Next Step Exams

Content Foundations: Oxidative Phosphorylation

-Final major process of aerobic respiration is oxidative phosphorylation , through which majority of aerobically - derived ATP -process begins by passing electrons through series of chemical rxns, known as ETC to a final electron acceptor, oxygen - ONLY time in eukaryotic aerobic respiration where oxygen is directly required. These rxn take place in specialized proteins where the energy from NADH and FADH2 is used up, molecular oxygen reduced into water, and approx 30-36 ATP from ADP and Pi - ETC : use free oxygen as the final electron acceptor of electrons removed from NADH and FADH2 formed in glycolysis and Kreb Cycle(CAC). -ETC: 4 complexes embedded in inner mito membrane and 2 small e- carriers shuttling electrons between them. Electrons are released from NADH and FADH2 through series of reactions . -In ETC: energy released from series of electron transfers is used to pump H+ across membrane. The unequal concentration of H ions across membrane establish electrochemical gradient, leading to chemiosmosis, or passive diffusion of protons down c. gradient , which is coupled to ATP synthase. -This proton movement generates 90% of the ATP synthesized during oxidative phosphorylation. The electrons passing through the electron transport chain gradually lose energy until eventually they are donated to O2, which accepts two H+ ions and is transformed into water. If the proton gradient is disrupted or destroyed, chemiosmosis can become uncoupled from the ETC, resulting in little to no ATP generation despite the transfer of electrons carrying on.

Electron transport chain BB 12-14

-e- are passed from carriers w/ lower reduc potential to -higher reduc potential -C1 is a proton pump -the e- carriers can carry a max of 2 electrons ETC reasoning NS BB 12 CYTO C ; water soluble protein ( e- carrier)

Prisoner's Dilemma

-standard example from psychological game theory that shows why two completely "rational" individuals might not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interests to do so.

2.4 x 10^-4 C= NS 44: net charge NS 47: naming NS 48: in contrast, water molecules will not be able to hydrogen-bond effectively with nonpolar residues, and as a result will form a highly-ordered solvation shell to minimize interactions with those residues. This highly-ordered shell represents a decrease in entropy, which is energetically unfavorable(-delta S) NS 49

0.24 x 10^-3 left add , right substract NS 49: in acidic environment, NH3 will dissolve into its CA( NH4+)

760mmHg=

1 atm = 760 torr= 760mmHg=101.3kPa or 10^5Pa= 14.1psi

triglyceride

1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids NS 31 Saponification is a special case of acid-base chemistry involving carboxylic acids (Latin sapo means "soap," so this literally means something like "soapification"). Under basic conditions (e.g., when mixed with NaOH or KOH), carboxylic acids are deprotonated and their conjugate bases form salts, according to the following template: RCOOH + Na+ + OH? ? RCOO?Na+ + H2O. The acid-base chemistry of this process is straightforward, although it is worth noting that the process can be combined with the base-catalyzed hydrolysis of a triglyceride containing three fatty acid chains. As such, saponification is mostly of note for historical interest and because its wide range of applications opens the door for it to be introduced as a way of testing organic chemistry and general chemistry principles in a passage on Test Day.

1M

1 mol/L ex: 1.5 M= 1.5 mol/L 1) find mole ratio 2) then find what asked in ?

Kubler-Ross stages of dying

1. Denial 2. Anger 3. Bargaining 4. Depression 5. Acceptance Death always brings definite acceptance

NS #10 BB/ 12/ 13

10) phagocytose= damage 12) INTEGRIN : transmembrane receptors that modulate cell- to- extracellular matrix interactions. These proteins often attach the cell to collagen and fibronectin fibers. 13) macrophages: found in blood are derived from monocytes that originate in bone marrow , while macrophages in the tissues may be derived from embryonic yolk-sac collagen:primary component in connective tissue such as tendons, cartilage, and blood vessels. dynenin: motor proteins that moves cellular" cargo" along microtubule " train tracks"

Work

1J=1 N.m=1kg.m^2/s^2 W=fdcostheta or W=P delta V ( under graph of pressure - volume )

The -OH group of carboxylic acids can be replaced by other functional groups to form carboxylic acid derivatives, the most notable are amides (R(C=O)NR'R''), esters (R(C=O)OR'), acid anhydrides (R(C=O)O(C=O)R'), and acid halides (R(C=O)X), in increasing order of reactivity. T/F

TRUE

Cannon-Bard Theory

The proposition that emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously and independently

Noncompetive, competitve, and uncompetitive

These three types of inhibition are considered reversible, because the inhibitor can dissociate from the enzyme or enzyme-substrate complex Noncompetitive inhibition is when the inhibitor does not compete with the substrate for the active site, but reduces enzyme activity by binding to another site (the allosteric site) on the enzyme. In noncompetitive inhibition, the inhibitor can combine with either the enzyme or the enzyme-substrate complex. The effects of an uncompetitive inhibitor cannot be overcome by increasing substrate concentration.

T/F acids are most soluble in basic solution and vice versa.

True In most cases, the solubility of ionic substances in water increases with temperature, while the opposite pattern is observed for gases. This is because higher temperatures provide gases with more kinetic energy that they can use to escape the solution. Additionally, pressure favors the solubility of gases.

Dipeptide

Two amino acids bonded together

NS 56

WATCH YOUR UNITS

EXPERIMENTS NS 49

Within MCAT psychology, you should be familiar with several key individuals (mostly psychologists) and psychological experiments. Rather than simply memorizing a long list of names, try to focus on the larger takeaways: what psychological concepts did the individual propose or build upon, and what are the key takeaways from each experiment's results? These researchers and experiments are outlined below. Sigmund Freud, the "father of psychoanalysis," developed well-known theories focused on unconscious desires. Freud's work centered around his ideas of the id (one's largely unconscious set of primal urges), superego (one's sense of moral purpose), and ego (the logic-based, more conscious balance between the two). Freud put his theories into practice in psychoanalytic therapy, a process in which a psychologist or other therapist converses with a patient one-on-one to address certain mental or emotional issues. American psychologist B. F. Skinner was an early behaviorist, meaning that he systematically studied behavior in conjunction with other factors (environmental, motivational, etc.). Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning, where he used a device called a "Skinner box" to study the effects of rewards and punishments on behavior. Psychologist Gordon Allport is known for his studies of personality, where he outlined a form of trait theory that included three basic types of traits: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. Cardinal traits are those around which people organize their entire lives. In contrast, central traits are defining characteristics of a person that can be easily inferred from that person's behavior. Finally, secondary traits are those that only occur sometimes, particularly when a person is in a certain social situation. John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment involved the use of classical conditioning and stimulus generalization to cause a healthy young boy to fear furry animals and objects. Solomon Asch's conformity experiment demonstrated that individuals often conform to a group view, even when the group view differs from a clearly correct answer. Asch used a task in which a participant, along with several of Asch's confederates, were told to judge the relative lengths of drawn lines. The confederates would give a clearly-incorrect opinion regarding which line was shorter or longer, causing the participant (who did not know that the others in the room were "in on it") to conform to this incorrect view in some cases. Albert Bandura, a social cognitive psychologist, famously conducted his "Bobo doll" experiments, which showed that children can display observational learning for aggressive behavior when they watch adults exhibit such behavior. Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment focused on the effects of power and authority on individuals. Participants designated as "guards" were given power over participants designated as "prisoners," and over time, the guards began to exhibit progressively more abusive and problematic behavior. Milgram's electric shock experiment also relates to authority. This experiment indicated that participants were willing to administer painful stimuli to others if instructed to do so by an authority figure. In reality, the "others" in the study were actors who were simply pretending to be shocked. Abraham Maslow famously developed Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a schematic of human needs in order from the most basic (food, water, etc.) to the most high-level (self-actualization). Hans Eysenck studied personality with a strong focus on the biological perspective, which considers personality differences to be the result of biological factors. Harry Harlow examined parent/child attachment, social isolation, and dependency in rhesus monkeys. Finally, Muzafer Sharif's Robber's Cave experiment examined the intergroup conflicts that arise in response to competition over limited resources.

principle of conservation of energy

Wnet=KEf-KEi

gender dysphoria

a condition listed in the DSM-5 in which people whose gender at birth is contrary to the one they identify with. This condition replaces "gender identity disorder"

within-subjects design

a research design that uses each participant as his or her own control; for example, the behavior of an experimental participant before receiving treatment might be compared to his or her behavior after receiving treatment 1) increased power ( # of subject increase, statistical power increase) 2)reduction in error variance associated w/ individual differences. It is better to have more subjects . A w/n subject of 45 = a between subject of 90

Kinematics Formula

a=v/t Vav=d/t Vav=Vf+Vi/2 d=vit+at^2/2 Vf^2=vi^2+2ad d=Vav x t

furan

aromatic heterocycle look at reasoning 6 pi electrons ( with lone pairs )

conflict theory

bias and inequality individuals compete w/ each other in society over limited resources certain corporations goes to the top groups can also come together

cleavage

breakdown/division NS #11 (make sure graph all variables involved!1)

T/F: eluted proteins are best neutralized immediately

by add of alkaline buffers(NOT high pH) neutralization= acid + base >salt + water can be thought as of neutralization DO NOT ALWAYS result in a solution of neutral pH NacidVacid=NbaseVbase monoprotic: normality and molarity are equal . moles acid=moles base polyprotic: moles H+=moles OH-

NS CP 4

calculation error ( if formula is in the passage, MOST likely you will use it!!!!!)

sympathetic nervous system

causes the adrenal medulla to release epinephrine , tigger fight or flight

A1v1=A2v2

closed system flow rate of liquid constant, inverse relationship

gap junctions

cytoskeleton of one cell physically connect to connexons, which then physically link cytoskeleton of next cell.

Doppler sound

decrease in frequency, decrease in pitch of a sound speed of sound: solid>liquid>gas sound is made up of longitudinal/compressive waves. sound speed increase w/ temperature

Androgyny

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics

small intestine

duodenum illeum jejum chyme >duodenum>neutalized by bicarbonate>2 functions: chemical digestion(enzyme breakdown) and absorption 1st function) completed by trypsin, pancreatic amylase, bile 2nd function) brush border enzymes

solid >liquid>gas

endothermic gas have more heat energy than liquid and so on consume heat

creativity

flexibility

hypothalamus

food, fever, fun, fornicate(sex) thirst

gall bladder vs skeletal muscle

gall bladder= automatic control, sectretion, digestion skeletal=somatic control

operant conditioning

give reward or punishment AFTER completion of desired behavior ex . Present a reward after participants rate the stimuli and then have them rate the stimuli again.

smaller Ic50

greater cytotoxic effects

The decay of a substance can be calculated by knowing its

half life , Another high-yield fundamental concept is half-life (t1/2), which is the time required for one-half of the parent isotopes in a sample to decay into daughter (radiogenic) isotopes.

7 universal emotions

happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, anger

NS 29) MORE soluble

higher polarity in aqueous solution

LH

hormone produced by gonadotropic cell in anterior pituitary glands. In females, an acute rise of LH triggers ovulation and development of corpus luteum. in males, LH stimulate Leydig cells to produce testosterone

If molecules are charged

hydrophilic / polar

Indicators

identify color change that an expected pH and thus titration endpoint, has been reached. MUST UNDERGO A COLOR CHANGE NEAR DESIRED pH due to the reversible change in the protonation state of the indicator pKa of indicator be within +/-1 unit of target pH for example : weak acid ( acetic acid) with strong base ( NaOH) , titration endpoint will be >7

Seperation techniques

if all are liquids: one may be able for distillation , aim to seperate liquid by differ in BP liquid w/ lower BP to begin to vaporize, and its vapor will travel up the column and recondense to fall into receiving flask. Eventual result :receiving flask rich in lower BP / distill flask in higher BP -IF BP are very high, a vacuum may also be used to lower atmospheric pressure, which lowers boiling point

NS #12

in vivo= in the living conditions found inside living human body

increase Ka

increase acidity add more EWG/ closer to acid: provides inductive effect of c base by pull e- density away from (-) charged position

increase products

increase downstream decrease reactants NS 32 Kreb Cycle (LOOK @ REASONING)

atomic radius

increase from R to L dec from L to R increase down column cations<neutral<anions

many forms of chromatography NS 28

increasing the column length will enhance resolution of the column , leading to more complete fraction . NS explanation

To compare the percent of people experiencing crime in an area with the percent of people perceiving crime to be a problem,

independent samples t- test is conducted when a researchers wish to compare mean values of two groups OTHER INFO paired sample t test= results come from the SAME participants linear regression= predict scores from independent variables Pearson correlation coefficient= association between 2 variables NS # 24 REASONING

stimulus motives

innate but not necessary for survival ex. curiosity

intergenerational vs intragenerational mobility vs social reproduction

intragenerational= change in social class w/n one lifetime. intergenerational mobility= upward or downward movement in social class between 2 or more generations

peptide hormone

is stored in secretory granules until needed to be secreted in response to declining plasma concentration transported to target tissues, where it binds to cell receptors and a 2nd messenger cascade

NS 36 NS 37) TOUGH

know functional group 2 carbonyl bound to nitrogen= imide

hippcampus

limbic system memory

NS 13 :

look @ research findings

attenuation

loss of signal sound energy is attenuated as it pass through the body b/c the signals are reflected, scattered, absorbed, refracted or diffracted.

Has a higher infant mortality rate and a higher fertility rate

lower quality of life

NS 14) Phagocytosis in macrophages occur after

macrophage has identified its target via antigen receptors. W/O antigen receptor, macrophage is blind to pathogens. Antigen-antibody interactions are also used in many biotechnology-related applications, most notably western blotting, in which antibodies are used to visualize proteins of interest after gel electrophoresis. same reasoning

Mechanical power

measurement of work /time (J/s, also known as Watts) via work-energy theroem Work=deltaKE=KEf-KEi power= deltaKE/time ; KE=1/2mv^2

average NS 59

median

identity moratorium

midst of identity crisis, seeking changing identity

NS 34 MEMBRANE BOUND = not associated w/ membrane

mitochondria PICTURE reasoning

molarity

mol x L

why is p53 most important protein regulator of DNA repair to have been rediscovered?

more human tumor can be traced to a mutation in p53 protein gene than in any other protein

Isoelectric point on graph

net charge of aa is 0 or carboxylate is deprotonated ( have a negative charge)but the amine group will be protonated ( in its ammonium form w/ a positive charge)

NS PS 11(POE)

neuron potentation= LT potentation strengthening of synapse w/ repeated use over time surround suppression= perceiving tactile info while ignoring stimuli surrounding it. (ex: mistake B as D) afferent perception= carry signals from periphery of body toward CNS/ property of tactile perception proprioception: perception of positioning of one's own body parts in space

High Rf

nonpolar

Majority of air molecules are

nonpolar

is carbon dioxide polar or nonpolar

nonpolar( more alkanes and EN < 0.5)acet

taboo

official reward( tangible support, etc) or punishment

Assimilation

one seek to interact w/ new culture and reject the native culture

a lower rate

parasympathetic nervous system digestion is promoted by parasympathetic response including urination/defecation greater secretion of fluids(heartburn)

What is the end purpose of oxidative phosphorylation?

phosphorylate ADP into ATP VERY LAST STEP IS ATP synthase : allow proton to move down electrochem gradient while form ATP

Le Chatlier

physiological pH @ 7.4 , thus 8.2 represent increase in pH -bicarbonate buffer system -Le Chatelier: decrease in products will cause equilibrium to shift to right -inc respiratory rate will cause excess CO2: rightward shift will cause a drop in H+ conc, and thus, increase pH H2CO3= conjugate base of HCO3- buffer resist pH change when pH values are near or = pkA optimal unit of pH would be 1 pH unit from pKA

8.3 x 10^-4

pka= 4-0.83=3.1 The smaller the pKa value, the stronger the acid (since as X increases, pX decreases).

positive control vs negative control

positive control- a control group that is not exposed to the experimental treatment but that is exposed to some other treatment that is known to produce the expected effect. negative control- a control group that is NOT exposed to the experimental treatment OR to any other treatment that is expected to have an effect.

Cancer

rapid, uncontrolled growth thymidine : a nucleotide base - enzyme that has a key role in DNA synthesis and in cell division.

sanction

reinforce norms formal= stated informal= not stated/ clear

Mitosis and M2

seperate sister chromatids

mood regulation

serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine monoamines deficiences in any of them play a role in development of mood disorders. Serotonin- antidepressant and aim to increase concentration of neurotransmitter in synapse

sound travel fastest in

solid sound velocity is given by v =square root of (k/p) k= coefficient of the bulk modulus density = p speed of sound increases as with stiffness solid : MOST stiff than liquid and esp gases, therefore move fastest through them. density have an inverse relationship to sound velocity

steroid and amine hormone vs neurotransmitter

steroid and amine hormone = secreted from glands and NOT neurons neurotransmitter= arise from neurons

NS 28)The smaller the pkb the _____ the base

stronger( add more EDG due to inductive effect: increase electron density to act as Lewis base ) same as acid

3 types of personality assessments

subjective personality assessment: patients project their own subjective feelings, perception, and thoughts on assessment stimuli , yield results for inaccuracy. objective personality assessment: specific personality characteristics based on a set of discrete options projective personality assessment:require one to respond and their response to meaning

tactile perception

the ability to recognize touch sensation LOOK @ NS 25 reasoning

EM waves

transverse waves that can propgate through vacuum as well as air and water. EM waves have BOTH electrical and magnetic components w/ amplitudes perpendicular to each other and to the direction in which wave is propagating

formula for uniform circular motion

v=2pir/T

social-cognitve perspective

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.

Buffer

within 1 unit of pkA pH= 9.7 ( example : 9.3 will be better) +/-1 ph unit

P delta V

work=Pdelta V

Le chatleier pressure

would move more to less moles

Isoelectronic #46 ?(brutal)

zwitterion pH=pKa pka-Ph

NS 40-43

43( LOOK AT)

adenosine

5 C sugar ( ribose or deoxyribose)/ NO phosphate composed of nitrogenous base For adenosine, the nitrogenous base is adenine, while the 5 C sugar is ribose ( presence of both a 2' and 3' hydroxyl group)

NS 51 -53CALCULATIONS

53) LOOK @ UNITS / UNIT CONVERSION PROBLEM AND A TABLE

CUT:1 RING STRUCTURE

A AND G: 2 RING STRUCTURE

general paresis

A psychosis arising from an advanced stage of syphilis, in which the disease attacks brain cells

large intestine

ABSORPTION NOT DIGESTION HAVE LARGE AMOUNT OF WATER AND TRANSITION WATERY INTO FECES GUT MICROBIOTA

Broca vs Wernicke area

Broca= located in front lobe of the dominant ( usually the left) hemisphere and is responsible for speech production (physical production) Broca aphasia= weaken the ability to speak, trouble producing words, although their comprehension is undamaged, and may be able to read to others normally Wernicke area= left temporal lobe and is responsible for speech comprehension / written language Wernicke aphasia: people can still speak and do so @ great length, cant produce intelligble spech, not with sounds that make up words BOTH can result from stroke

Histones are not enzymes but they are proteins post transcriptional are made to mRNA)( ONLY IN NUCLEUS), but post translational can be made to enzymes and to proteins that lack enzyme function protein modifications are post- translational modifications ( cytoplasm or interior of endoplasmic reticulum)

Content Foundations: RNA Transcription The process of going from DNA to RNA—more specifically, messenger RNA (mRNA)—is called transcription. Transcription takes place in the nucleus, and it results in the creation of an mRNA copy of a gene that can then be transported to the cytosol for translation into a protein. The DNA helix must be unzipped for transcription to take place, which means that some of the same machinery used for DNA replication has to be engaged, especially enzymes like helicase and topoisomerase. RNA polymerase is the enzyme responsible for RNA synthesis. In eukaryotes, it binds to a promoter region upstream of the start codon with the assistance of transcription factors, the most important of which is the TATA box. RNA polymerase travels along the template strand in the 3'-5' direction, synthesizing an antiparallel complement in the 5'-3' direction. The template strand is known as the antisense strand, and the opposite strand is known as the sense strand, because it corresponds to the codons on the mRNA that is eventually exported to the cytosol for translation. The immediate product of transcription in eukaryotes is not mRNA, but heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA). hnRNA must undergo a set of post-transcriptional modifications( site of catalysis by enzyme) to become mRNA. Examples commonly tested on the MCAT include the 3' poly-A tail by poly A polymerase( add of parts of substrate) , the 5' cap( add of parts of substrate) , and splicing( removal of parts of substrate) . The 3' poly-A tail is a string of approximately 250 adenine (A) nucleotides added to the 3' end of an hnRNA transcript to protect the eventual mRNA transcript against rapid degradation in the cytosol. The 5' cap refers to a 7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap placed on the 5' end of an hnRNA transcript. Similarly to the 3' poly-A tail, it helps prevent the transcript from being degraded too quickly in the cytosol, but it also prepares the RNA complex for export from the nucleus. In splicing, noncoding sequences (introns) are removed and coding sequences (exons) are ligated together. (Remember that exons are expressed). Each gene normally has multiple distinct exons that can be ligated in different combinations; that is, if a gene had a set of four exons named A, B, C, and D, possible alternate splicing combinations could include ABCD, ABC, ACD, ABD, BCD, and so on. This dramatically increases the amount of different, but related proteins that can be expressed from a single gene. Splicing explains why there are over 200,000 proteins in the human body, but only approximately 20,000 genes. Splicing is carried out by the spliceosome, a combination of small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) and protein complexes.

