Music Theory
Explain how pitches are defined by the G-clef, the C-clef, and the F-clef.
All clefs indicate the position of a particular pitch on the five-lined staff. The G-clef, the C-clef, and the F-clef are the most common clefs used in modern Western music notation. The G-clef spirals around the second line from the bottom, indicating it as the G line for the G pitch above middle C. The C-clef has a middle point that is placed to indicate the line as middle C. The C-clef can be placed on the third line, which is typically called the alto or viola clef; when it is placed on the fourth line from the bottom, it is typically called the tenor clef. The F-clef looks somewhat like a backwards C with two dots tot he right of it; the top point of the curve is placed on the fourth line from the bottom so that the two dots also surround the same line, indicating it as the F pitch below middle C.
List four to five Italian tempo markings and their relative designations.
The tempo marking adagio comes from the Italian ad ago meaning, "at ease," and is understood to mean a slower tempo than andante, but faster than largo. The tempo marking moderato means "moderately" in Italian, and is a relative tempo designation that is faster than andante, but slower than allegro. The tempo marking presto means "very fast" in Italian, and is generally treated as a very quick tempo, much faster than allegro, and if prestissimo, then as fast as possible. The tempo marking andante means "at a walking pace" in Italian, and is a more ambiguous tempo that can be thought of as faster than adagio but slower than allegro. The tempo marking allegro means "lively, merry" in Italian, and is generally treated as a fast or moderately fast tempo.
Define hemiola.
The term hemiola comes from the Greek meaning "one and a half", also known as the ratio of three to two. Its use in ancient Greek and Latin musical theory referred to the interval of the fifth, as the fifth is mad cup of two strings with lengths of 3:2. The term hemiola also refers to the rhythm of three notes in a space that usually only has two notes, whether in succession or simultaneously. Horizontal hemiola, or a hemiola in succession, refers to a change in note values wheres, for example, three quarter notes follow a measure of two dotted half notes in 6/4 meter. Vertical hemiola, or a hemiola that occurs simultaneously, refers to a rhythmic syncopation where, for example, three quarter notes play over two dotted quarter notes in 6/8 meter. However, music theorists prefer to use the Latin term sesquialtera in cases of vertical hemiola as a more accurate representation of the three-against-two rhythm.
Describe the performance approach of the cadenza in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
A cadenza is described as a section in a large concerto or ensemble work in which the soloist plays without any accompanying instruments. The cadenza may be improvised or written out, but usually occurs at the end of a prominent cadence such as the ending tonic cadence of a movement. The accompanying instruments may pause or play a sustaining note while the soloist continues with the cadenza. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, cadenzas became increasingly virtuosic and included more thematic material from the work. Although still commonly improvised as from early times, cadenzas were also increasingly written out by composers as they integrated more complex and elaborate material. Many cadenzas became prescribed instead of merely optional, and were also placed in increasingly unconventional places within the musical work.
Compare and contrast durational rhythm and tonal rhythm.
A preliminary study (Schachter 1976) put forward that musical rhythm arises through two separate sources, leading to what Schachter calls tonal rhythm and durational rhythms. Durational rhythm is closely tied with meter, and consists of the aspect of rhythm associated with patterns of durations, emphases, and groupings. In contrast, tonal rhythm does not arise from patterns of stress and duration, and is essentially independent of meter. It instead arises from rhythmic properties of the tonal system. Example sources of tonal rhythm include recurrence of a single tone, the octave relationship, chordal and linear associations, consonances, and dissonances. It is important to note that any series of tones will have rhythmic characteristics that will be defined by the relative structural importance of the tones, and that duration and structural importance may be unrelated.
Name all scale degrees and describe how they are usually indicated in musical notation.
