building a community of practice takes time and requires employees to behave in new ways. Highlight on the company intranet or in the company newsletter ways the community has solved business problems and recognize employees who have meaningfully contribute

network organization

A collection of autonomous units or firms that act as a single larger entity, using social mechanisms for coordination and control

division

A collection of functions organized around a particular geographic area, product or service, or market

The benefits gained from quality-of-work-life programs differ substantially, but generally they are of three types.

A more positive attitude toward the work and the organization, or increased job satisfaction, is perhaps the most direct benefit. Another is increased productivity, although it is often difficult to measure and separate the effects of the quality-of-work-life program from the effects of other organizational factors. A third benefit is increased effectiveness of the organization as measured by its profitability, goal accomplishment, shareholder wealth, or resource exchange.

expert power

A personal power based on an individual's knowledge or expertise

legitimate power

A position power based on a person's holding of the managerial position rather than anything the manager is or does as a person

coercive power

A position power based on fear or a desire to avoid punishment

task force

A temporary committee formed to address a specific project or problem

Threatened Power

Any redistribution of decision-making authority, such as with reengineering or team-based management, may threaten an individual's power relationships with others. If an organization is decentralizing its decision making, managers who wielded their decision-making powers in return for special favors from others may resist the change because they do not want to lose their power base.

Position power (legitimate power)

Based on one's position in the organization influence tactics

personal power

Based on the person's individual characteristics, stays with a person regardless of his or her job or organization

Hersey and Blanchard model

Based on the premise that appropriate leader behavior depends on the "readiness" of the leader's followers (i.e., the subordinate's degree of motivation, competence, experience, and interest in accepting responsibility). The Hersey and Blanchard theory suggests that leader behaviors should vary in response to the readiness of followers.

Joint payoffs:

Because networks are organized around specific products or projects, payments are arranged based on the final product, so that if the product does not make it, no firm makes a profit. This motivates everyone to do his or her best.

Strong cultures are not always better than weak cultures, however—whether the culture is positive or negative also matters. A strong positive culture pro-motes employee commitment to the firm's value system and helps to align employee and company values.

Because strong cultures create stable and consistent employee values and behaviors, they are slow to change. If a company needs to change its culture to adapt to changing competition or a new business strategy, a strong culture can create difficulty in its ability to evolve. A company with a weaker culture (but not too weak) should be able to more quickly adapt to different circumstances.

Restricted access:

By restricting their exchanges to just a few long-term partners, networked organizations are more dependent on each other. By increasing their chances for future business, long-term relationships decrease the incentive for one organization to take advantage of another because they will get kicked out of the network and lose the opportunity to have future work.

Another way to bring about system-wide organization development is through changes in the tasks involved in doing the work, the technology, or both. The direct alteration of jobs usually is called "task redesign."

Changing how inputs are transformed into outputs is called "technological change" and also usually results in task changes. Strictly speaking, changing the technology is typically not part of organization development whereas task redesign usually is.

centralized organizations

Concentrate power and decision-making authority at higher levels of the organization

incremental innovation

Continues the technical improvement and extends the applications of radical and systems innovations

lattice structure

Cross-functional and cross-level subteams are formed and dissolved as necessary to complete specific projects and tasks

In particular, culture boosts organizational performance when it (1) is strategically relevant, (2) is strong, and (3) emphasizes innovation and change to adapt to a changing environment.

Culture is a source of competitive advantage. Creating a culture that sup-ports sharing and helping other employees can have positive performance results. Technology can make a sharing culture possible.

organization development 3 points:

First, organization development involves attempts to plan organization changes, which excludes spontaneous, haphazard initiatives.Second, the specific intention of organization development is to improve organization effectiveness. This point excludes changes that merely imitate those of another organization, are forced on the organization by external pressures, or are undertaken merely for the sake of changing.Third, the planned improvement must be based on knowledge of the behavioral sciences such as organizational behavior, psychology, sociology, cultural anthropology, and related fields of study rather than on financial or technological considerations.

organic organizations

Flexible, decentralized structures with less clear lines of authority, decentralized power, open communication channels, and a focus on adaptability in helping employees accomplish goals

attribution perspective on leadership

Holds that when behaviors are observed in a context associated with leadership, different people may attribute varying levels of leadership ability or power to the person displaying those behaviors

influence tactics

How people translate their power to affect the behavior of others

Management development programs

Management development programs, like employee training programs, attempt to foster certain skills, abilities, and perspectives. Often, when a highly qualified technical person is promoted to manager of a work group, he or she needs training in how to manage or deal with people.