NS 4 -7 ( graph analysis/ 6 and 7: look at reasoning )

DNA methyltransferase: an enzyme responsible for catalyzing the methylation ( and therefore silencing) of DNA. if inhibited, less methylation

NS 45

DNA replication notes

Example E=Mm/Me Y=E/Atspin

E and Y is proportional

Protectionism

Economic policy of shielding an economy from imports. opposite of globalization globalization inc = inc trade, internet, corporations

FPOT - Frontal, parietal, occipital temporal

Frontal: Broca area / cognitive skills:emotion expression,judgement, problem solving and sex behavior parietal: somatosensory cortex: touch, temp, pain occipital: straite cortex/ see temporal: sound , emotion and memory . Weirncke area

NS 33 CALCULATIONS (TOUGH)/ NS 34( UNITS)/ 35 (38% got right)

HAD RIGHT TO WRONG ANSWER BUT THIS IS HARD EFFICIENCY = WORK OUTPUT/WORK INPUT

NS 23

Intermolecular forces salt bridges: it must be ionized

NS 50

LOOK @ REASONING

NS 52-53/ 55-56/59

LOOK @ REASONING

NS 51-57

MY MISTAKE P50: look at x axis 52:? look at it again 53: look at graph( brutal) 56: hydrogen peroxide : H2O2 57) perichloric acid; STRONG ACID

Azide

N3-

NS 47

PICTURE AND REASONING OF ID, EGO, SUPEREGO ALL UNSCONSCIOUS EGO : COMES FROM ID , SUPEREGO FROM GEO, ETC......

NS BB 23)

POE change right to wrong

DNA sequences that are common among different species

conserved sequences code for vital function and similar between disparate species.

organic compound

carbon and hydrogen in its formula there must be a covalent bond between a carbon and hydrogen organic acid are weak acid ( R-COOH), w/ acidic hydrogen bonded to oxygen atom

NS 3 CP 1

enthalpy= heat energy in system ( Hess Law= H products- H reactants) entropy-energy in a closed system that is unavailable to do work -BOTH ARE STATE FUNCTION/ INCREASE W/ TEMP AND AS MATERIAL CHANGE FRO S>>L>>G -R> P : overall enthalpy change is the same whether it is done as 1 or multiple steps 3rd law of thermodynamics = ABSOLUTE entropy not absolute enthalpy ( apporach 0 as temp goes to 0 K) ENTROPY -inc when more gas molecules / moles -inc when solid or liquid is dissolved in solvent -inc when solubility of gas decreases and it escapes from solvent -inc as molec complexity increase due to movement of e-

NS 25( TOUGH)

enzyme activity :depend principally on enzyme intrinsic catalytic efficiency, its concentration, the initial substrate concentration, the presence of inhibitors or allosteric activators, temp and pH

Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution

good nucleophile( nucleophilicty) 1) solvent-in polar protic solvent, Nu ability increase as down as a group but APROTIC: increase going up 2) - charge make good Nu.( ex: conjugate base) 3)steric, hindrier Nu (act make a weak Nu) 4) EN increases, Nu ability decrease MORE LONE, MORE CHARGE, LACK STERIC HINDRANCE

NS CP 7

graph analysis

Melting point

temperature when the first crystal starts to melt and the temp when the compound is entirely melted. Pure compound: melting point range is narrow impurities broaden and lowers the range !!!!

Raised by ethical committee (NS 5 : 23% correct)

unacceptable if has NOT given informed consent and the danger of withholding medication outweighs the potential benefits of the study. administer potentially harmful medication to healthy volunteers is a common practice in research. necessary medication is denied to sick patients

NS 17

understand my mistake

ATP is not required for reactions that are

delta G less than 0. ATP could be produced

0.1 M HCL notation

1 * 10^-1 M -log( 1 x 10^-1) = 14-1=13 pH+pOH=pKw pkW= (H30+)(OH-)= 1 x 10^-14 @ 25 C

chirality

2 ^n exclude meso compounds:, which are molecules w/ multiple steroecenters and have internal plane of symmetry that allows their mirror images to be superimposable chiral compounds rotate planes of polarized light= specific rotation clockwise (+) = d CCW(-)= l can be calulated as =a/cl a= observed rotation c=concentraion in g/mL l= length L are most of aa D isomers occur in nature ASSIGN NUMBER : BY HIGHEST ATOMIC # TO LOWEST 4 DIFFER COMPOUNDS

31) amphiprotic

A species that can either accept or donate a proton. There are three main definitions of acids and bases: the Arrhenius definition, the Brønsted-Lowry definition, and the Lewis definition. The Brønsted-Lowry definition is the most commonly used on the MCAT, while the Lewis definition is the broadest. In the Arrhenius definition of acids and bases, which was historically the earliest, acids are defined as substances that dissociate in a manner that increases the concentration of protons (H+ ions) in solution, while the dissociation of a base increases the concentration of hydroxide (OH-) ions. In contrast, the Brønsted-Lowry definition of an acid is a proton donor, like the Arrhenius definition, while a Brønsted-Lowry base is a proton acceptor, or any compound that can gain a bond to H+, such as NH3, which is not an Arrhenius base. In the Lewis definition, acids are electron acceptors, while bases are electron donors; thus, a substance like BF3 can be considered a Lewis acid when it reacts with NH3. (This provides us with a nice first-letter mnemonic: acids are acceptors of electrons.) Amphoteric (or amphiprotic) compounds can act as either an acid or a base, depending on the other reactants present. Additionally, some compounds may have multiple H atoms that can participate in acid-base chemistry. Such substances are known as polyprotic acids.

NS 54 : continuity equation

A1V1=A2V2 V increases, cross sectional decrease Increase velocity decrease pressure. If the pressure inside the artery drop far enough, it may fall below pressure outside artery, cause it to collapse from external pressure. Fluid dynamics refers to the study of fluid flow, and it is highly important on the MCAT due to its relevance to blood flow. All liquids can flow, but some do so more easily than others. Resistance to flow—or more technically, resistance to deformation by shear stress—is known as viscosity. For the sake of the MCAT, viscosity can typically be considered negligible; additionally, fluids should be assumed to be incompressible, meaning that they have fixed volumes. The term laminar flow is used to describe scenarios in which a flowing fluid is composed of parallel layers that may be moving at different velocities. In a nutshell, laminar flow corresponds to smooth, well-behaved flow that is easy to model. In contrast, in turbulent flow, the smoothly regulated layers of laminar flow break down. Poiseuille's law is used to describe laminar flow of incompressible fluids through a long cylindrical tube. Poiseuille's law contains five variables: the flow rate (Q), the pressure drop between both ends of the tube (ΔP), the radius of the tube (r), the length of the tube (L), and the viscosity (η). It can be written in two equivalent forms, both of which are given below: Q=pir^4/8nL P= 8nlQ/pir^4 The MCAT will typically not ask you to perform detailed calculations using Poiseuille's law; instead, it will focus on the relationships involved, such as the fact that flow rate is directly proportional to radius to the fourth power. Another equation, known as Bernoulli's equation, is similar in that the relationships it denotes are more important to understand than the exact numerical calculations associated with it. Bernoulli's equation is essentially conservation of energy for fluids, and is given below: P1 + ½ ρv12 + ρgh1 = P2 + ½ ρv22 + ρgh2 Here, the term that includes velocity (v) is analogous to the kinetic energy of the fluid, while the term that includes height (h) is analogous to the fluid's potential energy. The remaining term is pressure (P). Importantly, this equation indicates that when height is constant (as in a horizontal pipe system), an increase in velocity corresponds to a decrease in pressure, and vice versa. A final important relationship is given by the continuity equation (v1A1 = v2A2). This equation states that within a closed system, the flow rate of a liquid is constant, which indicates that the velocity of the fluid (v) is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area that it is flowing through.

50) Type of inheritance

Alleles, or variants of genes, can be described as dominant or recessive. For dominant alleles, only one copy is necessary for its associated phenotype to be expressed, meaning that heterozygous individuals express the dominant phenotype. For recessive alleles, both alleles must be recessive for the phenotype in question to be expressed, meaning that heterozygous individuals do not express the phenotype. In humans (as well as other species), mutations can be sex-linked or autosomal, depending on whether they are on a sex chromosome or not. Due to the small number of genes on the Y chromosome, sex-linked mutations are X-linked. If a phenotype skips generations, it must be recessive. Individuals who are heterozygous for a recessive mutation are often referred to as carriers, because they do not manifest the condition but can pass it on to their children, depending on their mate's genotype. X-linked mutations are usually recessive for the purposes of the MCAT, and X-linked recessive conditions affect males more often. This is because females inherit one X chromosome from their mother and one from their father, while males only get their single X chromosome from their mother. Since males only have one X chromosome, having a single mutated allele will suffice to manifest a recessive mutation. The type of dominance we usually discuss is known as complete dominance. However, codominance takes place when two dominant alleles can be expressed at the same time. The classic example of this is the human ABO blood typing system, which refers to the presence of the antigens known as A and B expressed on erythrocytes (O refers to the absence of either A or B). Incomplete dominance, in contrast, occurs when a heterozygote displays a blended phenotype. The classic example of this is the snapdragon flower. Homozygous snapdragon flowers are red or white, while heterozygotes have a blended phenotype of pink. Furthermore, the concept of penetrance refers to the likelihood that the carrier of a given genotype (most often associated with a dominant allele) will manifest the corresponding phenotype. An example is the presence of certain mutations in the BRCA1 gene; a woman with this mutation has an 80% risk of developing breast cancer over the course of her lifetime. This means that the BRCA1mutation has 80% penetrance. Environmental factors and other genes may also affect the penetrance of a mutation, meaning that the overall pattern is polygenic. Additionally, epigenetic modifications can affect gene expression, with potential impacts on penetrance. Expressivity, in contrast, refers to the intensity or extent of variation in the phenotype. Another way of thinking about this is that penetrance is a yes/no question (does an organism express a certain phenotype or not?), while expressivity is a shades-of-gray question (how much of an effect does a mutation have on the phenotype?). The role of environmental factors in shaping penetrance and expressivity, especially for polygenic features such as obesity and intelligence, has led scientists to conduct twin and sibling studies to attempt to disentangle the contributions of "nature" and "nurture."

BB 26)? gram (-) bacteria: pore proteins, known as porins, w/n their outer membrane which aid in diffusion of hydrophilic antiobiotics.

Antibiotics are compounds designed to kill prokaryotes. Antibiotics work by targeting structures specific to prokaryotes (e.g., the bacterial cell wall or prokaryotic ribosomes, although many other mechanisms have been developed) because the goal of antibiotic treatment is to kill prokaryotes without harming the eukaryotic host cells. Antibiotic resistance is a major problem in modern medicine, and the genes responsible for antibiotic resistance are often found on plasmids (non-chromosomal bits of circular prokaryotic DNA) and spread through conjugation, which can be thought of as the bacterial equivalent of sexual reproduction. (However, conjugation is actually not a method of reproduction at all because it does not produce new bacterial cells. Instead, it is a form of gene transfer.) Conjugation involves the transfer of a plasmid through a bridge that is created when a sex pilus on one bacterium (often known as F+, which refers to the presence of the fertility factor, or as male) attaches to another bacterium (generally known as F−). During this process, the fertility factor itself is duplicated and transferred, converting the F− cell into an F+ cell. Another important context of antibiotic use is in genetic engineering techniques in which recombinant DNA is added to plasmids and introduced into bacteria (very commonly E. coli). For this purpose, plasmids used for genetic engineering generally contain antibiotic resistance genes, such that treatment with an antibiotic can kill off E. coli cells that did not take up any plasmids and select for those that did.

NS 32

Beta-oxidation is a process in which fatty acids are broken down(catabolism) into acetyl-CoA, which can be fed into the citric acid cycle (similarly to the effects of glycolysis and the pyruvate dehydrogenation complex). Beta-oxidation also generates the electron carriers NADH and FADH2, which produce energy in the electron transport chain. This process is known as beta-oxidation because the beta carbon of each fatty acid is oxidized to a carbonyl group (C=O). It occurs in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells. The basic logic of beta-oxidation is to chop up extended fatty acid chains into two-carbon units of acetyl-CoA. Step 1 of beta-oxidation involves forming a C=C double bond between the alpha and beta carbons of the carbonyl group at the head of the acyl-CoA molecule. This is coupled to the formation of FADH2. Then, in step 2, an -OH group is added to the beta carbon. The C-OH bond on the beta carbon is oxidized to C=O in step 3, and NADH is formed. Then, in step 4, the molecule is broken up, yielding an acetyl-CoA group and a shorter acyl-CoA group. This process is easiest to visualize with a saturated fatty acid with an even number of carbons, but special enzymes exist to handle unsaturated fatty acid and odd numbers of carbons. Beta-oxidation can produce very large amounts of ATP, which is connected to the fact that fats are a form of long-term energy storage in the body. For instance, the beta-oxidation of palmitic acid (a saturated fatty acid with 16 carbons) yields approximately 106 ATP.

NS 25 operant conditioning = continous to variable thinning= reduces frequency of reward for a given action fading example= reducing the prompt used to remind participants to take medicine

Classical and operant conditioning are two common frameworks used to describe learning. They are both forms of associative learning, which takes place when associations are made between stimuli or events that occur together. The infinite number of scenarios in which these concepts can be applied makes it imperative to understand the underlying principles. In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus and the subsequent unconditioned response to it are used to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus, which causes a conditioned response. The best-known example is Pavlov's experiment on dogs. Pavlov's unconditioned stimulus was meat and the dogs' unconditioned, or instinctual, response to it was to salivate. Pavlov then introduced a neutral stimulus, which initially caused no response from the dogs. However, when he began ringing the bell before feeding meat to the dogs, the dogs began to associate the ringing of the bell with receiving meat. Eventually, the ringing of the bell alone actually made the dogs salivate. The neutral stimulus (the ringing of the bell), through association with the unconditioned stimulus (the meat), had become a conditioned stimulus that caused a conditioned response (salivating). Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning uses reinforcement to encourage a behavior and punishment to discourage it. An additional distinction is made between positive and negative reinforcements and punishments. "Positive" means adding a stimulus, and "negative" means removing one. Thus, positive reinforcement is adding a pleasant stimulus to encourage a behavior, while positive punishment is adding an unpleasant stimulus to discourage a behavior. Negative reinforcement is removing an unpleasant stimulus to encourage a behavior, while negative punishment is removing a pleasant stimulus to discourage a behavior. The reinforcement used in operant conditioning can also be adjusted according to four typical reinforcement schedules: A fixed-ratio schedule is when the behavior is reinforced after a specific number of responses. For example, a rat gets a treat every third push of a lever. Variable-ratio schedules occur when behavior is reinforced after an average, but unpredictable, number of responses. For example, a rat treat dispenser could be set to dispense a treat after an average of 1 out of every 10 presses, but the exact number of presses between rewards will vary. Fixed-interval schedules occur when behavior is reinforced after a specific amount of time has passed. An example would be semi-monthly paydays. Variable-interval schedules occur when behavior is reinforced after an average, but unpredictable, amount of time has passed. Of these methods, variable-ratio schedules are generally considered to be the most effective.

Deacetylation vs acetylation

Deacetylation= The removal of an acetyl group, CHCO3, from an organic molecule. The deacetylation of histones makes chromatin more compact so that transcription is prevented. Acetylation= promote transcription by attaching acetyl group to lysine or arginine residues on histones, making them less + charged

@ high temp, air behave less ideally . T/F

F, more ideal

NS #3 LUNG VOLUME / NS #4 CALCULATIONS

FORCED EXHALATION USED INTERCOASTAL MUSCLES -WORK = PDELTA V: so PV WOULD NOT be constant where work is done on or by a mass of air. If think about ideal gas law, certain # of moles of an ideal gas @ a constant temperature , PV is constant . BUT breathing, the molar amount of air in lungs changes over time residual volume: min volume with max intrapleural pressure

NS 40 General adaptation syndrome vs activation synthesis vs theory of cognitive appraisal

GAS: It does involve nervous system more likely to involve sympathetic response, which involve the release of epinephrine and norephinephrine during the " fight or flight" response to stress or danger effects of ST stress on psychological state of individual body short term and long term reaction to stress. 2 major systems: nervous and endocrine Alarm, Resistance, and Exhaustation activation synthesis - deal w/ neuronal activity of brainstem during waking and REM sleep . theory of cognitive appraisal= mental process which influence stressors. Stress is a 2 way process: production of stressors by environment + response of individual subjected to these stressors. Cognitive appraisal= when a person consider the threat posed by and the resources needed to minimize stressors affect them

NS 23

For the most part, the intricacies of medical imaging can wait until medical school, but the MCAT does expect you to be familiar with some of the major imaging techniques, especially those applied to the brain. An EEG measures electrical impulses in the brain by covering the scalp with small sensors. Researchers can then present the subject with various stimuli and record which areas of the brain demonstrate increased electrical activity. Instead of measuring electrical activity, scientists can watch the level of blood flow in parts of the brain. By injecting a tracer molecule, scientists are able to image which parts of the brain are more active in response to certain stimuli. More active brain areas will see an increase in blood flow, and thus an increase in the tracer molecule. Brains can also be imaged using MRI, PET, and CT scans. MRI scans use magnetic fields and radio waves to image parts of the brain while avoiding the dangers of bombarding the body with ionizing radiation such as X-rays. Functional MRI, or fMRI, trades spatial resolution for temporal resolution and allows scientists to map active parts of the brain. It does so by analyzing the differences in oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin concentration in parts of the brain. PET scans work by injecting the patient with a radioactive analogue of glucose, and then measuring the radioactive emissions from the body. Much like MRI and fMRI, PET scans work on the principle that more active areas of the brain will show increased metabolism, and thus increase their uptake of glucose. Such uptake can then be converted into a false-color "heat map" of the brain to show areas of increased or decreased activity. PET scans are also frequently used for imaging designed to detect cancer in any part of the body, due to the increased glucose flux through tumor cells. Finally, CT scans use X-rays, but unlike a typical single two-dimensional X-ray film, CT machines use computer processing to take many X-ray measurements from multiple different angles, generating images that can be used for diagnosis. CT scans can provide high-resolution images, but unlike fMRI, CT is not useful for imaging processes in progress.

NS 12) gluconeogenesis ( cytosol and mito) pyruvate>.glucose require its intial conversion into OAA by pyruvate carboxylase in mitochondria. OAA is then decarboxylated and phosphorylated by cytosol or mito PEPCK, remainder of gluconeogenesis in cytosol

Gluconeogenesis is a process that the body uses to create glucose from pyruvate. occurs primarily in the liver and to some extent in the adrenal cortex, and its goal is to ensure an adequate supply of glucose throughout tissues in the body it can be important to replenish the stores of glycogen in muscle cells after they have been depleted by intense activity. It is upregulated by glucagon and by the presence of surplus pyruvate/acetyl-CoA. Gluconeogenesis is not quite reverse glycolysis, although these two pathways do share some of the same enzymes and steps (although they occur in reverse). However, they also differ at some crucial stages. Glycolysis contains some steps that are highly exergonic and essentially irreversible under biological conditions, so gluconeogenesis needs to bypass those steps. Additionally, glycolysis and gluconeogenesis need to be separated in order to prevent a futile cycle in which glucose is broken down to pyruvate and then pyruvate is built back up into glucose.