A scale degree is an assigned number to the sequential notes of any major or minor scale. Since the Western tonal language is transposable in all keys, this systematic approach to music theory aids comprehensive musical analysis. The pitches of any major or minor scale are numbered 1-7, usually indicated in upper-case Roman numerals for major harmonies and lower-case Roman numerals for minor harmonies as follows: I, ii, iii, IV, V, vi, and viio. Each scale degree is also given a label so that I is the tonic, II is the supertonic, III is the mediant, IV is the subdominant, V is the dominant, VI is the submediant, and VII is the leading tone or the subtonic. The scale degrees in Western tonal music function similarly in the diatonic scale, and conventions can be generalized, such as the stable importance of the tonic or the tendency for the leading tone to progress to the tonic.
Describe a tone cluster and the origin of the term.
A tone cluster is a group of closely spaced notes played simultaneously, usually in intervals of adjacent second and groupings, or "clusters." The term usually refers to stacks of more than two neighboring notes, with three being the minimum. Tone clusters can be diatonic, chromatic, and did-chromatic. For diatonic tone clusters, only neighboring notes in the diatonic key are used. For chromatic tone clusters, notes that are separated by a half-step are used. For dia-chromatic tones clusters, both diatonic second and chromatic notes are used. Tone clusters appeared rarely in music before the 1900s, and were not considered a definite compositional tool until the 1900s. The concept of "tone cluster" was termed by the American composer Henry Cowell (1897-1965) in the 1920s, and appears in compositions by Western classical composers such as Charles Ives, Bela Bartok, Lou Harrison, Henry Cowell, Olivier Messiaen, Karlheinz Stockhausen, and George Crumb, as well as in jazz and popular music.
Order the following by decreasing length of duration and describe each term: staccato, tent, portato, staccatissimo.
Articulation markings can range from those indicating a shortening of pitch duration to those indicating a lengthening of pitch duration. These articulation markings are presented in decreasing order of duration length: tent, portato, staccato, and staccatissimo. Tent, from the Italian word tenure meaning "to hold," direct the player to hold the note for its full value. In musical notation, a horizontal line over or under the not head marks the tent. Potato, from the Italian word portare meaning "to carry," directs the player to smoothly detach the notes similarly to a legato, but shorter in length and longer than a staccato. Both dots and a slur over or under the note heads mark the portato. Staccato, from the Italian word staccare meaning "to detach," directs the player to shortly detach the note. A dot over or under the note head marks the staccato. Staccatissimo is an extremely shortened note and is notated by a wedge or pike above or under the note head.
Compare and contrast binary and rounded binary form.
Binary form refers to the structure of a musical composition with regard to thematic, tonal, dynamic, and textural structure. Binary form consists of two main sections, both repeated. The first section, labeled A, presents the tonic key of the composition. The second section, A', is often labeled B but is more precisely a modified version of A; the musical material of A' is often in the dominant key if the tonic was major, or in the relative major key if the tonic was minor. Simple binary form is considered to be an open form, as neither A nor A' can exist independently. In a rounded binary form, there is a return to the original thematic material of A. Thus, the form can be represented as ABA or AA'A. The initial A section as well as the A' (or B)- A section are both repeated as in simple binary form and should not be confused with ternary form.
List and name all inversions of triads and seventh chords.
Chords are related by inversion if they contain the same pitches with the same root, but have different pitches sounding in the bass. For triads, a chord is considered to be in root position if the root of the chord is the lowest-sounding pitch. A triad is considered to be in first inversion if the third of the chord is the lowest-sounding pitch. A triad is considered to be in second inversion if the fifth of the chord is the lowest-sounding pitch. For example, the root position triad g-b-d becomes b-d-g' in first inversion and d-g'-b' in second inversion. For seventh chords, the classifications are similar except for the addition of a third inversion, indicating that the seventh of the chord is the lowest-sounding pitch. Thus, for the root position seventh chord g-b-d-f, first inversion becomes b-d-f-g', second inversion becomes d-f-g'-b', and third inversion becomes f-g'-b'-d'.
Define the following terms: con amore, con bravura, con brio, con fuoco, con grazia, con tenerezza.