Narrow Focus of Change

Many efforts to create change in organizations adopt too narrow a focus. Any effort to force change in the tasks of individuals or groups must take into account the interdependence among organizational elements such as people, structure, tasks, and the information system.

in-group

Often receives special duties requiring more responsibility and autonomy; they may also receive special privileges, such as more discretion about work schedules

organizational structure

One of the most important outcomes of organizational design is organizational structure, or the formal system of task, power, and reporting relationships. Organizational structure is the core of what coordinates, controls, and motivates employees to cooperate toward the attainment of organizational goals.

Legitimate, reward, and coercive powers rely on external motivation and obligatory obedience. Legitimate and reward powers are frequently employed as methods of influence by managers, but coercive power is rarely appropriate and should be reserved for only the most extreme situations. Effective leaders tend to rely on expert and referent power more than legitimate, reward, or coercive power.14 Using legitimate, reward, and coercive powers to influence others is using power rather than leadership

Perhaps the best-known types of power abuse are bullying, abusive super-vision, and sexual harassment (involving unwanted advances, requests, communication, or contact with the threat of punishment for noncompliance).

mentor

Role of helping a less experienced person learn the ropes to better prepare for career success

prebureaucratic structure

Smaller organizations with low standardization, total centralization, and mostly one-on-one communication

organizational politics

Social influence attempts directed at those who can provide rewards that will help promote or protect the self-interests of the actor

Integrated Framework for Implementation of Task Redesign in Organizations

Step 1: Recognition of a need for a change Step 2: Selection of task redesign as a potential intervention Step 3: Diagnosis of the work system and context • Diagnosis of existing jobs • Diagnosis of existing workforce • Diagnosis of technology • Diagnosis of organization design • Diagnosis of leader behavior • Diagnosis of group and social processes Step 4: Cost-benefit analysis of proposed changes Step 5: Go/no-go decision 6: Formulation of the strategy for redesign 7: Implementation of the task changes Step 8: Implementation of any supplemental changes Step 9: Evaluation of the task redesign effort

Survey feedback techniques

Survey feedback techniques can form the basis for a change process. In this process, data are gathered, analyzed, summarized, and returned to those who generated them to identify, discuss, and solve problems. A survey feedback process is often set in motion either by the organization's top management or by a consultant to management. The survey feedback process has three distinct stages, which must be fully completed for the process to be most effective. As an organization development process, its purpose is to fully involve all employees in data analysis, problem identification, and development of solutions.

quality of work life

The extent to which workers can satisfy important personal needs through their experiences in the organization. programs focus strongly on providing a work environment conducive to satisfying individual needs. The emphasis on improving life at work developed during the 1970s, a period of increasing inflation and deepening recession. The development was rather surprising because an expanding economy and substantially increased resources are the conditions that usually induce top management to begin people-oriented programs.

span of control

The number of people reporting directly to an individual

impression management

The process of portraying a desired image or attitude to control the impression others form of us

assumptions

Those organizational values that have become so taken for granted over time that they become the core of the company's culture. These basic assumptions are highly resistant to change and guide organizational behavior.

intrapreneurship

Thus, for a large organization to be innovative and develop new ventures, it must actively encourage entrepreneurial activity within the organization. This form of activity, often called intrapreneurship, usually is most effective when it is a part of everyday life in the organization and occurs throughout the organization rather than in the research and development department alone

Training

Training generally is designed to improve employees' job skills. Employees may be trained to run certain machines, taught new mathematical skills, or acquainted with personal growth and development methods. Stress management programs are becoming popular for helping employees, particularly executives, understand organizational stress and develop ways to cope with it. Among the many training methods, the most common are lecture, discus-sion, a lecture-discussion combination, experiential methods, case studies, films or videos, and online training modules.

enacted values and norms

Values and norms that employees exhibit based on their observations of what actually goes on in the organization. If a company's top managers engage in illegal or unethical behavior, these are the enacted values and norms of the firm no matter what its formally stated ethics values are. If the company has the espoused value that ethics are important, the difference between that espoused value and its enacted values creates a gap that can negatively affect employee attitudes and company performance.

Group Inertia

When an employee attempts to change his or her work behavior, the group may resist by refusing to change other behaviors that are necessary complements to the individual's altered behavior. In other words, group norms may act as a brake on individual attempts at behavior change.

Team Building

When interaction among group members is critical to group success and effectiveness, team development, or team building, may be useful. Team building emphasizes members working together in a spirit of cooperation and generally has one or more of the following goals: 1. To set team goals and priorities 2. To analyze or allocate the way work is performed 3. To examine how a group is working—that is, to examine processes such as norms, decision making, and communications 4. To examine relationships among the people doing the work.