What is the approximate pH of a saturated aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid whose molarity is 10.6 M? NS #48

HCl acid is a strong acid and completely dissociate in aqueous solution. Hydronium ion is 10.6 M , which can be approximated as 10M to make the math easier. The pH is -log of hydronium concentration : -log( 10)=-log( 10^1) = -1 While typical pH : 0 to 14, concentration of hydronium ion is greater than 1M, - pH values are possible. It is also possible pH values greater than 14, if hydroxide concentration is greater than 1M.

NS #6 -8?

In eukaryotes, DNA is organized into linear chromosomes, which each contain a specific part of the genome. (In contrast, prokaryotes have a smaller genome that is stored in circular DNA.) Each chromosome contains a centromere that separates the chromosome into two arms, generally known as the p-arms and the q-arms. These arms are used as part of the information needed to specify the location of a gene on a chromosome. Human cells normally have 22 distinct chromosomes known as autosomes; somatic cells (i.e. non-germline cells) contain two copies of each of these chromosomes, one inherited maternally and the other inherited paternally. Additionally, humans generally have two sex chromosomes, with females having two X chromosomes (one inherited maternally and one inherited paternally) and males having an X chromosome and Y chromosome, with the Y chromosome inherited paternally. Therefore, in the standard human cell, there are 46 chromosomes, with two copies of each of 22 autosomes and either two X chromosomes or one X chromosome and one Y chromosome.

Insulin, glucagon, cortisol

Insulin is a peptide hormone released by the beta cells of the pancreas in response to high blood glucose levels. Its basic function is to reduce blood glucose levels by promoting the transport of glucose into cells via insulin receptors, which activate membrane-bound glucose transporters. The glucose transported into the cell can be used immediately through glycolysis; alternatively, muscle and liver cells can store the glucose as glycogen, and adipocytes (fat cells) can mobilize fatty acids to store downstream byproducts of glucose metabolism in the form of triglycerides. Insulin upregulates all those processes, as well as protein synthesis. Glucagon is a peptide hormone released by the alpha cells of the pancreas, and its mechanism and function are essentially the opposite of insulin. Glucagon is released in response to low glucose levels and has the effect of increasing blood glucose levels by promoting glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver cells. Other hormones can affect blood glucose levels as well. Cortisol (the main example of a class of hormones known as glucocorticoids) is released by the adrenal cortex. It is associated with long-term responses to stress and increases blood glucose levels. Epinephrine, which is released by the adrenal medulla and plays a major role in the fight-or-flight response to immediate stress, also raises blood glucose levels. In addition, growth hormone can increase blood glucose levels due to its antagonistic effects on insulin. Nonetheless, on Test Day, if you see a question about blood glucose levels, you should immediately think of the insulin-glucagon pair, unless the passage or question points you specifically in the direction of other hormones that may affect blood glucose levels.

NS PS 39) Motivation

LOOK @ REASONING intrinsic motivation:sense of autonomy and feeling that one is choosing to take part in activity

NS 29: germ cells

LOOK AT PROBLEM

culturally bound(NS#41) LOOK @ REASONING

Meaning derived from one's culture.

intensity of sound

NOT exactly the same as LOUDNESS b/c LOUDNESS has to do w/ the intensity of the sound is perceived. Intensity and loudness are related to amplitude, as intensity is proportional to amplitude squared. intensity ratio of sound decibel: dB=10log(I/Io) Io= 1 x 10^-12W/m^2

Institutional discrimination NS 29

Often, though, discrimination is written into the laws, policies, and unwritten procedures of society. This is termed institutional discrimination. One example would be a mortgage policy that, due to its requirements, makes it particularly difficult for ethnic minorities to obtain loans.

A gas is a phase of matter in which the material does not have a fixed shape or volume of its own, but instead adopts the form and size of its container. A gas is a low-density fluid because the molecules are much farther apart than in a liquid, where the molecules are in close contact with each other.

Once inside a container, gas molecules are distributed uniformly with no spatial organization, and they undergo continuous, random motion.

partial pressure

Partial pressure of gas= moles of gas x total partial pressure ( could be whole or %) to find moles of gas= # of moles of gas present/ total # of moles of gas in mixture (Xgas=N gas/N total)

Imine

R=NR'

NS 10

RIGHT TO WRONG LOOK @ REASONING understand why wrong

NS BB 58

Reasoning NS 59) reasoning

NS 52( right to wrong answer)

Springs are devices made from elastic material that store energy when compressed. The most important thing to understand about springs for the MCAT is that the potential energy stored in a spring can be expressed as PEelastic = ½kx2, where k is a spring constant that is specific for each spring and can be thought of an indicator of its stiffness and x is how far the spring has been stretched or compressed. Thus, the more a spring is compressed, the more energy will be stored in it, and energy increases nonlinearly with compression or extension. However, the force needed to compress or stretch a spring by a distance of x is a linear relationship: F = kx, where k is the spring constant. This is known as Hooke's law. Additionally, springs can be used to generate periodic motion. The time T that separates adjacent peaks on a graph of periodic motion is known as the period, and for a mass on a spring undergoing periodic motion, T = 2π√(m/k), where m is the mass and k is the spring constant.

Reactivity of COOH acid derivatives

Start w/ most reactive Acyl hallides>anhydrides>esters and acids>amides acid anhydrides : condensation of 2 COOH acids

BB 28) As long as Ca in cell, muscle will keep contracting. As long as ATP and Ca are present in Ach transmission is function normally, the muscle should be contract High Ca concentration allow muscle contraction to take place. Ca bind to troponin , which cause tropomyosin to stop blocking the binding site on thin filaments for myosin. If the Ca are locked open, the muscle WILL NOT be able to stop contracting. A state of constant contraction is tetany.

Striated muscle fibers contain long rod-like myofibrils that are composed of alternating units of thick (myosin) and thin (actin) fibers that overlap with each other. The basic mechanism of contraction is for the interwoven myosin and actin fibers to slip past each other, in what is sometimes known as the sliding filament model. The fundamental unit of contraction is the sarcomere,a band of thick myosin fibers and half of each of the two adjacent bands of thin fibers. Sarcomeres are divided into the I-band, A-band, H-zone, Z-line, and M-line. The M-line defines the middle of the sarcomere, running through the middle of the thick filaments, while the Z-lines define the edges, running through the middle of the thin filaments. The I-band refers to the region where only thin actin filaments are present, and the A-band is everything else, that is, the entire region where thick filaments are present, including areas of overlap with the thin filaments. The H-zone refers to the region where only thick filaments are present, making it analogous to the I-band. During contraction, the M-lines and Z-lines come closer together, the A-band stays the same, and the I-band and H-zone become shorter. During contraction, the actin and myosin filaments slide past each other through what is known as a cross-bridge cycle, in which a cross-bridge is formed between myosin and actin, and a power stroke provides the force of contraction. Immediately after a power stroke, myosin and actin are bound together, and the cycle begins again. ATP binds to the myosin head, causing a conformational change that releases it from actin. Then, a protein called tropomyosin moves back into place to block strong interactions between actin and myosin. The ATP molecule is then hydrolyzed. This is a strongly exergonic reaction and is used to move the myosin head into the "cocked position," where it can interact weakly with actin. Tropomyosin is ultimately removed by Ca2+ through a somewhat complex mechanism. At this point, the myosin head can bind tightly to actin. The power stroke then occurs via a conformational change that happens when Pi is released, resulting in a force of about 2 pN. ADP is then released and actin and myosin are essentially stuck together until another ATP binds to myosin so that the process can start again. The signaling for contraction occurs when the neurotransmitter acetylcholine is released into the neuromuscular junction. Acetylcholine binds to receptors on the cell membrane, which is known as the sarcolemma in muscle cells, and the sarcolemma then depolarizes in response. This results in an action potential, and when the action potential reaches the sarcoplasmic reticulum, Ca2+ is released into the sarcoplasm (recall that this is just muscle-speak for the cytoplasm). Once in the sarcoplasm, Ca2+ can bind to troponin, which allows contraction to take place.

Surfactant ( NS CP 2)

Surfactants are amphipathic molecules (containing both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions) that reduce the surface tension of a liquid. For the MCAT (and in your body), the most important example is pulmonary surfactant, which reduces the surface tension in the alveoli and total force resist expansion , allowing them to remain inflated when the lung is compressed during respiration./ absorbed to air-water alveoli surface This will increase pulmonary compliance: a measure of lung volume change @ given pressure of inspired air and reduce work needed to expand lungs. The general category of surfactants also includes detergents, the amphipathic structure of which allows them to denature proteins (an example being sodium dodecyl sulfate, or SDS, which is used in an electrophoretic technique known as SDS-PAGE) or solubilize lipids.

Sympathetic vs parasympathetic

Sympathetic = pupil dilate, inhibit salivation, increase heartbeat, relax airways, relax bladder, glucose release(inhibit gallbladder), inhibit activity of intestines, secrete epinephrine/norephinephrine Parasympathetic=constrict pupils/stimulate salivation/slow heartbeat/constrict airways/contract bladder/inhibit release of glucose ( stimulate gallbladder), and stimulate activity of intestines

Amines (R-NH2, R-NHR', or R-NR'R"), imines (R=NH or R=NR'), and enamines (C=C-NH2, C=C-NHR, or C=C-NRR') are nitrogen-containing compounds with medium melting/boiling points that can act as weak bases. Sulfur-containing functional groups contain the root "thio" and generally act similarly to the corresponding oxygen-containing groups. T/F

T

In eukaryotes, the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is located within the mitochondrial matrix.T/F

T

T/F : isotopes of a given element all share the same atomic number and chemical properties

T NS 21= passage says 93% decayed in 100 minutes , then 7% was left. You have gone through about 4 half lives in 100 minutes. So a single half-life is about 25 minutes 2000g>>250 = 3 half lives 3 x 25=75 NS 22 ( CHECK AS WELL)

NS 8 CP Doppler Effect

The Doppler effect describes how the observed frequency of a sound emitted from an object can change if the object and/or the observer is in motion A similar pattern would happen if you had a stationary source of sound and a moving observer, and for that matter, if both the source and observer are moving relative to each other. The general form of the Doppler equation, shown below, is capable of accounting for the velocity of both the observer and the source: f' = f(v+vobserver)/(v-vsource) Sign conventions are important when using this equation. The vobserver term is considered positive if the observer is moving toward the source, while vsource is considered positive if the source is moving away from the observer. The Doppler effect is used in some important applications, including medically relevant technologies like Doppler ultrasonography (US), and less medically relevant applications like the use of radar guns to catch speeders. When a wave-emitting detection device is used, its accuracy is optimized if the waves emitted by the device travel directly parallel to the waves that are being measured (θ = 0)

NS PS 3) ex: block norephinephrine reuptake would greaten its effects

The autonomic nervous system, which controls involuntary responses in the body, including things like sweating, blushing, and pupil dilation, is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. The sympathetic nervous system stimulates the body in the classic "fight or flight" response, mediated by hormones such as epinephrine and norepinephrine. If the body needs to get ready for action, it will dilate the pupils, raise the heart rate, and increase blood flow to skeletal muscles to prepare for sudden action. By contrast, the parasympathetic nervous system is the "rest and digest" system that increases blood flow to the digestive system, slows the heart rate, constricts the pupils, and generally exerts actions opposite to those of the sympathetic nervous system. In turn, the autonomic nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system, which describes the nervous system throughout the body and is distinguished from the central nervous system, which corresponds to the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system is also divided into the visceral nervous system, which modulates the digestive system, and the somatic nervous system, which connects to skeletal muscle to allow for voluntary movement.

NS 9

The cell cycle can be divided into a resting phase (interphase) and cell division (mitosis or meiosis). Resting phase is also known as Gap 0 (G0). During this period, the cell just goes about its business; in fact, many fully-differentiated cells in the body remain in G0 for long periods of time. Because it can last for an essentially indefinite period of time, resting phase is often considered not to be a proper part of the cell cycle itself. Interphase is when a cell prepares for division, and it can take up approximately 90% of the time of the cell cycle. Two major things happen during interphase: growth and DNA replication. However, interphase is broken into three stages: Gap 1 (G1), synthesis (S), and Gap 2 (G2). During G1 and G2, the cell grows, and during S, DNA is replicated. The fact that S is located between G1 and G2allows checkpoints. The G1/S checkpoint, also known as the restriction point, is when a cell commits to division. The presence of DNA damage or other external factors can cause a cell to fail this checkpoint and not divide. The G2 checkpoint that takes place before cell division similarly checks for DNA damage after DNA replication, and if damage is detected, serves to "pause" cell division until the damage is repaired. Throughout interphase, chromatin is loosely packaged (euchromatin) to allow transcription and replication. After interphase, the cell undergoes division (mitosis in non-sex/germ cells). Mitosis proceeds through prophase (where the nuclear membrane disappears, chromosomes condense, and the mitotic spindle forms), metaphase (where chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate), anaphase (where chromosome are pulled apart), and telophase/cytokinesis (where the nuclear envelope and nucleolus reappear and the cell divides). Meiosis occurs in sex/germ cells and turns a diploid (2n) parent cell into 4 haploid (n) daughter cells in a two-stage process, in which crossover between homologous chromosomes and the random allocation of maternal/paternal chromosomes to daughter cells work together to create genetic variability.

alkane and alkene

They interact with each other through weak London dispersion forces, have low melting and boiling points, and do not engage in meaningful acid-base chemistry.

affect heuristic vs anchoring

affect heursitic = make judgement based on emotions that are evoked anchroing=rely too much on first info

hexadecaonic acid NS # 33

aka palamtic acid: C16H32O2 smallest aa is Glycine

Molecular formula : CnH2n+2

alkanes makes the job of finding isomers easier ( NS #17)

alternate current vs vibration

alternate current= electric energy vibration= mechanical energy( combination of potential and kinetic: motion and position)

ambient vs acute vs micro stressors vs crisis

ambient stressors= chronic environmental stressors that cannot be changed ( or are perceived as unchangeable) by the efforts of the individual subject to them. acute stressors= one that is present over a short period of time, This does not apply to a persistent tissue like the state of economy microstressors= small daily hassles like dealing w/ traffic crisis= sudden, rare occurrence such as natural disaster or war that cause a person a great deal of stress

Plasma membrane of eukaryotic cell

composed of lipid bilayer of amphipathic phospholipids with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails. It also contain cholesterol and membrane proteins Transmembrane proteins: membrane-spanning proteins w/ hydrophilic cytosolic and hydrophobic membrane spanning domain.

using shock is NOT inherently unethical(6-tough= MAKE SURE YOU ANSWER ?) NS 6-7

deliver shocks is actually normal as long as there is informed consent and to conduct in least harmful way that is consistent w/ researchers goals.

Gastrointestinal cell

divide more than neurons less time in Go

dec self - efficacy

external locus of control

Energy=hf=

hc/wavelength h= 6.62 x 10^-34 J.s c= 3 x 10^8m/s NS #20 manipulate wavelngth= hc/E

Increase the power of an experiment

increase alpha, conduct a one-tailed test, increase the effect size, decrease random error, or increase sample size.

independent vs dependent

independent= input/ causes . MANIPULATION dependent= outcome/ effects. MEASURED experimental design= manipulate independent variable - control: NO effect + control= POSITIVE effect moderating= strength/ "WHEN" mediating= link between independent and dependent variable confounding= external variables that affect BOTH indepedent and dependent variable

GABA

inhibitory neurotransmitter of CNS plays the role in reduce neuron excitability through nervous system decrease anxiety disorder GABA relate to mood disorder

high threat

low threshold for threat reactivity ( greater fear response to stimuli )

normal humans

maternal mitochondria

Polyadenylation

poly-A-tail=important for nuclear export, translation, and MRNA stability. The tail is shortened over time , and when is short enough, mRNA is degraded

primary aging (senescence) vs secondary aging

primary = aging of biological factors and the physical body / how ppl age w/n social context secondary= aging that relates to behavioral factors like diet and exercise

ultraosound

ultra= above frequency above human hearing 20hZ to 20khZ

Alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes are hydrocarbons—the simplest examples of organic molecules, made up only of carbon and hydrogen atoms.

Alkenes have at least one double carbon-carbon bond (C=C), and end with the suffix -ene; an alkene with two double bonds is a diene, and an alkene with three double bonds is a triene Straight-chain alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2, while straight-chain alkenes with a single double bond have the general formula CnH2n, and straight-chain alkynes with a single triple bond have the general formula CnH2n-2.

energy of EM wave can also be related to frequency and wavelength

E=hf=hc/wavelength

Pouiseuille's Law

Flow (Q) = (changeinP)(pi)r^4 / 8Ln fluid dynamics : fluid flow ALL LIQUIDS CAN FLOW , but some easier than others Resistance to flow is viscosity Viscosity can be negligible fluid can be incompressible = fixed volume Laminar flow : flowing fluid is composed of parallel layers that may be moving @ differ velocities. (smooth flow)

ploidy

In humans, vast majority of cells are diploid ( 2n) such cells are somatic cells,cells of the body(except sex chromosome, female have XX and male XY) Germ cells (ova and spermatozoa) are haploid(n) single copy of each chromosome 2 diploid 2n 2n DNA replication 2 tetradiploid 4n 4n nuclear replication + equal DNA division 4 diploid (2n) nuclei 2n 2n 2n 2n DNA replication 4 tetraploid (4n) nuclei 4n 4n 4n 4n

Immune system

Innate( non-specific) : responds generally to threats but DOES NOT learn to specific foreign bodies and adaptive immune system noncell= cytokines/complement proteins cell= WBC: leukocytes/granulocytes, lymphocytes, monocytes( which differentiate into macrophage or dendritic cells), and mast cells

NS 21 BB ( 25% correct)

LOOK @ REASONING POLYADENYLATION: EXPORT MRNA FROM NUCLEUS TO CYTOPLASM

30) meiosis: gametes mitosis: somatic cells/ asexual reproduction

M1: homologous chromomsome seperate ( law of indep assortment) . 2 diploid cells are produced P1: crossing over M2: produce 4 haploid cells M2 and mitosis similar: sister chromatids seperate LOOK @ REASONING

NS 59 movement ( cilia, flagella, actin polymerization) microtubule depolymerization= to cells migrate to site of injury, they need to migrate . Responsible for seperating chromosomes during anaphase of mitosis or M1 or M2 / NOT involved in cell migration

Motility refers to a cell's ability to move. Flagella and cilia are two structures involved in cell motility that are formed from microtubules. Flagella (singular = flagellum) are tail-like appendages that protrude from a cell and allow it to move, although they also can serve as sensory appendages. Flagella are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, but they are structurally distinct. Cilia are relatively small projections that help move substances along the cell surface. A well-known example in the human body is the presence of cilia in the respiratory tract to help move mucus out of the lungs. In eukaryotes, both cilia and flagella are characterized by what is known as a 9+2 structure, in which an outer ring of nine pairs of microtubules surrounds an inner ring of two microtubules. Eukaryotic flagella flap back and forth, and their movement is powered by ATP. In contrast, prokaryotic flagella use a rotary motion, are powered by a proton gradient, and are composed of a protein known as flagellin.

Ribosome protein synthesis NS # 50

N to C Translation is the process in which an mRNA sequence is translated into a protein, with each codon corresponding to an amino acid. Transfer RNA, or tRNA, is a relatively small RNA molecule characterized by a hairpin structure that is responsible for "translating" between codons and amino acids. The other structure needed for translation is the ribosome, which is primarily made up of ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Ribosomes contain multiple rRNA strands with associated proteins, and have two major components: the large subunit (50S in prokaryotes and 60S in eukaryotes) and the small subunit (30S in prokaryotes, 40S in eukaryotes), with overall sizes of 70S for the prokaryotic ribosome and 80S for the eukaryotic ribosome. The large subunit catalyzes the formation of the polypeptide chain, while the small unit reads the RNA. Translation has three main steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation occurs when the mRNA sequence binds to the small ribosomal subunit, either at a region in the 5' untranslated region known as the Shine-Dalgarno sequence (in prokaryotes) or to the 5' cap in eukaryotes. The first tRNA is known as the initiator tRNA, and it binds to the start codon (AUG). The initial amino acid is methionine in eukaryotes, but N-formylmethionine in prokaryotes. Once this happens, initiation factors facilitate the binding of the small ribosomal subunit to the large ribosomal subunit, forming the initiation complex. Elongation is the next step. During elongation, the ribosome reads the mRNA in the 5' to 3' direction and synthesizes a polypeptide from its N terminus to its C terminus, which is one of the reasons why amino acid sequences are traditionally written in the N-to-C order. Proteins known as elongation factors help move this process along. Three main binding sites are involved in elongation. The A site contains the next aminoacyl-tRNA complex, and at the P site a peptide bond is formed between the growing polypeptide chain and the incoming amino acid. The tRNA, which is now no longer "charged" with an attached amino acid, briefly pauses at the E site and detaches from the mRNA. After all of the charged tRNA sequences have been translated, translation is terminated.