Con, "with," indicates each of these terms as descriptions or instructions of a performer's phrasing. Con amore translates to "with love," and is equivalent to amorevole or amoroso, "lovingly". Con amore may have multiple correlates within the performance style, translating into a legato articulation, rubato, and more dramatic dynamic contrast. Con bravura, similarly, translates to "with bravery" and is a different connotation from bravura as in a bravura performance, which means "skill". Con brio, or arioso, "with spirit"; con fuoco, "with fire"; con grazia "with grace"; con tenerezza, "with tenderness". Each term is somewhat subjective; indeed, it may be difficult to establish a clear distinction between con amore, con tenerezza, and con grazia, for example, and with result in similar interpretations. Con arioso, con fuoco, and con bravura also have many characteristics in common and will differ from an amoroso performance that would have more staccato articulations and limited rubato.
Compare and contrast the natural, melodic, and harmonic minors.
In Western tonal theory, the minor scale is the following pattern of whole and half steps: whole-half-whole-whole-half-whole-whole. The minor scale is similar to the Aeolian mode of the Renaissance era. This minor scale without alterations is termed the natural minor scale, or the pure minor scale. If the minor scale is altered so that the seventh note of the scale is raised by a half step, then it is termed the harmonic minor scale. If the minor scale is altered so that both the sixth and the seventh notes of the scale are raised by a half step in ascending motion, and lowered to the natural minor in the descending motion, then the scale is termed melodic minor scale. These patterns can be applied to any of the 12 pitches to produce the natural, melodic, and harmonic minor scales.
Compare and contrast compound and simple meters.
In both simple and compound meters, the numbers in the meter refer to the subdivision of beats within a musical measure. The number on the top, also known as the numerator, specifies the number of pulses or beats in a measure. The number on the bottom, also known as the denominator, specifies which not-value gets a pulse. For example, in 2/4 meter, there are two beats per measure, with the quarter note receiving each pulse. Simple meters cannot be subdivided into smaller groups and include meters such as 2/4, 4/4, 2/2, 4/2, 5/4, and 3/4. In a compound meter, the number of pulses can be subdivided into groups of three. For example, 6/8 meter has six pulses per measure with the eighth note receiving the pulse, and is thus a compound meter. Other examples of compound meters include 9/8 and 12/8 meters.
Describe the importance of vocal timbre in characterizing different emotions.
In vocal performance, it is important to express the emotion or mood of the music through timbre. Just as vocal expression communicates emotion through regular speech, in music, vocal qualities and inflections help to communicate emotion to the listening audience. As in speech, to communicate emotions like disgust and loathing, the singer uses a darker timbral quality and may include a raspy delivery and harsher consonants. To communicate emotions like hope and assurance, the singer uses a brighter timbral quality with a smooth flowing delivery. To communicate emotions like sorrow and gloom, the singer uses a dark and hollow timbral quality and may include a shaky delivery as in regular speech. To communicate emotions like anger and vengeance, the singer uses an intensified dark timbral quality with sonorous delivery of vowels and consonants.
Describe the different forms of metrical accenting.
Metrical accenting refers to the natural stresses on certain beats of meter. This can be defined by the meter itself or by the style or origin of the musical rhythm. In a simple 3/4 meter, the tendency for a metrical accent falls on the first beat of the measure. However, in certain musical styles, such as the Polish mazurka and other folk dances, the metrical stress may be on the second beat in 3/4 meter. In 4/4 meter, there is naturally a primary stress on the downbeat of the measure, and a secondary, weaker stress on the third beat of the measure. However, in certain jazz and world music, the accents may be on the second and fourth beats for stylistic accuracy. In compound meters such as 6/8, 9/8, and 12/8 time, there is a natural accent on the first of every group of three eighth notes.
Describe the roles of notes, rests, and time signatures as musical symbols for rhythms.
Rhythm is the movement of music over time. As such, certain musical aspects such as pitch duration, silence, and meter play key roles in translating musical symbols to real-time musical rhythm. Pitch durations are notated through note values that sound for a specified time. Whole notes are held through four quarter-note lengths. Half notes are held through two quarter-note lengths. Quarter notes are held for half the length of a half notes. Eighth notes are held for half the length of a quarter note. Sixteenth notes are held for half the length of an eighth note, and so forth. Silence durations are notated through rests, which have note name equivalents, i.e., whole notes and whole rests both have durations of four quarter-note lengths. Meters are essential in establishing rhythm, as meters define the general organization of stresses and pulses.