When low to moderate readiness exists, the leader should use a "selling" style by offering direction and role definition accompanied by explanation and information.

When subordinate readiness is low, for example, the leader should rely on a "telling" style by providing direction and defining roles. ...

decentralized organizations

Whereas centralized organizations concentrate authority at high levels of the organization, flatter, decentralized organizations give lower levels more authority and autonomy for making decisions.16 Decentralized organizations tend to have flatter structures than centralized organizations because employees' greater autonomy decreases the need for middle management.

A structural change

affects performance appraisal and rewards, decision making, and communication and information-processing systems. Reengineering and rethinking the organization are two contemporary approaches to system-wide structural change.

Collaborative conflict cultures

are active and agreeable. Employees actively man-age and resolve conflicts cooperatively to find the best solution for all involved parties.

Passive-aggressive conflict cultures

are both passive and disagreeable. Rather than dealing openly with conflict, this culture develops norms to handle it via passive resistance such as refusing to participate in conflict-related discussions, giving the silent treatment, withholding information, or withdrawing from work and from interactions with coworkers.

Conflict cultures

are one example of a specific type of culture. Firms develop distinct conflict cultures, or shared norms for managing conflict, which reflect different degrees of active versus passive and agreeable versus disagreeable conflict management norms.

Avoidant conflict cultures

are passive and agreeable. This type of culture strives to preserve order and control and/or to maintain harmony and interpersonal relationships.

Strong cultures

can enhance organizational performance in two ways .First, they improve performance by energizing employees—appealing to their higher ideals and values, and rallying them around a set of meaningful, unified goals. Because they are engaging, these cultures stimulate employee commitment and effort. Second, strong cultures improve performance by coordinating employee behavior. Shared values and norms focus employees' attention on company priorities and goals that then guide their behavior and decision making without impinging on employee autonomy like formal control systems do. This makes strong cultures particularly helpful for dealing with changing environments

... Planned organization change requires a systematic process of movement from one condition to another. Kurt Lewin suggested that efforts to bring about planned change in organizations should approach change as a multistage process. His model of planned change is made up of three steps—unfreezing, change, and refreezing

competition is not a new force for change, competition today has some significant new twists. First, most markets are global because of decreasing transportation and communication costs and the increasing export orientation of business.

The continuous change process model

incorporates the forces for change, a problem solving process, a change agent, and transition management. It takes a top-management perspective and highlights the fact that in organizations today, change is a continuous process.

Charisma

is a form of interpersonal attraction that inspires support and acceptance.

Charismatic leadership

is accordingly a type of influence based on the leader's personal charisma. Envisioning, Energizing, enabling

Innovation

is the process of creating and doing new things that are introduced into the marketplace as products, processes, or services. Innovation involves every aspect of the organization, from research through development, manufacturing, and marketing. Many risks are associated with being an innovative company

Organizational design

is the process of selecting and managing aspects of organizational structure and culture to enable the organization to achieve its goals. Designing and redesigning the organization in response to internal and external changes is a key managerial function.

Transition management

is the process of systematically planning, organizing, and implementing change, from the disassembly of the current state to the realization of a fully functional future state within an organization.18 No matter how much planning precedes the change and how well it is implemented, because people are involved there will always be unanticipated and unpredictable things that happen along the way. One key role of transition management is to deal with these unintended consequences. Once change begins, the organization is in neither the old state nor the new state, yet business must go on. Transition management also ensures that business continues while the change is occurring; therefore, it must begin before the change occurs.

Organizational socialization

is the process through which employees learn about their organization's culture and pass their knowledge and under-standing on to others. Employees are socialized into organizations, just as people are socialized into societies; that is, they come to know over time what is acceptable in the organization and what is not, how to communicate their feelings, and how to interact with others.

Socialization

is the process through which individuals become social beings. As stud-ed by psychologists, it is the process through which children learn to become adults in a society—how they learn what is acceptable and polite behavior and what is not, how they learn to communicate, how they learn to interact with others, and so on. In complex societies, the socialization process takes many years

Refreezing

makes new behaviors relatively permanent and resistant to further change. Examples of refreezing techniques include repeating newly learned skills in a training session and then role playing to teach how the new skill can be used in a real-life work situation. Refreezing is necessary because without it, the old ways of doing things might soon reassert themselves while the new ways are forgotten.

need for power

or the desire to control and influence others or to be responsible for others

Active conflict management norms

resolve conflict openly

empowerment

sharing power with employees and giving them the authority to make and implement at least some decisions

passive conflict management norms

tend to avoid addressing conflict.