NS #5 ?

Ploidy refers to how many copies of each chromosome a cell has. In humans, the vast majority of cells are diploid (2n), meaning that they contain two copies of each chromosome (except for the sex chromosomes; females have two X chromosomes and males have an X and a Y chromosome). Such cells are known as somatic cells—that is, the cells of the body. In contrast, germ cells (i.e., ova and spermatozoa) are haploid (n), meaning that the only have a single copy of each chromosome.

NS BB 1)cyto C oxidase:enzyme responsible for e- transfer in ETC., so inhibit it, will stop ETC>>cause ATP reduced ,reduced oxygen demand b/c e- will not flow to oxygen to water, as ETC is responsible for majority of ATP production

The final major process of aerobic respiration is oxidative phosphorylation, through which the majority of aerobically-derived ATP is synthesized. electron transport chain (ETC), to a final electron acceptor, oxygen. This is the only time in eukaryotic aerobic respiration where oxygen is directly required These reactions take place in specialized proteins where the energy from NADH and FADH2 is used up, molecular oxygen is reduced into water, and approximately 30-36 ATP are created from ADP and inorganic phosphate. The electron transport chain (ETC) uses free oxygen as the final electron acceptor of the electrons removed from NADH and FADH2 formed in glycolysis and the Krebs cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle). The ETC is composed of four large protein complexes (Complexes I-IV) embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane and two small electron carriers shuttling electrons between them. Complex I is known as NADH dehydrogenase, II is known as succinate dehydrogenase, III is known as cytochrome bc or c, and IV is known as cytochrome c oxidase. Electrons are released from NADH and FADH2 through a series of reactions. In the ETC, the energy released from the series of electron transfers is used to pump H+ across the membrane. The unequal concentrations of H+ ions across the membrane establishes an electrochemical gradient, leading to chemiosmosis, or the passive diffusion of the protons down their concentration gradient, which is coupled to ATP synthase. The electrons passing through the electron transport chain gradually lose energy until eventually they are donated to O2, which accepts two H+ions and is transformed into water. If the proton gradient is disrupted or destroyed, chemiosmosis can become uncoupled from the ETC, resulting in little to no ATP generation despite the transfer of electrons carrying on. Many poisons and toxins act by uncoupling the proton gradient from ATP synthase.

NS 40-41/43

The primary systems of social stratification are the caste system, the class system, and the meritocracy system. A caste system does not allow people to change the class they are born into. A class system divides society into less rigid classes that are composed of people with a certain socioeconomic status. A meritocracy exists when a person's social status is based solely on personal merit and accomplishments. meritocracy= give opportunity equality

Harlow: NS 16 monkey paired w/ wire mothers drank similar amounts of milk and grew at a rate comparable to monkeys paired w/ cloth mothers monkey paired w/ a wire mother sought soothing from their mothers, but @ a rate less than monkeys paired w/ cloth mothers monkeys spent more time holding cloth mothers than wire mothers after early negectful conditons, monkey abnormal behavior could NOT be corrected by pairing them w/ simulated mother

Within MCAT psychology, you should be familiar with several key individuals (mostly psychologists) and psychological experiments. Rather than simply memorizing a long list of names, try to focus on the larger takeaways: what psychological concepts did the individual propose or build upon, and what are the key takeaways from each experiment's results? These researchers and experiments are outlined below. Sigmund Freud, the "father of psychoanalysis," developed well-known theories focused on unconscious desires. Freud's work centered around his ideas of the id (one's largely unconscious set of primal urges), superego (one's sense of moral purpose), and ego (the logic-based, more conscious balance between the two). Freud put his theories into practice in psychoanalytic therapy, a process in which a psychologist or other therapist converses with a patient one-on-one to address certain mental or emotional issues. American psychologist B. F. Skinner was an early behaviorist, meaning that he systematically studied behavior in conjunction with other factors (environmental,motivational, etc.). Skinner is best known for his work in operant conditioning,where he used a device called a "Skinner box" to study the effects of rewards and punishments on behavior. Psychologist Gordon Allport is known for his studies of personality, where he outlined a form of trait theory that included three basic types of traits: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. Cardinal traits are those around which people organize their entire lives. In contrast, central traits are defining characteristics of a person that can be easily inferred from that person's behavior. Finally, secondary traits are those that only occur sometimes,particularly when a person is in a certain social situation. John B. Watson'sLittle Albert experiment involved the use of classical conditioning andstimulus generalization to cause a healthy young boy to fear furry animals andobjects. Solomon Asch's conformity experiment demonstrated that individuals often conform to a group view,even when the group view differs from a clearly correct answer. Asch used a task in which a participant, along with several of Asch's confederates, were told to judge the relative lengths of drawn lines. The confederates would give a clearly-incorrect opinion regarding which line was shorter or longer, causing the participant (who did not know that the others in the room were "in on it") to conform to this incorrect view in some cases. Albert Bandura, asocial cognitive psychologist, famously conducted his "Bobo doll" experiments,which showed that children can display observational learning for aggressive behavior when they watch adults exhibit such behavior. Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment focused on the effects of power and authority on individuals.Participants designated as "guards" were given power over participants designated as "prisoners," and over time, the guards began to exhibit progressively more abusive and problematic behavior. Milgram's electric shock experiment also relates to authority. This experiment indicated that participants were willing to administer painful stimuli to others if instructed to do so by an authority figure. In reality, the "others" in the study were actors who were simply pretending to be shocked. Abraham Maslow famously developed Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a schematic of human needs in order from the most basic (food, water, etc.) to the most high-level(self-actualization). Hans Eysenck studied personality with a strong focus on the biological perspective, which considers personality differences to be the result of biological factors. Harry Harlow examined parent/child attachment, social isolation, and dependency in rhesus monkeys. Finally, Muzafer Sharif's Robber's Cave experiment examined the intergroup conflicts that arise in response to competition over limited resources.

house money effect

after a prior gain, people become more open to assuming risk

ion dipole 23 : read between the lines

an ion and a polar molecule or neutral molecule

in-group

competence/ personal pride

Personality disorder NS P 32( LOOK @ REASONING)

dependent= ppl depend too much on others to meet their emotional and physical needs narcisstic= ppl have an excessive sense of self-importance, preoccupation w/ themselves, and lack of empathy paranoid= person has a LT pattern of distinct and suspicion of others antisocial = LT of manipulating, exploiting , or violating rights of others

Wernicke aphasia

diffculty connecting speech/ meaning

expectation bias

expectations influence attitudes or behavior

Hydrostatic pressure

for liquids is linear b/c as depth changes,density IS CONSTANT Gases have densities that change according to the forces that act upon them . Gases are compressible but LIQUID AND SOLID ARE NOT !!

mean NS 59

influenced by upper values

NS 47) sex dimorphism

males and females resemble each other low sex dimorphism: males and females almost identical/ form pairs and mate for life high sex dimorphism- create competition for mates

substrate analog

mimics substrate

transfection

process of nucleic acid to cells

parasympathetic nervous system

rest and digest part of the autonomic nervous system is responsible for restoring the body and conserving energy feed and breed occur when body is @ rest, especially after eating, including sex arousal, saliva, urination, digestion and defecation

testosterone

(2ndary) cause sertitoli cell in seminferous tubules to make sperm estrogen does inhibit bone resorption: dec bone density progesterone and estrogen both cause endometrium to thicken

NS 11)biases

-egocentric bias : tendency to overstress changes btwn/ past and present in order to make oneself appear more worthy or competent than one actually is . -attributional bias: c. bias that refer to systematic errors made when people evaluate or try to find reasons for their own and others behaviors . -framing bias: framing effect and is one of many factors which affect one's decisions.Just like how a picture may be framed in many different ways to change viewer's impression , the way an option is presented to a person will change how they feel about it and influence their likelihood to make a specific choice. en example: " used car" = one might say its reliable but the other might say it's old -automation bias: tendency to excessively depend on automated systems , which can lead to erroneous automated info overriding correct decisions

NS CP 5

-electron exist in orbital and hold a max of 2 e- - Each electron in an atom is associated with four quantum numbers that describe its position, the shape of its orbit, its orientation, and its angular momentum In fact, the Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons in a given atom can have the exact same values for all four quantum numbers 1) The first quantum number is the principal quantum number (n). It denotes the energy level of the electron, and can take any integer value (≥1). relates to the row of the periodic table in which the element in question is found 2)The azimuthal, or angular momentum, quantum number (l) describes the subshell of the principal quantum number in which the electron is found, with values ranging from 0 to n - 1, where l = 0 is the s subshell, l = 1 is the p subshell, l = 2 is the d subshell, and l = 3 is the f subshell. 3)Next, the magnetic quantum number (ml) describes the spatial orientation of the orbital in question within its subshell. Potential values of ml range from -l to +l. Since each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons, this means that an s subshell can contain up to two electrons, a p subshell can hold up to six electrons, a d subshell can contain up to 10, and an f subshell can hold up to 14. 4)Finally, the spin quantum number (ms) describes the spin orientation of the electron, which relates to its angular momentum. The two possible spin orientations are ms = −1⁄2 and ms = +1⁄2. Two electrons in the same orbital (and thus with the same ml value) are said to be paired and must have opposite spin.

Hallmark of impression management

-flattery: example= compliment coworkers on their clothing -boasting: example= brag about one's financial success while on date -ingratiation= get people to like you

NS 31:

-glycoproteins: transmembrane proteins( many of which are glycoproteins) are the only component listed that pass all way through cell membrane and facilitate membrane transport -cholesterol or glycolipids: NOT extend across entire membrane -glycolipids:provide energy and serve as markers for cellular recognition The plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells is primarily composed of a lipid bilayer of amphipathic phospholipids with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails. It also contains cholesterol and membrane proteins. Transmembrane proteins are membrane-spanning proteins with hydrophilic cytosolic and extracellular domains and a hydrophobic membrane-spanning domain. Additionally, peripheral proteins are only transiently attached to integral proteins or peripheral regions of the lipid bilayer, and lipid-anchored proteins are covalently bound to membrane lipids without actually contacting the membrane directly. Membrane transport is accomplished through several mechanisms. Some molecules, like small gases, can directly diffuse through the membrane. This is known as simple diffusion, and is an example of passive transport because no energy is necessary. Osmosis is a type of simple diffusion in which water moves in or out of the cell to attempt to equalize concentrations of solute. Facilitated diffusion is another form of passive transport where no energy is necessary because molecules diffuse down their concentration gradient, but a transmembrane channel is necessary because the molecule may be too large or polar for simple diffusion. Ions are often transported through facilitated diffusion, and aquaporins are facilitated diffusion channels for water that augment osmosis. In primary active transport, energy is used directly to move a solute against its gradient through a transmembrane channel. Secondary active transport is a more complicated system in which the energy stored in an electrochemical gradient established via primary active transport is used to facilitate the movement of a solute. An example is the sodium-calcium exchanger, which allows three Na+ ions to flow down their concentration gradient, which was previously established by a primary active transport mechanism, into the cell, while transporting one Ca2+ ion out.

NS 45-46

46)Acid-base buffers confer resistance to a change in the pH of a solution when hydrogen ions or hydroxide ions are added or removed to solution. An acid-base buffer typically consists of a weak acid and its conjugate base. The most important buffer to know for the MCAT is the bicarbonate buffer system, which is shown below. H2O (aq) + CO2 (g) ⇌ H2CO3 (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + HCO3− (aq) Carbonic acid (H2CO3) has the conjugate base of HCO3−. Buffers work because the concentrations of the weak acid and its salt are large compared to the number of protons or hydroxide ions added or removed. When protons are added to the solution from an external source, some of the bicarbonate in the buffer is converted to carbonic acid, using up the protons added; when hydroxide ions are added to the solution, protons are dissociated from some of the carbonic acid in the buffer, converting it to bicarbonate and replacing the protons lost. Buffers resist pH changes best when the pH values are at or near the pKa value for the acid/base used, because that is when the conjugate acid and base have equal concentrations. Optimal buffering occurs when the pH is within approximately 1 pH unit from the pKa value of the system. The pH of a buffer solution can be calculated using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: pH = pKa + log [conjugate base] / [acid]. On Test Day, you may see the bicarbonate buffer concept tested from a chemical, biochemical, or biological perspective. For example, hyperventilation (rapid shallow breathing) results in excess CO2 being expelled from the blood, causing the pH to rise(dec CO2, dec H, but increase PO2) . In response, the buffer needs to release more H+ to lower the pH back to physiological norms. An additional fact to be aware of is that other mechanisms in the body are also used to regulate pH, since carbonic acid works best at a pH below physiological conditions, because its pKa1 (pKa1 = 6.3, pKa2 = 10.3) is much lower than the normal pH of blood (7.4).

NS 42-43/ 47) lytic: a virus infect and kill or lyse bacteria lysogenic: a virus incorporate into bacterial genome and allow bacteria to grow and reproduce

47)Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, which means that they must hijack host cells to replicate. The genetic material of viruses can be in the form of either single-stranded or double-stranded DNA or RNA. Single-stranded RNA viruses are further subdivided into positive-sense and negative-sense viruses. Positive-sense RNA viruses contain mRNA that can immediately be translated by the cell. In contrast, negative-sense RNA viruses contain RNA that is complementary to mRNA, meaning that mRNA must be synthesized by an enzyme known as RNA replicase that is carried in the virion. Bacteriophages are viruses whose host cells are bacteria. Instead of entering the cell completely, they inject their genetic material into their host through a syringe-like structure known as a tail sheath. Retroviruses are a distinct class of single-stranded RNA viruses, including HIV, that use an enzyme known as reverse transcriptase to synthesize DNA from their RNA genome. Bacteriophages have two distinct life cycles: lytic and lysogenic. During the lytic cycle, the bacteriophage essentially works to replicate at full speed, making full use of the host cell's machinery. Eventually, the host cell is filled with virions to the point that it bursts or lyses, and a tremendous number of new virions spill out into the environment. Alternately, in the lysogenic cycle, bacteriophages can integrate themselves into the host genome, at which point they are referred to as a prophage or a provirus. In response to environmental signals, the prophage can re-emerge from the host genome and resume a lytic cycle. Non-bacteriophage viruses (e.g., those that infect humans) can exhibit a dormant stage that is similar to the lysogenic cycle. Examples of viruses with a prominent dormant stage include HIV and herpesvirus

NS #5 / 7

5. LOOK @ TABLE (TOUGH) 7. However, for problem-solving on the MCAT, it is important to determine whether we are only dealing with conservative forces or if non-conservative forces, such as friction, are incorporated. This principle is commonly applied to analyze scenarios in which kinetic and gravitational potential energy are interchanged, using the equation KEinitial + PEinitial = KEfinal + PEfinal. However, it is also possible to include elastic potential energy and electric potential energy if doing so would make sense in a given problem-solving context. If we need to account for nonconservative forces such as friction, we can do so using the equation Etotal - Enonconservative = Efinal.

NS 36: galvanic cell always have cell potentials(voltage) that are greater than 0

A redox reaction is a chemical process in which electrons are transferred between atoms. One atom is reduced, meaning that it gains at least one electron, while another atom is oxidized, meaning that it loses at least one electron. Like all chemical reactions, redox reactions must be balanced, with respect to both charge and the atoms involved. To do this, it is useful to split up redox reactions into half-reactions, focusing on the net ionic products. To balance the charge of a half-reaction, simply add electrons to the more positive side until the charge is the same on both sides. For example, the reaction 2 AgNO3 + Zn → 2 Ag + Zn(NO3)2 can be split into two half-reactions: (1) a reduction half-reaction for silver (Ag + + e− → Ag) and (2) an oxidation half-reaction for zinc (Zn → Zn2+ + 2 e−). The tendency for a species to spontaneously become reduced is measured using a parameter called the standard reduction potential. Reduction potentials (E°) are measured in volts and are defined relative to the standard hydrogen electrode (2 H+ (aq) + 2 e− → H2(g)), which is set at 0 V. Greater (more positive) reduction potentials indicate that a substance 'wants' to be reduced more, while smaller (more negative) reduction potentials indicate that a substance is not prone to reduction. Redox reactions can be carried out in special devices known as electrochemical cells. These cells must have two electrodes, which are where the redox half-reactions occur. The electrode where oxidation happens is known as the anode, while the electrode where reduction happens is known as the cathode. Therefore, a surplus of electrons is generated at the anode (because electrons are lost during oxidation), and they travel to the cathode. In a galvanic (or voltaic) cell, a spontaneous redox reaction is used to generate a positive potential difference that can drive current. The total standard potential generated by a cell, Ecell, can be calculated from the standard reduction potentials of the half-reactions. The simplest way of defining Ecell is presented below: Ecell = E°cathode − E°anode In contrast to a galvanic cell, an electrolytic cell uses a connected power source to conduct a nonspontaneous redox reaction. While galvanic cells have positive Ecell values (indicating spontaneity), electrolytic cells are characterized by negative Ecell values.

solid vs liquid vs gas

A solid is a structure with a rigid, tightly-packed organization of atoms, such as sodium chloride (table salt) or ice (solid water). Solids are characterized by a fixed volume, meaning that they do not expand and are not compressible as well as a fixed shape. Solids also do not flow, although their particles do vibrate in place. Like solids, liquids have a fixed volume, meaning that they are not compressible. Unlike solids, however, liquids do not have a fixed shape, and instead assume the shape of their container. This tendency allows liquids to flow, or move continuously through a container like a stream. Another important property of liquids is viscosity, or the resistance of the liquid to deformation by certain forces. Unlike solids and liquids, the gas phase is not a condensed phase, as gas particles are relatively spread out and not in contact with one another. Gases lack a fixed shape and volume. The lack of a fixed volume—or compressibility—is especially important because it means that the density of a given gas is not constant. Rather, if the gas is forced into a smaller container, its density will increase as its particles pack more closely together.

allosteric inhibitor vs competitive inhibition

ALLOSTERIC INHIBITOR = DOES NOT INVOLVE BINDING TO ACTIVE SITE competitive inhibition= preferentially processed

Air will rush out if there is a high pressure than the surroundings (Respiration)

As air enters our body, it travels either through the nostrils (also known as the nares) or the oral cavity>pharynx> past epiglottis to larynx> trachea> bronchi> 2ndary, tertiray bronchi and bronchioles> end in alveoli( gas exchange take place) Alveoli are sacs coated with surfactant, a film that reduces surface tension, allowing the alveoli to remain inflated when the lung is compressed during exhalation. The main mechanism of respiration is known as negative-pressure respiration. During typical breathing= When the diaphragm (the muscle at the bottom of the thoracic cavity that separates it from the abdominal cavity below) contracts(flattens), the thoracic cavity expands and increase the volume of intrapleural space . When the lungs expand, the pressure within them decreases. The(pressure differential) decreased pressure compared to the external environment causes air to rush into the respiratory tract(inspiration). Exhalation can be either passive or active. In passive exhalation, the simple relaxation of the diaphragm is enough to cause the lungs to contract, increasing the pressure and expelling air. However, the muscles between the ribs (internal intercostal muscles) and abdominal muscles can be used to force air out more intensely and quickly. This frequently occurs during exercise, but increased reliance on active exhalation even at rest can be a sign of respiratory disease. The final part of breathing is gas exchange. Blood runs through the alveolar capillaries and is separated by a wall only one cell thick from the air that is being breathed in. The deoxygenated blood being returned to the lungs is rich in carbon dioxide and poor in oxygen, while the air being breathed in is rich in oxygen and relatively poor in carbon dioxide. Therefore, oxygen and carbon dioxide can simply diffuse down their respective concentration gradients, although it is important to keep in mind that oxygen is carried by hemoglobin.