Describe ternary form.
Ternary form refers to the structure of a musical composition with regard to thematic, tonal, dynamic, and textural structure. Ternary form consists of three main section sin which the first and third sections are nearly identical with a contrasting second section. The first section, labeled A, presents the tonic key of the composition, and returns at the end of the composition in the third section, also labeled A. The middle section, labeled B, is usually in a related key and cadences in the same key or another closely related key before the third section begins. the form can be represented as ABA; in ternary form, sections are not repeated as in a rounded binary form, and the middle section is usually distinctly different: B instead of A'. Ternary form is considered to be a closed form, since all three sections could exist independently.
Define the authentic cadence and its role in tonal music.
The authentic cadence is defined as a dominant sounding harmony resolving to the tonic harmony, notated as V-I or V-i in Western tonal theory. The authentic cadence is considered to be the strongest cadence because of the presence of the supertonic to tonic progression as well as the leading tone-to-tonic progression. In voice leading, these two progressions exhibit the highest tension and release movements within music theory. An authentic cadence can be either perfect or imperfect. A perfect authentic cadence has both the roots of the V and I chords sounding in the bass, and the tonic as the highest-sounding note on the final chord. An imperfect authentic cadence does not involve all the conditions required to be a perfect authentic cadence, and so may not have the tonic sounding in the highest note of the final chord, or may have inverted chords.
Describe the circle of fifths.
The circle of fifths describes the relationships and pattern of major and minor keys from one to the next as they move up or down in fifths. Moving up a fifth from C becomes G; moving up a fifth from G becomes D; and moving up a fifth from D becomes A, etc. The circle of fifths is modeled so that eventually, with enharmonic naming, it goes through all 12 keys back to C. As each key moves along the circle, a sharp or flat is added depending on the direction of the circle. For example, the key of C major has zero flats; moving down a fifth, F major has one flat; moving down another fifth, Bb has two flats, etc. The circle of fifths can be applied to both major keys and to minor keys, and is also useful in determining the degree of relatedness among keys.
Describe the deceptive cadence.
The deceptive cadence is defined as the dominant-sounding harmony progressing to a harmony that defies the expected tonic harmony, most commonly the submediant harmony. The leading tone of the dominant resolves to the tonic of the key, but the tonic pitch acts as either the third or fifth of the chord, instead of the root. The dominant chord in deceptive cadences can progress to the submediant harmony, notated as V-VI or V-vi, or to the subdominant harmony, notated as V-IV or V-iv. The deceptive cadence is an important compositional tool in avoiding an ending, and is useful not only in delaying or prolonging and ending, but also in transitioning to another structural section of music. This cadence is considered to be a weak cadence, as there is little to no sense of resolution in the music. Another name for the deceptive cadence is the interrupted cadence.
List and describe eight to ten bowing techniques.
The detach bowing technique requires the player to detach the notes by playing one note per bow stroke. The nodule technique describes a bow stroke in which the bow plays two adjacent strings like a tremolo. Sautille describes the bouncing of the notes by the middle of the bow that is typically played at a fast tempo. Sul ponticello refers to the use of the bow close to the bridge in which a harsh grating sound is produced. Sul taste refers to the use of the bow over the end of the fingerboard to produce a light airy sound. Martele refers to the abrupt release of a stroke in a forceful manner. Ricochet refers to the rapid bouncing of the upper third of the bow as the player drops the bow on a down-bow. Loure refers to the slight detachment of the notes without changing the directions of the bow. Col legion refers to using the stick of the bow on the strings instead of the hair.
Compare and contrast the terms forzando (z), rinforzando (rinf), and sforzando (sfz).