NS 31) If the cell's metabolism was anaerobic, oxygen consumption would be unlikely to vary w/ ADP concentrations or ETC inhibition

As we might expect, humans must use aerobic respiration for long-term survival, but human cells can function anaerobically for short periods. In human metabolism, the electron transport chain (ETC) and oxidative phosphorylation are aerobic processes, since oxygen is the final electron acceptor in the ETC. Therefore, oxygen is required to produce the proton gradient that leads to the formation of ATP via ATP synthase. The Krebs cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle) is also considered aerobic, even though it does not use oxygen directly, since this cycle requires the reduction of NAD+ to NADH. The opposite process (NADH to NAD+) happens in the ETC. When the ETC ceases to function in the absence of oxygen, then, NADH builds up and NAD+ becomes depleted, and the Krebs cycle eventually stops. Finally, glycolysis is anaerobic, since it does not require oxygen. In fact, cells use glycolysis to function in low-oxygen conditions, since it produces ATP - albeit less than the cell would create aerobically. Like the Krebs cycle, glycolysis requires NAD+, so a cytosolic process is required to regenerate it from NADH under anaerobic conditions. This process is fermentation. In yeast cells, ethanol fermentation converts pyruvate into ethanol and carbon dioxide. In human cells and some bacteria, lactic acid fermentation uses the lactate dehydrogenase enzyme to convert pyruvate into lactate. In both cases, NADH is converted to NAD+, allowing glycolysis to continue.

Adaptive immune system

B cells/ T cells lymphocytes that are made in bone marrow and mature in lympathic system. B cells recognize antigens and secrete large amount of antibodies human body utilizes 5 classes of antibodies: 5 immunoglobin (humoral immunity) -T cell/phagocytes/MHC complexes ( cell-mediated) T cell can attack by MHC class I and II

NS 54

CHART ANALYSIS SIMILAR %

NS 8

Cognitive biases are ways in which our perceptions and judgments systematically differ from reality. They are generally thought to be unavoidable features of our cognitive system, and may in some cases be adaptive. The closely related concept of heuristics refers to mental shortcuts or simplified iterations of principles that can help us make decisions, but can also lead to poor judgment. The representativeness heuristic is the tendency to make decisions about actions or events based upon our standard representations of those events. The closely related availability heuristic is the tendency to make decisions about how likely an action or event is based upon how readily available similar information is in our memories. Belief bias is the tendency that people have to judge things based not upon sound logic, but upon already held beliefs. Confirmation bias is a tendency that people have to focus on information that is in agreement with the beliefs they already have, rather than the information that is contrary to those beliefs. Another set of biases relate to how we interpret our and others' behavior. The fundamental attribution error refers to the tendency to place less importance on the import of a situation or context on behavior, and instead place undue emphasis on dispositional or internal qualities in order to explain behavior. In other words, we have a tendency to think that people are how they act. Moreover, we often blame our own actions on external situations but the actions of others on personality. This is called the actor-observer bias. Similarly, self-serving bias is the tendency people have to credit their successes to themselves and their failures either to the actions of others or to situations. Biases can also relate to perceptions of group belonging, as in the in-group bias where people are biased towards those viewed as being part of their in-group. Biases can also play a role in responses to questionnaires; for instance, social desirability bias refers to the tendency that people have to give socially approved responses to questions in the context of research.

NS 57: neural tube defects from CNS. Nervous system derived from ectoderm. Neurulation: induction of ectoderm into nervous system

Content Foundations: Embryology Fertilization takes place in the Fallopian tube, when a sperm cell encounters a secondary oocyte. The sperm cell passes through the corona radiata, a layer of follicular cells surrounding the oocyte, and the zona pellucida, a layer of glycoproteins between the corona radiata and the oocyte. This triggers the acrosome reaction, in which digestive enzymes are released that allow the nucleus of the sperm cell to enter the egg. The secondary oocyte completes meiosis II, creating a second polar body and a mature ovum. Then, the haploid nuclei of the sperm cell and the ovum merge, creating a diploid one-cell zygote. As the zygote travels to the uterus, it undergoes a series of mitotic cell divisions known as cleavage. Once the zygote has cleaved into a mass of 16 cells by three to four days after fertilization, it is known as the morula. By three to five days after fertilization, the morula develops some degree of internal structure and becomes a blastocyst, with a fluid-filled cavity in the middle known as the blastocoel. The blastocyst implants in the uterine endometrium and further differentiates into the gastrula. The gastrula has three layers: the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the endoderm. These layers eventually go on to form specific organs and components in the body. The ectoderm primarily gives rise to the nervous system and epidermis (skin), as well as related structures like hair, nails, and sweat glands, and the linings of the mouth, anus, and nostrils. The process through which the nervous system is formed from the ectoderm is known as neurulation. The mesoderm generates many of the structures present within the body, including the musculature, connective tissue (including blood, bone, and cartilage), the gonads, the kidneys, and the adrenal cortex. The endoderm is basically responsible for the interior linings of the body, including the linings of the gastrointestinal system, the pancreas and part of the liver, the urinary bladder and part of the urethra, and the lungs.

NS 10 : Km= half of V max

Content Foundations: Michaelis-Menten Enzyme Kinetics The Michaelis-Menten model dominates how enzyme kinetics is tested on the MCAT. It is a topic that many students have misconceptions about, so it is best illustrated through an example. Imagine a test tube with 100 molecules of enzyme X, which catalyzes the reaction S → P (with S standing for "substrate" and P for "product"), and that all other conditions are appropriate for the reaction to occur (i.e., ideal temperature and pH). If we add 10 molecules of S, we can expect that they will all be converted to P quickly, because excess X is present. If we add 50 molecules of S, the reaction will go even faster, since we still have excess X, but not 5 times as fast, since we can expect some degree of delay to occur in terms of all the molecules of S finding their way to available molecules of X. If we keep adding S, up to a certain point, the reaction rate will continue to increase, but not forever, as we only have 100 molecules of X. If all the molecules of X are occupied, we say that X is saturated. The maximum rate of a reaction is known as Vmax. The other crucial variable is the Michaelis constant, Km, which is defined as the concentration of substrate that corresponds to half of Vmax. Km is important because it can be used as a rough measure of the affinity that an enzyme has for its substrate - that is, the phenomenon that some enzymes interact more readily with their substrates than others. Km is not affected if you change the concentration of the substrate or enzyme, although it can be affected by inhibitors. However, Km is not the only way to measure enzyme affinity. The association constant (Ka) can also be defined, using the mathematical formalism of equilibrium constants, as [ES]/[E][S], where [ES] is the concentration of the enzyme-substrate complex, [E] is the concentration of the enzyme, and [S] is the concentration of the substrate. The dissociation constant (Kd) is then the inverse of Ka, and can be defined as [E][S]/[ES].

validities NS 22 external= degree to which findings of the study are generalizable to the population as a whole( involves issues regarding size and representativeness of sample) . face= extent to which a study appear to assess what it is intend to assess - that is , more or less, the degree to which it " seems right" to participants and researchers . internal = casual conclusions can be drawn from a study , which can conclude accounting for potential confounding variables. Confounding variables hurt this validity content= a study comprehensively accounts for all relevant facets of phenomenon it is intended to investigate.

Content Foundations: Reliability and Validity For an experiment or test to have value, it must be both reliable and valid. Reliability refers to how consistent and repeatable an experiment or assessment is. Test-test reliability refers to the fact that a good test should give stable results over time. For example, if you took the MCAT once a year every year without doing any prep or practice, you would get basically the same results every time because the MCAT has good test-test reliability. One other form of reliability is inter-rater reliability. That means that if an assessment is carried out by different researchers, they should generate similar results. For example, the SAT includes an essay that a person grades on a scale of 1-6. The SAT essay has good inter-rater reliability because the same essay will be given the same (or nearly the same) score regardless of which person scores it. Validity is a measure of how well a given experiment actually measures what it sets out to measure. If a study has internal validity, then the study has internally been well constructed, using things like large random samples, safeguards against confounding variables, reasonable and reliable processes and instruments, etc. If a study is internally valid, we can then assess whether it has external validity—can the results of the experiment be generalized to other settings? After all, if a study only shows that X is related to Y for this experimental group, then it's not very valuable for drawing conclusions about the larger population. To have external validity, an experiment must tightly control any situational variables in the execution of the study. Finally, construct validity refers to how well a given assessment (a survey, a test, etc.) actually measures what it claims to measure— whether it has been properly constructed to measure the relevant thing.

NS 12

DAMAGE TO NUCLEIC ACID:LEAD TO UNCONTROLLALE GROWTH RO CANCER CARCINOGEN The first step in oncogenesis, tumor initiation, involves changes that allow a single cell to proliferate abnormally. This means that the cell must develop the ability to bypass regulatory steps of the cell cycle that normally help to limit mitotic proliferation. Tumor progression occurs as a cell develops the ability to proliferate even more aggressively, such that its descendants are selected for and come to predominate the growing tumor. In addition, malignant cells often undergo mutations that promote their own growth and the development of blood vessels to feed them (angiogenesis). Oncogenesis is most often associated with mutations that occur by random chance (and elude the normal DNA repair machinery in the cell) or as a result of mutagenic compounds known as mutagens or carcinogens. (Examples of mutagens include ultraviolet light and certain chemicals, such as reactive oxygen species.) These mutations alter the functionality of crucial genes in the cell. However, oncogenesis is also associated with dysregulation of gene expression, as the abnormally elevated expression of genes involved in growth and proliferation can help contribute to the development of a tumor. The genes involved in oncogenesis can be divided into two groups: oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. The basic difference between them is that oncogenes function to promote abnormal growth and proliferation, leading to cancer, while tumor suppressor genes function to prevent tumorigenic properties. Oncogenes can arise from the mutation of other genes, termed proto-oncogenes. If not mutated, proto-oncogenes do not promote cancer, but certain mutations or inappropriately elevated gene expression can effectively turn them into oncogenes.( ALREADY IN MY NOTES)

NS 15) https://www.reddit.com/r/Mcat/comments/4e476i/ns_fl_4_bb_q_15_please_halp_base_substitutions/ pic on my phone

DNA replication is semiconservative, which means that each strand of the original DNA molecule serves as the template for a complementary strand, with the new DNA molecule composed of an old strand and a new strand. DNA replication starts at the origin of replication and involves several important enzymes. Helicase unwinds the DNA helix and separates the two strands of DNA. Single-stranded DNA-binding proteins keep the separated strands from immediately re-annealing. Primase then synthesizes a short RNA primer with a free 3' OH group that is used as the starting point for the synthesis of a new strand. DNA polymerase reads the DNA template in a 3' to 5' direction and synthesizes the complementary strand in the 5' to 3' direction. DNA gyrase, also known as DNA topoisomerase II, alleviates the supercoiling that would otherwise be created as helicase works its way down the DNA molecule. Ligase links together Okazaki fragments, which are created from the lagging strand of DNA replication. The directionality of DNA polymerase may seem counterintuitive at first, but it is important to understand for the MCAT. It becomes clearer if we imagine DNA polymerase reading a template from left to right and generating complementary base pairs as it goes. Remembering that the new strand is antiparallel to the original strand, the synthesis must proceed from 5' to 3'.

NS 24

Darwinian theory of emotion= studied the evolution of emotion, examine emotion from the perspective of its value in successful reproduction cognitive appraisal theory of emotion: S-S, individuals make different interpretations about stimuli , such as intrepreting stigma negatively or non-negatively

NS 2 / 4

Depending on what researchers are studying, they can either employ a cross-sectional design or an experimental design. Cross-sectional studies investigate a population at a single point in time, looking for predictive relationships among variables. A limitation of cross-sectional designs is that they can show correlations, but not causation, because looking at changes over time is necessary to assess whether a cause-and-effect relationship is present. An experimental design involves manipulating a certain variable—known as an independent variable—to see what effects it has. The measured effects are known as dependent variables. Additional types of study design exist, especially in the social sciences; of note, qualitative research focuses on analyzing experiences rather than objective metrics. In any experiment, it is important to include controls. Negative controls are treatments that are known to have no effect, and positive controls are treatments that are known to have a certain effect and can therefore be used to assess whether the experimental methodology was sound. In clinical contexts, experimental studies often use a double-blind design in which neither the subjects nor the researchers know who is receiving the treatment and who is receiving the control. In experimental design, it is important to account for confounding variables, which are external variables affecting both the independent and dependent variable. For instance, if a study analyzes the effects of stereotype bias on math performance by race, but fails to account for socioeconomic status (SES), its results may be suspect, because SES may predict math performance and be correlated with race. Moderating variables attenuate or strengthen a given relationship, and mediating variables provide an important logical link between an independent variable and a dependent variable, or outcome. Studies on humans must follow the ethical principle of informed consent, in which the subject is adequately informed about the nature of the process, and then is mentally and legally competent to give consent to it. Sample size (usually denoted with N) is simply the number of data points developed in an experiment. In the social sciences and biology, this usually means the number of people or number of organisms in the experiment. The larger the sample size, the higher the statistical power of the experiment. While more is always better, it is usually impossible to test every possible case or every possible person, so a smaller sample of the whole must be taken. Non-random sampling can introduce important sources of bias, which can limit the validity of the study.

Sleepers pass through 5 stages: 1,2,3,4 and REM Stage 4: DELTA SLEEP ( last about 30 minutes) sleepwalking and bedwetting @ end of stage 4

During deep sleep, NO eye movement or muscle activity NS 33 EXPLANATION There are various levels of alertness in which the brain can exist. A key distinction among them is whether the individual is conscious or not. Consciousness means being able to perceive and experience one's surroundings. Each day, your body loses consciousness intentionally, in a process called sleep. Scientists can monitor the electrical activity of the brain during sleep. Sleep is divided into four stages, each with its own associated electrical, psychological, and physical manifestations. The brain waves of a fully-awake person oscillate between a high-frequency, low-amplitude pattern (beta waves) and higher-amplitude, high-frequency, faster patterns (alpha waves), depending on the state of alertness. Alpha waves are more consistent (synchronous) than beta waves. When a person falls asleep, they enter the first of the four stages of sleep. Stage 1 sleep primarily shows theta waves (low amplitude, irregular frequency). In this stage, rolling movement of the eyes occurs with moderate skeletal muscle activity. In Stage 2 sleep, theta waves continue, but are now interspersed with K-complexes (single high-amplitude, low-frequency waves) and sleep spindles (bursts of multiple high-frequency, moderate-amplitude waves). During this stage, there is no eye movement, but skeletal muscle activity remains at a similar level as Stage 1. During Stage 2, heart rate, temperature, and respiration rate decrease. Stage 3 sleep marks the transition into slow-wave sleep, which includes both Stage 3 and Stage 4. In this stage, delta waves (high amplitude, low frequency) predominate. As Stage 3 progresses, higher-frequency waves disappear and Stage 4 sleep begins. During Stage 4, digestion and heart rate slow and growth hormones are released. In the final stage, rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep occurs. During REM sleep, very little skeletal movement takes place. In fact, during REM sleep, brainwaves, heart rate, and respiration rate are very similar to what is observed when a person is awake. REM is also the stage when a person typically dreams. A sleep cycle is a complete progression through all of the stages of sleep, from Stage 1 to REM and over again. At the beginning of the night, a person spends most time in Stage 4, but as the night progresses, REM predominates, and a person may even have very brief moments of being awake. The length of the sleep cycle increases from childhood to adulthood, from about 50 minutes to 90 minutes, respectively.

Eicosanoids

Eicosanoids are a large family of lipids derived from arachidonic acid, a 20-carbon omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid with four cis double bonds. Like their parent compound arachidonic acid, eicosanoids have 20 carbons, and they have the additional characteristic feature of a five-carbon ring. The most important eicosanoids are a large family of signaling molecules known as prostaglandins, which have a diverse range of effects, including the modulation of inflammation. Additionally, thromboxanes are involved in the clotting cascade. The enzymes cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) are involved in early steps of this pathway, and are targeted therapeutically by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as aspirin.

NS 58 NS 59(LOOK AT)

Electron-rich molecules tend to act as nucleophiles when a covalent bond is being made. They also tend to act as Brønsted-Lowry bases when making a bond to an H+, or as Lewis bases when a coordinate bond is formed. Such bonds are so weak that they repeatedly form and dissociate at standard temperatures. Electron-poor molecules play the converse roles. Such molecules function as electrophiles in reactions that yield covalent bonds, as Brønsted-Lowry acids when making a bond to an H+, or as Lewis acids when coordinate bonds are formed. Molecules with electron-rich or electron-poor areas have important, characteristic, and predictable patterns of reactivity. For example, amines are good nucleophiles due to the presence of a lone pair of electrons. The carbons in carbonyl groups (C=O) are electron-poor, making them good electrophiles. One of the first steps to take when determining electron density is to look for C atoms bound or near to highly electronegative atoms (O, F, N) and for pi bonds, which can undergo resonance, allowing for molecules to be better nucleophiles.

Explicit vs. Implicit Attitudes

Explicit Attitudes -Attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report. Implicit Attitudes -Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious.

centripetal force

Fc=mv^2/r NS # 32 In physics, circular motion refers to the motion experienced by an object traveling in a circular path. An example of circular motion is a ball attached to a string being spun above one's head so that it follows a circular orbit. A similar concept is rotational motion, which involves the rotation of an object around its own axis, as in the case of a merry-go-round. A force that causes rotational motion is referred to as a centripetal force, and the change in acceleration that it causes is known as centripetal acceleration. However, you should be aware that centripetal acceleration is defined as acentripetal = v2/r. Since net force is equal to the product of mass and acceleration, we can say that centripetal force is equal to the product of mass and centripetal acceleration, or F = mv2/r. Two concepts that are important to circular motion are frequency and period. Frequency is equal to revolutions per second and has units of hertz (Hz), or s−1.F= 1/T Period is the inverse of frequency, meaning that it refers to the number of seconds required to make one revolution and has units of seconds. P=1/F Frequency is typically more useful in problems that require calculation of the velocity of a moving object. Since frequency refers to revolutions per second and velocity is most commonly measured in meters per second, converting between the two requires only the knowledge of the number of meters that corresponds to one revolution. To find this, one must use the equation for the circumference of, or distance around, a circle; this equation is circumference = 2πr. Multiplying frequency (revolutions per second) by circumference (meters per revolution) yields a velocity value with the proper units: meters per second.

NS 58(tough)

Fluid dynamics refers to the study of fluid flow, and it is highly important on the MCAT due to its relevance to blood flow. All liquids can flow, but some do so more easily than others. Resistance to flow—or more technically, resistance to deformation by shear stress—is known as viscosity. For the sake of the MCAT, viscosity can typically be considered negligible; additionally, fluids should be assumed to be incompressible, meaning that they have fixed volumes. The term laminar flow is used to describe scenarios in which a flowing fluid is composed of parallel layers that may be moving at different velocities. In a nutshell, laminar flow corresponds to smooth, well-behaved flow that is easy to model. In contrast, in turbulent flow, the smoothly regulated layers of laminar flow break down. Poiseuille's law is used to describe laminar flow of incompressible fluids through a long cylindrical tube. Poiseuille's law contains five variables: the flow rate (Q), the pressure drop between both ends of the tube (ΔP), the radius of the tube (r), the length of the tube (L), and the viscosity (η). It can be written in two equivalent forms, both of which are given below: The MCAT will typically not ask you to perform detailed calculations using Poiseuille's law; instead, it will focus on the relationships involved, such as the fact that flow rate is directly proportional to radius to the fourth power. Another equation, known as Bernoulli's equation, is similar in that the relationships it denotes are more important to understand than the exact numerical calculations associated with it. Bernoulli's equation is essentially conservation of energy for fluids, and is given below: P1 + ρgy1 + 1/2 ρv12 = P2 + ρgy2 + 1/2 ρv22 Here, the term that includes velocity (v) is analogous to the kinetic energy of the fluid, while the term that includes height (h) is analogous to the fluid's potential energy. The remaining term is pressure (P). Importantly, this equation indicates that when height is constant (as in a horizontal pipe system), an increase in velocity corresponds to a decrease in pressure, and vice versa. A final important relationship is given by the continuity equation (v1A1 = v2A2). This equation states that within a closed system, the flow rate of a liquid is constant, which indicates that the velocity of the fluid (v) is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area that it is flowing through.

NS 37

For the DNA double helix, the interior of the structure is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between base pairs (two hydrogen bonds for AT pairs and three for CG pairs), as well as hydrophobic interactions between stacked nitrogenous bases. Unlike DNA, RNA tends to exist in single-stranded form, rather than as a double-stranded double helix. Additionally, the sugar in RNA is ribose, which contains a hydroxyl (-OH) group on its 2′ carbon. (DNA contains deoxyribose, which lacks this 2′ hydroxyl group.) In addition to mRNA, which codes for protein production, several forms of non-coding RNA exist. These include transfer RNA (tRNA), which assists in translation, and small interfering RNA (siRNA) and microRNA (miRNA). siRNA and miRNA differ in their structure: miRNA strands are single-nucleotide strands incorporated into an RNA structure with a characteristic hairpin loop, while siRNA molecules are short and double-stranded. Both tend to be approximately 22 nucleotides in length, and both silence genes by interrupting expression between transcription and translation.

NS 41-42 : Friction

Friction produces thermal energy, or heat, from the "useful" energy that would have otherwise contributed to the object's motion. This "useful" energy may be kinetic, if the object was already sliding along the surface. Alternatively, it may come from work, if the object was not yet sliding (for example, if you were straining to force a stationary object to start sliding). From this distinction, we can identify two key types of friction: kinetic friction and static friction. Kinetic friction (or Fkinetic) is a force that acts in opposition to objects that are already sliding. Fkinetic can be calculated using the equation Fkinetic = μkN, where μk refers to the coefficient of kinetic friction (a value that depends on the surface and object, and that will typically be given) and N refers to the normal force, or the force exerted by the surface on the object. In contrast, static friction (or Fstatic) acts to oppose the motion of objects that are "static," or not sliding along a surface. The equation for static friction is Fstatic < μsN, which has two key differences from the kinetic friction equation. First, it includes μs, or the coefficient of static friction. Like μk, μs is typically given whenever its value is required to solve an MCAT question. In most situations, μs is larger than μk, which reflects the idea that it is more difficult to make an object begin sliding than to keep it sliding. Second, this equation includes a less than or equal to sign. The reason for this is simple: static friction can never have a value greater than the net force that it opposes. For example, imagine that you are trying to push a heavy, stationary box. If a tiny forward push of 4 N does not move the box, static friction must be exerting a force of 4 N in the opposite direction. If it were greater than 4 N, the object would move backwards, and friction does not cause objects to move! However, if a larger push of 20 N is also unsuccessful, this means that static friction now exerts a force of 20 N. As such, static friction increases to oppose the force of motion until it reaches its maximum value (μsN). If the force of motion exceeds this value, the object will start to slide.

Strong acid and bases dissociate completely in water while a weak acid and bases dissociate incompletely. For ex: HBr and HF both dissociate in water to produce H+ ions , but @ equilibrium, a solution of HBr will produce MORE ions than HF

HBr is a strong acid and HF is weak acid Strong acids and strong bases : NaOH, LiOH, KOH, CsOH, HCl, HBr,HI,H2SO4, HNO3,HCLO4

Liver BB 16

HIGHEST AMOUNT OF GLUCAGONR RECEPTORS kidney does too Insulin is a peptide hormone released by the beta cells of the pancreas in response to high blood glucose levels. Its basic function is to reduce blood glucose levels by promoting the transport of glucose into cells via insulin receptors, which activate membrane-bound glucose transporters. The glucose transported into the cell can be used immediately through glycolysis; alternatively, muscle and liver cells can store the glucose as glycogen, and adipocytes (fat cells) can mobilize fatty acids to store downstream byproducts of glucose metabolism in the form of triglycerides. Insulin upregulates all those processes, as well as protein synthesis. Glucagon is a peptide hormone released by the alpha cells of the pancreas, and its mechanism and function are essentially the opposite of insulin. Glucagon is released in response to low glucose levels and has the effect of increasing blood glucose levels by promoting glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver cells. Other hormones can affect blood glucose levels as well. Cortisol (the main example of a class of hormones known as glucocorticoids) is released by the adrenal cortex. It is associated with long-term responses to stress and increases blood glucose levels. Epinephrine, which is released by the adrenal medulla and plays a major role in the fight-or-flight response to immediate stress, also raises blood glucose levels. In addition, growth hormone can increase blood glucose levels due to its antagonistic effects on insulin. Nonetheless, on Test Day, if you see a question about blood glucose levels, you should immediately think of the insulin-glucagon pair, unless the passage or question points you specifically in the direction of other hormones that may affect blood glucose levels.

NS 59) sucrose: no hemiacetal, 2 acetal group intended to identify reducing sugar or sugar w/ capacity to serve as reducing agents sugar with hemiacetal group can undergo mutarotation , allow them to be oxidized by CuO. Mutarotaion : ring opening (OCCURS AT HEMIACETAL GROUP) SUGAR WITH HEMIACETAL GROUP CAN BE OXIDIZED AND BE REDUCING SUGAR + Tollen test= MUST have a hemiacetal

Hemiacetals are compounds in which a terminal carbon atom is connected to (1) another carbon atom, (2) an -H atom, (3) an -OH group, and (4) an -OR group. Acetals are derivatives of hemiacetals in which the -OH group is replaced by an -OR' group. Hemiketals and ketals are analogous compounds, in which the carbon is non-terminal and is therefore has two carbon substituents (analogous to the difference between aldehydes and ketones). These functional groups are relevant for carbohydrates, as the cyclic forms of glucose and fructose are a cyclic hemiacetal and a cyclic hemiketal, respectively. Additionally, when a glycosidic bond is formed between two monosaccharides (isolated sugar molecules) to form a disaccharide, a hemiacetal or hemiketal is converted into an acetal or ketal. Acetals/ketals are also noteworthy in organic chemistry because they can be used as protecting groups. For instance, if we had a compound with a carboxylic acid functional group (-COOH) and a terminal carbonyl group (C=O), we might want to reduce the carboxylic acid group to an alcohol using LiAlH4 while not affecting the carbonyl group. The challenge here is that LiAlH4 is capable of reducing both groups. Treatment of the carbonyl carbon with two equivalents of an alcohol (often accomplished by using a single equivalent of a diol) results in the formation of an acetal group, which is not affected by LiAlH4 and can easily be removed under acidic conditions after the carboxylic acid functional group is reduced.

sigmoidal shape

Hemoglobin - plays an essential role in gas exchange in humans. Specifically, it functions in the transport of oxygen to the body tissues and of carbon dioxide to the lungs for exhalation. - Hemoglobin is found in in red blood cells (erythrocytes), which are packed full of the protein; in fact, erythrocytes contain so much hemoglobin that they have no room for - and therefore lack - a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. Erythrocytes are produced in the bone marrow. Under low-oxygen conditions, erythrocyte production increases in response to the secretion of a kidney hormone, erythropoietin (EPO). -In humans, hemoglobin typically consists of four globular protein subunits, attached together to form the quaternary structure of the overall molecule. -Each subunit contains one heme group, which contains one iron cation, which binds oxygen in the Fe2+ state. -Since each hemoglobin molecule therefore includes four iron cations, each hemoglobin can carry up to four oxygen atoms. -Binding of oxygen to any of the four binding sites causes an increase in the oxygen affinity of the remaining sites, a phenomenon known as cooperativity. -Cooperative binding can be recognized by its signature sigmoidal, or S-shaped, shape; the steep part of the S denotes the sharply increased binding affinity that occurs as a result of the initial binding.( for ex:each O2 bind to Hb, affinity of Hb for O2 goes up) - The higher the partial pressure of oxygen, the higher the oxygen saturation tends to be. -Interestingly, under certain conditions, the binding curve can shift toward the right along the x-axis; this decreases the hemoglobin-oxygen binding affinity, allowing oxygen to be more easily dropped off in the tissues. These conditions include low (acidic) plasma pH and increased levels of carbon dioxide - both of which can indicate a shortage of oxygen. This rightward shift of the hemoglobin-oxygen binding curve is termed the Bohr effect. A compound known as 2,3-bisphosphoglyceric acid (2,3-BPG) can enhance these effects, further promoting the release of oxygen from hemoglobin.

NS CP 48 Hb: look @ passage NS 50: Look at

Hemoglobin, a metalloprotein, plays an essential role in gas exchange in humans. Specifically, it functions in the transport of oxygen to the body tissues and of carbon dioxide to the lungs for exhalation. Hemoglobin is found in in red blood cells (erythrocytes), which are packed full of the protein; in fact, erythrocytes contain so much hemoglobin that they have no room for - and therefore lack - a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. Erythrocytes are produced in the bone marrow. Under low-oxygen conditions, erythrocyte production increases in response to the secretion of a kidney hormone, erythropoietin (EPO). In humans, hemoglobin typically consists of four globular protein subunits, attached together to form the quaternary structure of the overall molecule. Each subunit contains one heme group, which is a structure consisting of a specific ring, termed a porphyrin ring. Each heme group contains one iron cation, which binds oxygen in the Fe2+ state. Since each hemoglobin molecule therefore includes four iron cations, each hemoglobin can carry up to four oxygen atoms. Binding of oxygen to any of the four binding sites causes an increase in the oxygen affinity of the remaining sites, a phenomenon known as cooperativity. Cooperative binding can be recognized by its signature sigmoidal, or S-shaped, shape; the steep part of the S denotes the sharply increased binding affinity that occurs as a result of the initial binding. The binding affinity between hemoglobin and oxygen is often displayed in graphical form. A hemoglobin-oxygen binding curve typically includes hemoglobin's percent saturation with oxygen on the y-axis and the partial pressure of oxygen on the x-axis. The higher the partial pressure of oxygen, the higher the oxygen saturation tends to be. Interestingly, under certain conditions, the binding curve can shift toward the right along the x-axis; this decreases the hemoglobin-oxygen binding affinity, allowing oxygen to be more easily dropped off in the tissues. These conditions include low (acidic) plasma pH and increased levels of carbon dioxide - both of which can indicate a shortage of oxygen. This rightward shift of the hemoglobin-oxygen binding curve is termed the Bohr effect. A compound known as 2,3-bisphosphoglyceric acid (2,3-BPG) can enhance these effects, further promoting the release of oxygen from hemoglobin.

NS 43-44: Mechanical advantage ( brutal)

Human laborers sometimes encounter situations where it is difficult - or even impossible - to exert a force necessary to complete a physical task. In these situations, devices termed simple machines can often help. MCAT-relevant simple machines include levers, pulleys, and inclined planes, and all act to modify the magnitude or direction of an applied force. Ideal simple machines have an efficiency of 100%, meaning that all input work (like an upward force exerted over a distance) is used to produce output work (like an object being lifted). This raises the question: how do simple machines make tasks easier, since even an ideal machine cannot produce more output work than input work? The answer lies in the concept of mechanical advantage (MA). Mechanical advantage can be calculated as follows: MA=Forceoutput/Forceinput=distance input/distance output meaning that when MA > 1, output force is greater than input force. This allows the force produced (for example, lifting of a rock) to exceed the applied force put in. An MA value that is larger than 1 is possible because the input work must still equal the output work, according to the law of conservation of energy. Therefore, as long as the applied force is exerted in the same direction as the desired work: workinput=workoutput (force input)(distance input)=( force output)( distance output) As such, if the input distance (the distance traveled by the applied force) is larger than the output distance (the distance traveled by the lifted object), the MA will exceed 1. For example, this question involves an inclined plane, where the input distance is the hypotenuse or "slope" of the ramp, and the output distance is the height, or distance lifted. We can therefore conclude that here, since MA is equal to the input distance divided by the output distance, it is equal to the hypotenuse of the ramp divided by its height.

Huntington's disease vs major depressive disorder

Huntington disease= expanded CAG repeat in gene that encodes huntingtin protein on chromosome 4 ; progressive atrophy of brain structures major depressive disorder= serotonin schizo and L dopa= inc dopamine Parkinson and neuroleptic= dec dec dopamine

Proteins in the urine :NOT result of hypeglycemia, but rather damage to glomerulus. Although individuals w/ diabeties can have protein in their urine, it is NOT the direct result of elevated glucose levels but instead a later complication NS 43

Hyperglycemia: insulin cannot induce uptake of glucose, it will remain in the blood and excreted in the urine when it builds up to the point that it cannot be reabsorbed by the nephron. Hyperglycemia : body relies on fat metabolism to generate energy , which produce ketone bodies excreted in urine. Diabetes mellitus results from the dysregulation of insulin. Type 1 diabetes is caused by an autoimmune attack on the pancreatic beta cells, which produce insulin. Type 2 diabetes results from a more gradual breakdown of the degree to which target cells respond to insulin signaling. This loss of responsiveness is termed insulin insensitivity. Individuals with type 1 diabetes are dependent upon the administration of exogenous insulin, because they no longer produce the hormone in sufficient quantity to properly regulate blood glucose levels. Patients with type 2 diabetes are generally initially treated with dietary modifications and/or anti-hyperglycemic medications, but they may eventually require insulin treatment as well. Diabetes is commonly associated with high blood glucose levels (and uncontrolled diabetes can even be associated with excess glucose in the urine). Since insulin signaling promotes the uptake of glucose by cells, impaired insulin functioning will prevent cells from doing so, meaning that high levels of blood glucose will coexist with a state in which the cell has inadequate access to glucose for its own metabolism. If this occurs, cells may accumulate excess acetyl-CoA molecules that cannot be shunted into the citric acid cycle because the intermediaries of the citric acid cycle, especially oxaloacetate, have been siphoned off to gluconeogenesis. This excess acetyl-CoA can be used to produce acetone, D-β-hydroxybutyrate, and acetoacetate, which are known as ketone bodies. The latter two compounds are both acidic, meaning that when present in the blood at an excessively high level, they can cause the blood pH to drop, resulting in a condition known as ketoacidosis. In patients with underlying diabetes, this condition is known as diabetic ketoacidosis. Ketoacidosis can be smelled on a patient's breath, because acetone accumulates to a noticeable level.

NS 26 - water has no effect

In a neutralization reaction, an acid and a base react with each other to produce a salt and water. The actual neutralization that takes place can be thought of as a "canceling out" of each proton from the acid with one hydroxide ion from the base, forming a molecule of H2O. Despite the name, neutralizations do not always result in a solution of neutral pH (pH = 7 under standard conditions), since the product salt may be acidic or basic. A classic example of an acid-base neutralization reaction is the reaction between HCl (a strong acid) and NaOH (a strong base): HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l). The amount of base (or acid) required to fully neutralize an acid (or base) is given by the equation NacidVacid = NbaseVbase, which relates the normalities and volumes of the two solutions. For monoprotic species, where normality and molarity are equal, this simplifies to the fundamental concept of "moles acid = moles base," while for polyprotic species, it can be described as "moles H+= moles OH−." In a titration, complete neutralization occurs at a position termed the equivalence point. The above equation, then, is only valid at the equivalence point, not at any random point over the course of the titration.

Isomers

Isomers are molecules with the same ingredients (i.e., the same molecular formula) but different structural or spatial arrangements of these ingredients. Isomers can be split into two main groups: structural isomers and stereoisomers. Structural isomers describe the different ways that the atoms in a compound can be connected. The three main subcategories of structural isomers are chain isomers, functional isomers, and positional isomers. Chain isomers have different arrangements of the carbon 'skeleton.' Functional isomers are isomers where the molecular formula remains the same, but the type of functional group in the atom is changed. For example, a compound with an oxygen atom in addition to several carbon atoms and the corresponding number of hydrogens could be an alcohol with an -OH group, or an ether with a C-O-C group. Positional isomers have a given functional group in different locations (e.g., 1-pentanol vs. 2-pentanol). Stereoisomers involve different ways that substituents can be positioned. Cis-trans isomerism on the MCAT most frequently involves alkene bonds. Rotation about pi bonds is restricted, meaning that two different groups of atoms attached to each carbon of the C=C bond can be arranged in different ways to give different molecules. Optical isomers come in pairs and typically contain one or more chiral centers (a C atom bonded to four unique substituents). These substituents are arranged differently around the chiral carbon, in such a way that the molecule cannot be rotated to make the two arrangements match. If all of the chiral centers have different configurations, the isomers are non-superimposable mirror images (similar to your hands), known as enantiomers. Enantiomers have identical chemical and physical properties, but they differ in their rotation of plane-polarized light (opposite directions) as well as the products they yield when reacted with another chiral reagent. If the isomers have multiple chiral centers but differ only at some, they are known as diastereomers. Since diastereomers have very similar chemical, but less similar physical properties, the MCAT can drop subtle clues about how molecules were isolated and/or separated as indicators of whether compounds are enantiomers or diastereomers.

NS 51 : Solubility

LOOK @ REASONING a large ksp means more soluble

NS 37-38( tough and brutal) NS 40: look at reasoning NS 41: FORGOT FORMULA

LOOK AT NS 41 REASONING Circuits, as tested on the MCAT, are combinations of one or more resistors and/or capacitors connected by a conductive wire to which a battery is attached. The voltage differential of the battery (or "electromotive force") pushes current through the circuit. The three quantities of current, voltage, and resistance are linked together in Ohm's law, which is essential knowledge: V = IR. Power, which is conceptually equivalent to work over time, can be expressed as P = IV. Circuits can contain multiple resistors, which can be connected either in parallel or in series. For a circuit with resistors R1, R2, ... Rn wired in series, Itotal = I1 = I2 = ... = In, Vtotal = V1 + V2 + ... + Vn, and Rtotal = R1 + R2 + ... + Rn. If the resistors are wired in parallel, Itotal = I1 + I2 + ... + In, Vtotal = V1 = V2 = ... = Vn, and 1/Rtotal = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + ... + 1/Rn. Circuits can also contain capacitors, which store charge in two physically separated components. The charge stored by a capacitor is a function of its capacitance and voltage, as expressed by the equation Q = VC. When capacitors are connected in series, their capacitance adds reciprocally, like how resistance adds for resistors in parallel. When capacitors are connected in parallel, their capacitance adds directly, like resistors in series.

Development of zygote

More blasting gas, I'm nervous outline the process of morula to blastula to gastrula to neurulaton Can be Good and Nasty blastocoel: fluid-filled cavity in blastocyst blastocyst: contain inner cell mass along with the outer layer trophoblast , surrounds both ICM and blastocoel. Fertilization takes place in the Fallopian tube, when a sperm cell encounters a secondary oocyte. The sperm cell passes through the corona radiata, a layer of follicular cells surrounding the oocyte, and the zona pellucida, a layer of glycoproteins between the corona radiata and the oocyte. This triggers the acrosome reaction, in which digestive enzymes are released that allow the nucleus of the sperm cell to enter the egg. The secondary oocyte completes meiosis II, creating a second polar body and a mature ovum. Then, the haploid nuclei of the sperm cell and the ovum merge, creating a diploid one-cell zygote. As the zygote travels to the uterus, it undergoes a series of mitotic cell divisions known as cleavage. Once the zygote has cleaved into a mass of 16 cells by three to four days after fertilization, it is known as the morula. By three to five days after fertilization, the morula develops some degree of internal structure and becomes a blastocyst, with a fluid-filled cavity in the middle known as the blastocoel. The blastocyst implants in the uterine endometrium and further differentiates into the gastrula. The gastrula has three layers: the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the endoderm. These layers eventually go on to form specific organs and components in the body. The ectoderm primarily gives rise to the nervous system and epidermis (skin), as well as related structures like hair, nails, and sweat glands, and the linings of the mouth, anus, and nostrils. The process through which the nervous system is formed from the ectoderm is known as neurulation. The mesoderm generates many of the structures present within the body, including the musculature, connective tissue (including blood, bone, and cartilage), the gonads, the kidneys, and the adrenal cortex. The endoderm is basically responsible for the interior linings of the body, including the linings of the gastrointestinal system, the pancreas and part of the liver, the urinary bladder and part of the urethra, and the lungs.

if NADH level are high

NAD+ level are low Low NAD+ cause the production of OAA and pyruvate ( 2 important gluconeogenic substrates) will be decreased since pyruvate oxidation is coupled with NAD+>>>NADH and OAA is produced from pyruvate

Cytokinesis

NOT a phase of mitosis

Extractions

NS #25 (LOOK @ IT) Extractions are a technique used to separate two or more compounds in solution by manipulating their solubility properties using acid-base chemistry. Typically, an extraction setup will have a layer of a less-dense organic (i.e. nonpolar) solvent on top of a layer of water, which is a highly polar compound. Nonpolar compounds in solution will move to the organic layer, while polar (or charged) compounds will be in the aqueous layer. For example, imagine we had a flask containing valeric acid (CH3(CH2)3COOH) and aniline (C6H5NH2) suspended in a layer of diethyl ether floating above a layer of water, and wanted to separate out the valeric acid. We could add a strong base (for example, NaOH), which would deprotonate the valeric acid to form CH3(CH2)3COO-. This charged molecule would be much more likely to move to the water layer, which can then be extracted. This process may have to be repeated to ensure that the products are pure.

kinematics formula

NS 14 Kinematics is the study of objects in motion without direct reference to the forces acting upon those objects. The key concepts in kinematics are displacement, velocity, acceleration (all of which are vector quantities; distance and speed are the scalar equivalents of displacement and velocity, respectively), and time The slope of a graph of displacement vs. time corresponds to velocity, and the slope of a graph of velocity vs. time is acceleration. In contrast, the area under the curve of a graph of velocity vs. time is displacement, and the area under the curve of a graph of acceleration vs. time is velocity. vf^2=vi^2 + 2ad d=Vavt Vav=d/t acceleration formula d=vit+at^2/2 vav=vf+vi/2

NS 36 ) CHART ANALYSIS NS 37) CHART ANALYSIS: NS 40) MITO MYOPATHY

NS 40) mitochondrial myopathy is always passed down through the maternal line. The mitochondria, often known as the energy powerhouses of the cell, are organelles where the citric acid cycle, beta-oxidation of fatty acids, and oxidative phosphorylation take place. In combination with the products of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation allow 30+ molecules of ATP to be obtained from a single molecule of glucose, which is at least a 15-fold increase from what is possible using glycolysis alone. This was a transformative evolutionary leap in the history of life, and the mitochondria are therefore essential to the functioning of all eukaryotic organisms. The mitochondria are separated from the rest of the cytoplasm by two membranes (an outer membrane and an inner membrane), both of which are composed of a phospholipid bilayer. The structure of mitochondria can therefore be subdivided into the outer membrane, the intermembrane space, the inner membrane, and the mitochondrial matrix, which is the innermost part of each mitochondrion. The mitochondrial matrix is the site of the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation takes place via the action of protein complexes embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. As part of oxidative phosphorylation, the electron transport chain causes a buildup of protons in the intermembrane space, and the resulting proton gradient is used to power the activity of ATP synthase. Mitochondria are also unique in that they are self-replicating organelles. They contain their own DNA (mitochondrial DNA, or mtDNA), which is circular in structure and inherited maternally, and undergo binary fission. This remarkable fact has been explained through the endosymbiotic origin hypothesis, according to which mitochondria derive from an original prokaryotic cell capable of aerobic metabolism that became engulfed in another cell, resulting in an endosymbiotic lineage.