The dynamic markings forzando (f), rinforzando (rinf), and sforzando (sfz) all refer to an increased loudness in sound. All three Italian directives have roots from the Italian word forsake, which means "to force." Forzando, meaning forced, directs the musician to strongly accent the notes over which the marking occurs. Rinforzando, however, has an added prefix and means more precisely "reinforcing" or "strengthening." The Rinf. dynamic marking usually refers to the increase in volume of a group of notes throughout a phrase and is played increasingly louder similarly to a crest. but over a shorter length of time. Sforzando is most similar to forzando, and the two terms can be interchanged to mean a sudden increase in loudness of the note or notes over which the marking occurs.
Describe the difference between a tonal and real answer to a fugal subject.
The fugue is a form of imitative counterpoint in which a fugue theme is introduced at the beginning of the work, also known as the exposition, and is echoed in all of the fugal voices though imitation and development. The term fugue comes from the Latin fugue meaning "to flee," as each voice essentially chases the previous voice. The initial subject is called the leader, or due, and is presented in the tonic key. The due is usually followed by the comes, the companion answer in the dominant key, which can be presented in one of two ways: real or tonal. In a real answer to a fugal subject, the theme is transposed exactly note to note in the dominant key. In a tonal answer to a fugal subject, the theme is transposed loosely in the dominant key, modified so as to maintain harmonic congruity or to facilitate modulations.
Describe the half cadence.
The half cadence is defined as any harmony progressing to a dominant harmony. the preceding harmony can be the tonic, subdominant, supertonic, or any other harmony. A common half cadence is the tonic in second inversion resolving to the dominant, notated as I64-- V in Western tonal theory. This particular half cadence is known as the cadential tonic six-four, and shares the bass note from the six-four chord with the resulting dominant chord. Oftentimes, the cadential tonic six-four progression occurs at the end of the first section in a two-part or binary piece of music. Other types of half cadences include the Phrygian half cadence, in which a first inversion subdominant chord proceeds to the dominant similarly in the Phrygian mode, and the Lydian half cadence, in which a first inversion subdominant chord is raised by a half step and the resolved to the dominant.
Define the plagal cadence and its common usage in Protestant hymns.
The plagal cadence is defined as the subdominant sounding harmony resolving to the tonic harmony, notated as IV-I or iv-i in Western tonal theory. Since there is the absence of a leading tone resolution in a plagal cadence, it is not considered as final or as strong of a cadence as the authentic cadence. Oftentimes, the plagal cadence is found as an extension of an authentic cadence, embellishing the final tonic through the neighboring notes of the third and fourth scale degrees, and of the fifth and sixth scale degrees. The plagal cadence is a common ending to many Protestant hymns, and is also known as the amen cadence, as the cadence is set to the word amen. The plagal cadence is so closely associated with Protestant hymns that some composers have used the IV-I progression as and allusion to its sacred usage.
Describe monophy, homophony, polyphony, and heterophony.
The term monophy refers to the texture of any music that is made up of a single melodic line. The melodic line can be performed by a solo musician or by a group of musicians. Examples include plainchant, minnesinger, Meistersinger, and troubadour music. The term homophony refers to the texture of any music that is made up of a main melodic line over a supporting accompaniment, Examples include most rock, pop, country, and jazz music. The term polyphony refers to the texture of any music that is made up of many equally important melodic lines. Examples include much of Renaissance and Baroque music. The term heterophony refers to the texture of any music that is made up of multiple improvised interpretations of the same melody played at the same time. Heterophony mostly occurs in non-Western music cultures such as those East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East.
Define equal- and unequal- voice polyphony.
The term polyphony refers to the texture of any music that is made up of many equally important melodic lines. Examples include much of Renaissance and Baroque music. Wishing polyphony, there exists equal-and unequal- voice polyphony. Equal-voice polyphony refers to polyphony that maintains the same thematic material in all the individual voices. A prime example of equal-voice polyphony is the canon, in which the exact same melodic material enters sequentially after a uniform time interval. Other examples of equal-voice polyphony include fugues, inventions, and other forms of imitation. Unequal-voice polyphony refers to polyphony in which greater importance is given to one or more melodic lines. Examples of unequal-voice polyphony include Medieval-era cactus firms compositions that give musical precedence to the cactus firms, usually sung or played in the tenor voice.