NS 53: TOUGH( LOOK OVER NS 54: LOOK AT NS 55: PE of spring : 1/2kx^2: miscaculation

NS 56: CHANGE CELSIUS TO KELVIN(+273K) A gas is a phase of matter in which the material does not have a fixed shape or volume of its own, but instead adopts the form and size of its container. Once inside a container, gas molecules are distributed uniformly with no spatial organization, and they undergo continuous, random motion. Both liquids and gases are considered fluids because of their tendency to flow. A gas is a low-density fluid because the molecules are much farther apart than in a liquid, where the molecules are in close contact with each other. There are five basic, measurable properties of a gas: pressure (P), temperature (T), volume (V), mass (m), and number of moles (n). Pressure is defined as force divided by area, and is commonly given in pascals (Pa), atmospheres (atm), mmHg, or torr, where 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 Torr = 105 Pa (N/m2). Unless otherwise indicated, we can assume that gases are under 1 atm of pressure, which is the magnitude of the pressure exerted by Earth's atmosphere at sea level. Temperature is an approximation of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a gaseous sample (T ~ KEavg = ½mv2). On the exam, T may be given in degrees Celsius or Kelvin, which are related by the equation TK = TC + 273. For the sake of the MCAT, absolute zero (0 K) is the lowest temperature at which any substance can exist, and at this temperature, the molecules in a gaseous sample will have no energy and will be motionless. Volume is the size of the space a gas occupies. Volume can be related to pressure using Boyle's law, which states that for an ideal gas at a constant temperature, PV = constant. Thus, we can see there is an inverse relationship between P and V. Volume and temperature are related in Charles's law: T/V = constant if P is constant, indicating a direct relationship between T and V. Volume can be expressed as any unit of distance cubed or as any standard unit of volume, but the most common units are mL, L, or cm3, where 1 L = 103 mL = 103 cm3. The number of gas particles is measured through moles. One mole of any substance is defined as 6 × 1023 atoms/molecules of that substance. Each substance will have an atomic or molecular weight defined as grams per mole; this variability means that moles (n) are more convenient than mass as a way of expressing the quantity of a gas present. The ideal gas law summarizes relates all the above properties: PV = nRT, where R is the universal gas constant (do not memorize its value) and T is temperature in Kelvin. Unless told otherwise, on the MCAT we can assume that we are dealing with ideal gases. Gases are more likely to behave non-ideally under extremely high pressures or at very low temperatures.

NS BB 6 7: venous blood has a high concentration of carbon dioxide plasma to cell 8) lactic acid buildup: acidic ( low pH) hyperventilation: dec o2, inc CO2 CAN LEAD TO RESP ACIDOSIS( dec pH) dec bicarbonate( weak base) : less basic 9) macrophages(?): pro-inflammatory and release R.O.s thT KILL CELLS

NS 7) same reasoning

NS BB 2-3) NADH supplies oxygen to ETC , so if ETC is not functioning properly, NADH will not be oxidized to NAD+ and H+ . NADH level would increase

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in an oxidized form (NAD+) and a reduced form (NADH), allowing it to donate or accept electrons during redox reactions, depending on the state in which it is found. In reactions involving NAD+, two electrons are removed from two hydrogen atoms present in a reactant, producing a hydride ion (H-) and a proton (H+). The proton is released into solution, the reactant is oxidized, and the electrons from the hydride are transferred to NAD+, reducing it to NADH. During the reduction, one electron from the hydride is transferred to the positively charged nitrogen of the nicotinamide ring of NAD+, while a second is transferred to a ring carbon. The reduction of NAD+ can be readily reversed, when NADH reduces another molecule and is returned to its oxidized state, NAD+, allowing the compound to be recycled during electron transfer. Together with flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD/FADH2), NADH is one of the major molecules used to generate energy in the body in the form of ATP. In metabolic pathways, electrons are transferred from nutrient molecules to electron carriers (NAD+/NADH and FAD/FADH2), which take them to the electron transport chain. There, a series of redox reactions takes place, with O2 as the final electron acceptor (in a reaction in which O2 → H2O). These redox reactions in the electron transport chain also transport protons into the intermembrane space of the mitochondria, and the resulting proton gradient powers ATP synthase. An important part of the electron transport chain is that it takes the reduced molecules (NADH and FADH2) and regenerates the oxidized forms (NAD+ and FAD) for reuse. In anaerobic metabolism, with no electron transport chain, fermentation is the alternate process used to regenerate NAD+. In yeast, this process produces ethanol, whereas anaerobic fermentation in the human body generates lactic acid, which is found in large quantities when muscle cells undergo intense anaerobic respiration during exercise.

NS 39 (smaller the distance travel in SDS PAGE, larger we would expect the protein to be ) 110Da=32kDa 53kDa (TOUGH)

Of the biochemical lab techniques tested on the MCAT, sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) is quite possibly the most important to understand. The purpose of this technique is simple: it allows proteins to be separated by their mass alone. You may recall that gel electrophoresis accomplishes a similar goal for DNA and RNA: it uses an electric field to separate these molecules by length alone. So why can't gel electrophoresis also function to separate proteins? The answer is twofold. First, proteins vary widely in their structure, or folding patterns. If we simply tried to run a mixture of proteins through a gel electrophoresis apparatus, these variations would impact the proteins' migration. Additionally, simple gel electrophoresis relies on the fact that DNA and RNA molecules contain a uniform negative charge, causing them to travel toward the positive pole of the apparatus. In contrast, proteins can have positive, negative, or neutral charges, and these charges may not be uniformly distributed throughout the molecule. SDS-PAGE addresses both of these issues. First, to eliminate the effects of differences in shape, SDS-PAGE uses a strong anionic detergent: sodium dodecyl sulfate. The "sulfate" portion of this name denotes the negatively-charged head of the molecule, while the "dodecyl" refers to a long hydrocarbon chain that forms the molecule's tail. The SDS molecule denatures native proteins into their unfolded polypeptide states, which prevents protein shape from impacting the separation. To address charge differences and ensure that the proteins actually travel down the gel, SDS coats the proteins with an even distribution of charge per unit mass. Specifically, when the highly anionic SDS associates with the polypeptide backbone, the intrinsic charge of the polypeptide becomes negligible in comparison to the negative charges due to SDS. Since the protein is now highly negative, it will travel toward the positive end of the gel apparatus. Otherwise, SDS-PAGE functions similarly to standard gel electrophoresis. The larger the protein, the more hindered it is as it moves down the gel, and the shorter the distance it travels toward the positive end. In contrast, smaller proteins can travel through the pores of the gel more easily, so they migrate farther toward the positive pole.

Power formulas

P=W/T=change in E/T=mgdeltah/t P=F.dcostheta/t=F x v P=KE/t P=V^2/R P=I^2R P=VI Watts: 1W=1 J/s

Raoult's Law Equation

P=XaPa P is vapor pressure Xa= mole fraction of solvent Pa= vapor pressure of pure solvent similar to Dalton Law A related concept known as vapor pressure describes what happens when a vapor, or gas, is in thermodynamic equilibrium with the liquid phase (or, theoretically, the solid phase as well). Vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by the molecules of that substance that are in gas form in a closed system at a given temperature. If a solute is present in a solution, Raoult's law states that the presence of solute decreases the vapor pressure

Insulin, Calcium , GPCR, ETC

POLAR AND THEY WOULD NEED AN ION CHANNEL TO PASS MEMBRANE BUT THEY CAN GO THOUGH BLOOD

D and L : relative (NS 30)/ NS 31-32

R and S: absolute NS 31: CHART NS 32: weak acid ph or solubility WA: ph less than pKA NS 33: Percent yield is defined as the actual mass of the desired product divided by the theoretical mass of the desired product, multiplied by 100 to form a percentage, or (actual/theoretical) × 100%. In order to correctly calculate the percent yield, it is necessary to accurately determine the theoretically predicted amount of product using careful stoichiometry, accounting for the limiting reagent (if applicable). NS 34: NOMENCLATURE NS 35: CARBOXYLATION: ADD COOH

ether

R-O-R

thiol

R-SH

visible light

ROYGBV EM waves are transverse waves that can propagate through vacuum, as well as through other media such as air and water EM waves have both electric and magnetic components with perpendicular to each other and to the direction in which the wave is propagating. speed of light c= 3 x 10^8 m/s relate velocity with wave = wavelength x frequency ( inverse)

NS CP( 10: BRUTAL DIFFICULTY: better answer) gamma: least mass b/c photon of electromagnetic energy

Radioactive decay -The only way this transformation can happen is by changing the number of protons (and often neutrons) in the nucleus, since atomic identity is defined by the number of protons. There are four primary types of decay: alpha decay, beta decay (β+ and β-), gamma decay, and electron capture. In alpha decay, an alpha particle, containing two protons, two neutrons, and a +2 charge, is emitted. In beta-minus decay, a neutron is converted into a proton in the nucleus, and a β- particle (an electron) is ejected to maintain charge balance. In beta-plus decay, a proton is converted into a neutron, and a β+ particle (a positron) is emitted to preserve charge. Gamma decay involves the emission of a gamma ray, which is a high-energy photon, from an excited nucleus. Finally, in electron capture, a nucleus "grabs" an electron, which changes a proton into a neutron. An isotope is a variety of an element that is distinguished from other varieties of the same element by having a different atomic mass; however, isotopes of a given element all share the same atomic number and chemical properties. These isotopes are often used in radiolabeling techniques in the biological sciences (for example, using 2H, or deuterium (D), to track amino acid uptake in protein translation). Another high-yield fundamental concept is half-life (t1/2), which is the time required for one-half of the parent isotopes in a sample to decay into daughter (radiogenic) isotopes (NS: shorter half life: logical that it would release more radiation in the same period of time b/c it undergoes decay more quickly : higher dose of radiation would kill more cells( cancerous or noncancerous) = less tumor size

Le Chatlier # 50

Reversible chemical reactions eventually reach a state known as equilibrium in which the forward and reverse reactions are proceeding at the same rate. However, the concentrations of products versus reactants at equilibrium are generally different. The relative preponderance of products versus reactants is described by the equilibrium constant (Keq), which is the concentration of products at equilibrium (raised to the power of their stoichiometric coefficients) divided by the concentration of reactants (raised to the power of their stoichiometric coefficients). For a sample reaction X (g) + 3 Y (g) ⇌ 2 Z (g), Keq = [Z]2/[X][Y]3. An important caveat is that solids and pure liquids should not be included in the equilibrium expression, and it is also important to note that Keq varies with temperature. A reaction that favors the products—in other words, that has a numerator greater than its denominator— will have a large Keq, while a reaction that favors the reactants will have a small Keq. Many other constants in chemistry with an uppercase K, such as Ka and Kb in acid-base chemistry and Ksp in solubility chemistry, are in fact specialized versions of equilibrium constants, so your knowledge of equilibrium processes can be applied to those contexts as well. Le Châtelier's principle is an MCAT-critical concept related to equilibrium. This principle states that if an equilibrium mixture is disrupted, it will shift to favor the direction of the reaction that best facilitates a return to equilibrium. A simpler version is that a reaction will shift in the direction that relieves the stress put on the system, where "stress" can refer to a change in reactant or product concentration, temperature, pressure, or volume. Thus, increasing the reactant concentration or decreasing the product concentration will shift the reaction towards the product side, and vice versa. In reactions with gases, increasing the volume (decreasing the pressure) will shift the equilibrium to the side with more moles of gas (and vice versa). For a reaction where ∆H > 0, increasing the temperature will shift the reaction toward the products, while decreasing it will shift the reaction toward the reactants; the opposite pattern is found if ∆H < 0.

NS 16 -17/19/21

SILLY MISTAKE NS 17) Arrhenius equation : k = Ae-Ea/(RT), expresses the relationship between the rate constant, k, and the temperature of a reaction. decrease pre-exponential factor A, will decrease the rate constant k k is directly proportional to rate general rule: increase temp = increase rate ( frequency of molec collisions) 21)Other properties are specific to a small number of amino acids. For example, glycine is the only achiral amino acid, meaning that a solution of glycine does not rotate plane-polarized light. This stems from glycine's alpha carbon, which is attached to two hydrogen atoms as well as the amino and carboxylic acid termini. Since this does not constitute four distinct substituents, glycine is achiral; all 19 other standard amino acids are chiral.

NS 3 BB 1-2

STICK W/ FIRST ANSWER / FROM THE SAME CELL LINE graph analysis NS 2: PUNNET SQUARE LIKELIHOOD: 1- PROBABILITY OF NONDISJUNCTION NONDISJUNCTION: FAIL OF CHROMOSOMES OR CHROMATIDS TO SEPERATE DURING ANAPHASE / OCCUR IN MEIOSIS 1 OR MEIOSIS 2 turner syndrome : XO Trisomy X:XXX Klinefelter: XXY XXO : NONDISJUNCTION YO: not viable Ploidy refers to how many copies of each chromosome a cell has. In humans, the vast majority of cells are diploid (2n), meaning that they contain two copies of each chromosome (except for the sex chromosomes; females have two X chromosomes and males have an X and a Y chromosome). Such cells are known as somatic cells—that is, the cells of the body. In contrast, germ cells (i.e., ova and spermatozoa) are haploid (n), meaning that the only have a single copy of each chromosome. Aneuploidy results from having too many or too few copies of a given chromosome. This results from nondisjunction in anaphase during cell division. Having only one copy of a chromosome is known as monosomy, and having three copies is known as trisomy. Aneuploidy is commonly discussed as occurring in meiosis, and indeed, this is the only way for aneuploidy to be inheritable. For this reason, nondisjunction during meiosis is the cause of aneuploidies such as Down syndrome (trisomy 21) or Turner syndrome (monosomy X). However, nondisjunction during mitosis can also occur, and this is extremely common in cancer cells.

NS 45 ) table

Signal detection theory is a framework for explaining how the mind transforms sensory stimuli into perceptions. This theoretical framework points out that the perception of stimuli can be affected not only by the stimuli themselves, but also by nonsensory considerations like expectations, experiences, and motives. In this way, psychological and environmental context can alter our perception of stimuli. Signal detection theory accounts for response bias, which is the tendency of people to habitually respond to a certain stimulus in a certain way because of nonsensory factors.

T/F: Polyatomic ions, or ions that contain multiple atoms, follow a few simple nomenclature rules. If several differently-charged ionic forms of an element exist, the positive charge value is represented by a Roman numeral. The ion with the lesser charge will use the suffix "-ous," and the ion with the greater charge will use the suffix "-ic."Monatomic ions use the suffix -ide, as in hydride (H-) or oxide (O2-) Oxyanions—polyatomic anions that contain oxygen—use the suffixes "-ite" and "-ate" for compounds with fewer and greater numbers of oxygen atoms, respectively. The prefix "hypo-" is added for oxyanions with one fewer oxygen than "-ite" ions, while the prefix "per-" is added for ions with one more oxygen than "-ate" ions. Examples of this convention include hypochlorite (ClO-), chlorite (ClO2-, chlorate (ClO3-), and perchlorate (ClO4-), as well as nitrite (NO2-) and nitrate (NO3-). If the polyatomic anion includes a hydrogen (H+) ion, "hydrogen" or the prefix "bi-" is added to the name of the parent anion. For example, the CO32- ion is carbonate, so HCO3- can be termed hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate. In contrast, "dihydrogen" denotes the presence of two H+ ions. For example, phosphate ion has a formula of PO43-, and H2PO4- can be called dihydrogen phosphate.

T

When an acid dissociates, it releases a proton to make the surrounding solution acidic. However, weak acids only partially dissociate and at equilibrium coexist in a deprotonated state (A-) and a protonated state (HA), according to the equation HA ⇌ H+ + A-. T/F

T Ka = [H+][A-]/[HA] tells about the strength Ka expresses how easily an acid releases a proton

K values for weak acids and bases tend to be very small numbers with exponents that may be difficult to work with without a calculator. For this reason, K values are usually converted to pK values (pK = −logK), much in the same way as [H+] values are converted to pH. Most organic acids and bases and species of biological origin are weak, so unfamiliar acids or bases are best assumed to be weak. T/F

T ( NS #16) - for weak acid (NOT fully dissociate in water) , you must use an ICE table and Ka of acid to calculate pH of an acidic solution. pH=-log(H+) , (H)= 10^-pH , (H+) = 10^-4M % dissociation = moles of X/( molarity of HA) X 100%

Only one of the primers is added to mixture, so one of the strand will NOT have a primer to be replicated. T/F

T( NS BB 51 reasoning) NS 52 ) a mature mRNA consist of 5' cap, 5' UTR, coding regions, 3' UTR, and a poly A tail. NS 53)? NS 54) CALCULATIONS NS 56) DNA Helix = less compact, nucleosome= FORM EUKARYOTIC DOMAINS AND MOST COMPACT

T/F: as an object falls , KE that gains = PE that will be lost

T, Conservation of energy is a fundamental law of nature. This principle states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, just transferred from one form to another. However, for problem-solving on the MCAT, it is important to determine whether we are only dealing with conservative forces or if non-conservative forces, such as friction, are incorporated. This principle is commonly applied to analyze scenarios in which kinetic and gravitational potential energy are interchanged, using the equation KEinitial + PEinitial = KEfinal + PEfinal. However, it is also possible to include elastic potential energy and electric potential energy if doing so would make sense in a given problem-solving context. If we need to account for nonconservative forces such as friction, we can do so using the equation Etotal - Enonconservative = Efinal.