Define the following terms: affretando, slentando, allargando, calando.
The terms affretando, slentando, allargando, and calando all direct the musician to produce a change in tempo. Affretando comes from the Italian word affretare, which means "to hurry." When notated within musical notation, affretando indicates a quickening of the tempo and also a character or mood of agitation. Slentando means comes from the Italian word slentare, which means "to slow down." The player should gradually decrease the tempo of the section as the music slows down. Allargando comes from the Italian word allargare, which means "to widen." In music, the player should gradually decrease the tempo in a deliberate and imposing character. Calando comes from the Italian word caller, which means to "to let down." Musically, the player should gradually decrease both the tempo and the volume, as calando indicates a mood of calming and dying away.
Describe imperfect and perfect cadences.
The terms imperfect and perfect cadences apply to the authentic and plagal cadences. An authentic or plagal cadence classifies as perfect if both of the chords are in root position and the tonic pitch sounds in the highest voice. An authentic or plagal cadence classifies as imperfect if either of the chords are in an inversion and/or the tonic pitch does not sound in the highest voice. An example of a perfect authentic cadence is the progression V-I with the tonic of the last chord sounding in the highest voice. An example of an imperfect authentic cadence is the progression V6-I. An example of a perfect plagal cadence is the progression IV-I with the tonic of the last chord sounding in the highest voice. An example of an imperfect plagal cadence is the IV-I progression in which the last chord odes not contain the tonic in the highest-sounding voice.
Compare and contrast the whole tone scale and the chromatic scale.
The whole tone scale is a scale in which every pitch is separated by a whole step. Within Western musical tonality, there are two different whole tone scales, each made up of six pitches. The whole tone scale can be either C-D-E-F#-G#-A# or C#-D#-F-G-A-B. The chromatic scale, on the other hand, is a scale in which every pitch is separated by a half step. Within Western musical tonality, the chromatic scale includes all 12 pitches of an octave. Both the whole tone scale and the chromatic scale lack a clear tonal center, as either of the scales could start on any key without any definite hierarchy to the pattern, However, composers tend to use the chromatic scale as a tool to increase complexity, while the whole tone scale is a useful tool to give a feeling of vague spaciousness.
Order the following from slowest to fastest and define each term: presto, larghissimo, andante, largo, vivace, larghetto, moderato, allegro.
These tempo markings in order from slowest to fastest are: larghissimo, largo, larghetto, andante, moderato, allegro, vivace, and presto. Larghissimo comes from the Italian means "very or extremely broad" and should be played very slowly. Largo comes from the Italian meaning "broad" and should be played slowly. Larghetto is slightly faster than largo. Andante comes from the Italian meaning "in a walking manner" and should be played slightly faster than adagio, but slower than moderato. Moderato comes from the Italian meaning "moderately" and should be played at an easy comfortable pace. Allegro comes from the Italian meaning "fast" and should be played at a quick tempo. Viviane comes from the Italian meaning "lively" and should be played faster than allegro but slower than presto. Presto comes from the Italian meaning "very fast" and should be played very quickly.
Describe 12-tone music and its origin.
Twelve-tone music is a system of musical theory in which a composition is based on a serial ordering of all 12 pitches that stipulates the sequence in which those 12 pitches should appear in the composition. The 12-tone system of music arose as a result of the growing disdain for traditional tonal music. This theory of composition became a way for music to be planned in an abstract manner, into a serial row that establishes the pitch structure of the resulting composition. Rows can be manipulated throughout the composition through retrograde, inversion, or retrograde-inversion. The rows can also be transposed to start on a different pitch wherein the same intervallic relationship of the row is kept intact. Arnold Schoenberg, a leading Austrian composer of the Second Viennese School, began to develop this theory of composition in the early 1920s and continued to compose 12-tone music throughout the twentieth century.