Less dense object will rise more quickly than DENSER object ? T/F

T, a less dense object will rise quickly in a fluid and will then float with more of its volume above the fluid surface. A more dense object will rise MORE slowly and will float with more of tis volume submerged. p=m/v SI units:kg/m^3 g/mL g/cm^3 Specific density : how dense a substance is compared to water specific density> 1 will sink

NS 17-18/20/23:/25 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS PROBLEM

TABLE IMPORTANT DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS COULD HELP ME FIGURE OUT THE PROBLEM ns 18: passage analysis ns 20: brutal ns 23: make sure answer ? ns 25: logarithms

T/F: Due to hydrogen bonding, alcohols and carboxylic acids have higher melting/boiling points than aldehydes and ketones, and can function as organic weak acids

TRUE

NS 19 promoters= DNA sequences upstream operators= prokaryotes

The central dogma of molecular biology states that information is passed from DNA to RNA to protein. This means that when a cell needs more of a certain protein, it can increase the degree to which the gene corresponding to that protein is transcribed. Transcribing more or less of a gene in response to the cell's needs is known as gene expression. It plays a major role in the differentiation of organs in multicellular organisms, and can also vary on shorter time scales in response to changing environmental conditions. The details of how gene expression is regulated in eukaryotes are quite intricate, but you should be aware of some key concepts for the MCAT. Promoters are regions of DNA that lie upstream to a given gene and initiate transcription by binding specific transcription factors that contribute to the binding of RNA polymerase. Additionally, expression is upregulated by enhancers, which are DNA sequences that can be located further from the gene of interest, and work by binding transcription factors that twist DNA into a hairpin loop, bringing distant regions into close proximity for transcription to begin. Silencers are the opposite of enhancers in eukaryotic cells; they are regions of DNA to which transcription factors known as repressors bind. Additionally, the methylation of C and A residues can reduce transcription. Methylation is associated with epigenetics, which refers to inheritable phenotypic changes involving mechanisms other than the alteration of the genome itself.Gene expression can also be regulated on the level of nucleosomes (i.e. chromatin and histones). Acetylation promotes transcription by attaching acetyl groups to lysine residues on histones, making them less positively-charged and causing a looser wrapping pattern that allows transcription factors to access the genome more easily.

NS 49

The central dogma of molecular genetics states that information flows from deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) to messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) to protein. The Hershey-Chase experiment, conducted in 1952, helped demonstrate DNA's key role as genetic material. The researchers used radiolabeled sulfur and phosphorus to distinguish between proteins (which contain sulfur atoms present in cysteine and methionine residues, but not phosphate groups) and nucleic acids (which contain phosphate groups but no sulfur). Radiolabeled bacteriophages, which inject genetic material into bacterial cells, were added to bacterial cell cultures. It was determined that the bacterial cells post-transduction contained radiolabeled phosphate, not sulfur, indicating that the genetic material in question is DNA. DNA is organized in a double helix of antiparallel strands, with a sugar-phosphate backbone connected by phosphodiester bonds on the outside and nitrogenous bases on the inside. DNA contains four such bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T); RNA contains A, C, and G, but has uracil (U) in place of thymine (T). Of these, adenine and guanine are purines, which indicates that they contain two fused rings in their structures. In contrast, cytosine, thymine, and uracil are pyrimidines and contain only a single ring. Complementary base pairing dictates that adenine pairs with thymine in DNA, adenine pairs with uracil in mRNA, and cytosine pairs with guanine in both molecules. For the DNA double helix, the interior of the structure is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between base pairs (two hydrogen bonds for AT pairs and three for CG pairs), as well as hydrophobic interactions between stacked nitrogenous bases. Unlike DNA, RNA tends to exist in single-stranded form, rather than as a double-stranded double helix. Additionally, the sugar in RNA is ribose, which contains a hydroxyl (-OH) group on its 2′ carbon. (DNA contains deoxyribose, which lacks this 2′ hydroxyl group.) In addition to mRNA, which codes for protein production, several forms of non-coding RNA exist. These include transfer RNA (tRNA), which assists in translation, and small interfering RNA (siRNA) and microRNA (miRNA). siRNA and miRNA differ in their structure: miRNA strands are single-nucleotide strands incorporated into an RNA structure with a characteristic hairpin loop, while siRNA molecules are short and double-stranded. Both tend to be approximately 22 nucleotides in length, and both silence genes by interrupting expression between transcription and translation.

NS # 13

The human genome contains approximately 3 billion base pairs. To fit into human nuclei, which are generally about 6 μm (6 × 10−6 m) in size, DNA must be compressed. Subdividing the genome into linear chromosomes accomplishes some of this task, but the rest of the job is done by histones and chromatin. Histones are proteins that act as spools for DNA to wind around. They are composed of various subunits known as H1, H2A, H2B, H3, and H4. The core of a histone contains two dimers of H2A and H2B and a tetramer of H3 and H4, while H1 serves as a linking unit. Approximately 200 base pairs of DNA can be wound around a histone, and the complex formed by DNA and a histone is known as a nucleosome. The phrase "beads on a string" is often associated with the appearance of nucleosomes under electron microscopy, and chromatin refers to the structure formed by many nucleosomes. Two distinct forms of chromatin exist: euchromatin and heterochromatin. Euchromatin is a loose configuration that is difficult to see under light microscopy and allows DNA to be readily transcribed. Throughout interphase (i.e., most of the cell cycle), DNA generally exists as euchromatin. Heterochromatin is the tightly coiled, dense form of chromatin that is visible during cell division and is present to a lesser extent even during interphase. On a biochemical level, charge plays a major role in the interactions between histones and DNA. Histones are highly alkaline and are positively charged at physiological pH, which facilitates their interaction with the highly negatively charged phosphate groups on the backbone of DNA. Modifications like acetylation of histones reduce that positive charge, making histones interact with DNA less closely, which in turn facilitates transcriptional activity.

NS 11

The human genome contains approximately 3 billion base pairs. To fit into human nuclei, which are generally about 6 μm (6 × 10−6 m) in size, DNA must be compressed. Subdividing the genome into linear chromosomes accomplishes some of this task, but the rest of the job is done by histones and chromatin. Histones are proteins that act as spools for DNA to wind around. They are composed of various subunits known as H1, H2A, H2B, H3, and H4. The core of a histone contains two dimers of H2A and H2B and a tetramer of H3 and H4, while H1 serves as a linking unit. Approximately 200 base pairs of DNA can be wound around a histone, and the complex formed by DNA and a histone is known as a nucleosome. The phrase "beads on a string" is often associated with the appearance of nucleosomes under electron microscopy, and chromatin refers to the structure formed by many nucleosomes. Two distinct forms of chromatin exist: euchromatin and heterochromatin. Euchromatin is a loose configuration that is difficult to see under light microscopy and allows DNA to be readily transcribed. Throughout interphase (i.e., most of the cell cycle), DNA generally exists as euchromatin. Heterochromatin is the tightly coiled, dense form of chromatin that is visible during cell division and is present to a lesser extent even during interphase. On a biochemical level, charge plays a major role in the interactions between histones and DNA. Histones are highly alkaline and are positively charged at physiological pH, which facilitates their interaction with the highly negatively charged phosphate groups on the backbone of DNA. Modifications like acetylation of histones reduce that positive charge, making histones interact with DNA less closely, which in turn facilitates transcriptional activity.

NS CP bioavailability= drug enter in the body

The plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells is primarily composed of amphipathic phospholipids that have a polar head and a nonpolar tail. This structural property contributes to the formation of a bilayer membrane, in which the polar phosphate heads face the intracellular and extracellular environments (which are both aqueous solutions), while the nonpolar tails remain inside the membrane. In addition to phospholipids, the presence of cholesterol and lipid rafts within the plasma membrane help contribute to the fluidity of the membrane at lower temperatures and to its stability at higher temperatures. The resulting bilayer membrane is permeable to very small uncharged molecules (such as common blood gases) and to lipid-soluble molecules (such as steroid hormones), which can freely diffuse through the cell membrane. However, the membrane is not permeable to larger, hydrophilic molecules, such as glucose. Such molecules require specialized transporters, which can be regulated to a much greater extent than diffusion processes. This means that the lipid bilayer structure that results from entropically-favorable interactions between phospholipids ultimately allows the body to perform the physiologically essential task of closely regulating what goes into and out of the cell.

NS BB 49 (?)

The process of going from DNA to RNA—more specifically, messenger RNA (mRNA)—is called transcription. Transcription takes place in the nucleus, and it results in the creation of an mRNA copy of a gene that can then be transported to the cytosol for translation into a protein. The DNA helix must be unzipped for transcription to take place, which means that some of the same machinery used for DNA replication has to be engaged, especially enzymes like helicase and topoisomerase. RNA polymerase is the enzyme responsible for RNA synthesis. In eukaryotes, it binds to a promoter region upstream of the start codon with the assistance of transcription factors, the most important of which is the TATA box. RNA polymerase travels along the template strand in the 3'-5' direction, synthesizing an antiparallel complement in the 5'-3' direction. The template strand is known as the antisense strand, and the opposite strand is known as the sense strand, because it corresponds to the codons on the mRNA that is eventually exported to the cytosol for translation. The immediate product of transcription in eukaryotes is not mRNA, but heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA). hnRNA must undergo a set of post-transcriptional modifications to become mRNA. Examples commonly tested on the MCAT include the 3' poly-A tail, the 5' cap, and splicing. The 3' poly-A tail is a string of approximately 250 adenine (A) nucleotides added to the 3' end of an hnRNA transcript to protect the eventual mRNA transcript against rapid degradation in the cytosol. The 5' cap refers to a 7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap placed on the 5' end of an hnRNA transcript. Similarly to the 3' poly-A tail, it helps prevent the transcript from being degraded too quickly in the cytosol, but it also prepares the RNA complex for export from the nucleus. In splicing, noncoding sequences (introns) are removed and coding sequences (exons) are ligated together. (Remember that exons are expressed). Each gene normally has multiple distinct exons that can be ligated in different combinations; that is, if a gene had a set of four exons named A, B, C, and D, possible alternate splicing combinations could include ABCD, ABC, ACD, ABD, BCD, and so on. This dramatically increases the amount of different, but related proteins that can be expressed from a single gene. Splicing explains why there are over 200,000 proteins in the human body, but only approximately 20,000 genes. Splicing is carried out by the spliceosome, a combination of small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) and protein complexes.

NS #34 : arrhythmia: abnormal health rhythm

The rhythm of heart contractions is controlled by the sinoatrial (SA) node, which is found at the roof of the right atrium. The cells in the SA node periodically send out action potentials, much like nerve cells. Gap junctions between the cardiac muscle cells allow the action potential to propagate throughout the tissue, causing contraction. The action potential flows from the SA node into the atria, but not into the ventricles because of a layer of insulating tissue. This causes both atria to contract, pushing the blood forward into the ventricles. The atrioventricular (AV) node allows the action potential to pass through to the ventricles after the atria have contracted. At this point, the ventricles must contract to push the blood out of the heart. Since the ventricles are larger than the atria, it is a bit more difficult to get them to contract together, so the signal is sped through the bundle of His and Purkinje fibers to all the muscle cells of the ventricles. Deoxygenated blood returns to the right atrium via the superior and inferior venae cavae and the coronary sinus, which drains the coronary veins. From there, it is pumped into the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve. From the right ventricle, it goes to the pulmonary arteries through the pulmonary semilunar valves. After becoming oxygenated, it is returned to the heart via the pulmonary veins, and enters the left atrium. It is pumped through the bicuspid valve from the left atrium to the left ventricle, and then the left ventricle pushes the blood into circulation (more specifically, through the aortic semilunar valves into the ascending aorta).

Ksp is similar to, but distinct from, molar solubility, which refers to the moles of a substance that will dissolve in a solvent, because Ksp takes into account the relevant ions from any source. T/F

True

T/F Because strong acids and bases completely ionize, the [H+] and pH (or [OH−] and pOH) are easily calculated, since the concentration of protons or hydroxyl groups is equal to the molarity of the solution. Thus, a 0.4 M solution of KOH has a [OH−] of 0.4, and a 0.007 M solution of HI has a [H+] of 0.007. For solutions so dilute that the H+ or OH− normally present in pure water (1 × 10−7 M) is comparable or larger to the amount produced by acid/base ionization, the ions present due to water must be considered.

True

T/F: can a test be reliable( consistent) but not valid(accuracy)?

True

T/F: solubility of water in air decreases w/ decreasing temp

True w/ dec temp, air holds less liquid = less total liquid in air An easy way to remember this phenomenon is recognizing that "like dissolves like"—solutes will dissolve in solvents that they share similar properties with. This also applies if two equal proportions of liquids are mixed(polarity)

NS 20

Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, which means that they must hijack host cells to replicate. The genetic material of viruses can be in the form of either single-stranded or double-stranded DNA or RNA. Single-stranded RNA viruses are further subdivided into positive-sense and negative-sense viruses. Positive-sense RNA viruses contain mRNA that can immediately be translated by the cell. In contrast, negative-sense RNA viruses contain RNA that is complementary to mRNA, meaning that mRNA must be synthesized by an enzyme known as RNA replicase that is carried in the virion. Bacteriophages are viruses whose host cells are bacteria. Instead of entering the cell completely, they inject their genetic material into their host through a syringe-like structure known as a tail sheath. Retroviruses are a distinct class of single-stranded RNA viruses, including HIV, that use an enzyme known as reverse transcriptase to synthesize DNA from their RNA genome. Bacteriophages have two distinct life cycles: lytic and lysogenic. During the lytic cycle, the bacteriophage essentially works to replicate at full speed, making full use of the host cell's machinery. Eventually, the host cell is filled with virions to the point that it bursts or lyses, and a tremendous number of new virions spill out into the environment. Alternately, in the lysogenic cycle, bacteriophages can integrate themselves into the host genome, at which point they are referred to as a prophage or a provirus. In response to environmental signals, the prophage can re-emerge from the host genome and resume a lytic cycle. Non-bacteriophage viruses (e.g., those that infect humans) can exhibit a dormant stage that is similar to the lysogenic cycle. Examples of viruses with a prominent dormant stage include HIV and herpesvirus.

THE START OF NS 4(C/P #1) buffer

WA or WB with its corresponding salt(salt form from weak acid or base) or conjugate if given pH, then determine whether what is the appropriate buffer A buffer is a solution that resists changes in pH upon addition of acid or base. they are highly effective at maintaining pH when small to moderate quantities are added. A buffer must contain either a weak acid and its conjugate base or a weak base and its conjugate acid. The pH of a buffer solution can be calculated using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: pH = pKa + log[A-]/[HA], where HA refers to a generic weak acid and A? refers to its conjugate weak base. The basic idea of a buffer is that if we add a small to moderate amount of a strong acid or base to the buffered solution, it will entirely protonate or deprotonate some of the weak acid/base. However, since the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation refers to the log of the [A?]/[HA] ratio, doing so will only minimally affect the pH. (CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ HCO3- + H+) through Le Châtelier's principle, increasing the amount of CO2 in the blood (as occurs as a result of cellular respiration) pushes the bicarbonate reaction to the right, increasing the amount of H+ present in the blood and thereby reducing its pH. Thus, it is essential for the body to be able to breathe out CO2 and breathe in O2.

NS 47- Southern Blot = are used to probe DNA for specific sequences; however, changes of gene expression @ cell level due to changes in transcription and translation for genes and NOT number of genes themselves.

Western Blot= proteins RT-PCR= amount of RNA expressed Immunoassays operate on the principle that antibodies cultured from antibody-producing cells can bind with great specificity to a protein antigen of interest. A protein in a mixture can be detected using a radioimmunoassay (RIA); in an RIA, the protein concentration can be assessed indirectly by measuring the extent to which the protein competes with a radioactively labeled standard for antibody binding sites. A related technique is known as the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In general, ELISA uses a solid-phase enzyme immunoassay that detects the presence of an antigen. First, a sample containing an unknown amount of antigen is applied to a solid-phase supporting structure. After the antigen contained in the sample becomes attached to the solid support, a specific detection antibody is applied to, and binds with, the antigen. The antibody is then covalently linked to an enzyme directly or through a secondary antibody that is conjugated with an enzyme. Between steps, the plate is often washed with a detergent to rinse unbound proteins or antibodies. Following addition of the enzyme's substrate, a reaction occurs that produces a visualizable signal. The intensity of this signal is related to the quantity of protein antigen present in the original sample. A separate category of analytical techniques combines the use of hybridization (binding of complementary nucleic acid strands) and electrophoresis (movement of molecules toward a charged electrode). For the MCAT, you should be aware of Southern blotting, western blotting, and northern blotting. Southern blotting is a technique used to identify specific DNA sequences. Western and northern blots are used to identify protein and RNA sequences, respectively. In these sequences, the molecules of interest undergo gel electrophoresis to separate them by size and then are transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane that can be heated, at which point probe analysis can be performed. (The process is slightly different for western blots, where antibodies are used instead of DNA/RNA probes.) Two final techniques to be aware of are the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Edman degradation. PCR is essentially "laboratory DNA replication," and uses a thermostable DNA polymerase and successive cycles of denaturation, annealing of primers, and extension of a new complementary strand to produce many copies of a sequence of interest. In contrast, Edman degradation is a technique used to sequence proteins via successive cleaving of terminal amino acid residues.

NS 13: the closer an electron is to nucleus(, p,d,f,g) , harder to eject sp hybridized: 50% s : sp triple bond. if something can eject from this, MUSE HAVE HIGHEST ENERGY sp2: 33% sp3: 25% radiation that excites e- but not eject is of LOWER energy than those that eject electrons

When atoms combine to form a molecule, their atomic orbitals overlap to produce molecular orbitals. A single bond—consisting of two electrons—between two atoms will form a sigma (σ) bond, which has an overlapping region of electron density. Pi (π) bonds occur between two parallel p orbitals and are weaker than σ bonds. Double bonds consist of one π bond and one σ bond, while triple bonds include two π bonds and one σ bond. However, the orbitals of an atom hybridize so that they are homogenous. For example, on paper, the central carbon in methane (CH4) has four valence electrons and would appear to have one s orbital and three p orbitals. In reality, however, these orbitals combine, or hybridize, to produce four identical sp3 orbitals. Hybridization between one s orbital and two p orbitals may also occur to produce three sp2 orbitals, or between one s orbital and one p orbital to produce two sp orbitals. A quick guide to identifying the orbital hybridization of a molecule is to determine the number of regions of electron density around the atom.

Work energy therorem

Wnet=changeinKE (NS# 18) the work-energy theorem states that the work performed on or by an object is equal to the change in its kinetic energy: W = KEfinal - KEinitial.

NS CP 32

Work is a general term in physics used to describe energy transfer. Its units are joules (J), and 1 J = 1 N•m or 1 kg•m2/s2. W=|F|∙d∙cos(θ). Forces are vectors, so depending on the problem setup, we must be careful to distinguish between distance and displacement. On a graph with F on the y-axis and d on the x-axis, work will be the area under the curve. Work can also be defined as pressure × change in volume: W = PΔV, and can be graphically estimated as the area under a pressure-volume curve. The principle of conservation of energy can be used to derive a powerful relationship known as the work-energy theorem, which states that the net work performed on or by an object is equal to the change of its kinetic energy: Wnet = KE final - KEinitial

informal sanctions

a spontaneous expression of approval or disapproval given by an individual or a group to make behavior more normative

epinephrine

adrenaline

What happen if lungs are punctured?

air will flow freely btwn lung and intrapleural space , and the lung will NOT expand( since no pressure differential can be maintaned) . Expansion of thoracic cavity should still lead to some air flow into lung , however, although it will also mix freely w/ thoracic cavity air , make it more difficult to absorb oxygen w/n damaged lung while also making it harder to maintain a pressure differential w/ other lung

bases of power model

an individual w/ referrent power exerts control by appealing to other's desire to belong to a group. most likely to appeal to individuals through external factors

3 types of junctions

anchoring junctions: adherens associate w/ cadherins they connect cytoskeletal components of the cell( stability) adherens: cadherin-mediated between actin filaments and other cells and extracell matrix Desmosomes involve cadherin. Hemidesmosomes: integrins connect the intermediate cells of extracell matrix gap junctions : connexin : communication w/o direct contact used in cardiac muscle: allow cell to contract @ once(same time) tight junctions: epithelial cells/ ex: blood-brain barrier

adrenal glands

androgens(testosterone and estrogen) help maintain normal sex characteristic and sex drive. Corticosteroids, such as cortisol, are part of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis , which is reasonable for body response to stress

EM waves frequency( x axis in distance) =1/period and f= 1 wave/sec or velocity/wavelength period( x axis: in seconds) = wavelength/velocity or 1/ frequency look at pic NS 3 wavenumber= 1/ wavelength= cm^-1

are transverse waves that can propagate through vacuum, as well as through other media such as air and water. have both electrical and magnetic components, with amplitudes perpendicular to each other and to the direction in which the wave is propagating speed of light (c = 3 × 108 m/s) The corresponding frequency of the wave is the number of complete wavelengths that pass a given point per second. Frequency is usually measured in hertz (Hz). Thus, longer wavelengths correspond to lower-frequency radiation, and shorter wavelengths correspond to higher-frequency radiation. We can relate the velocity of a wave to its frequency and wavelength using the equation v = λf. (E = hf = hc/λ) wavelength of light is inversely proportional to frequency. Upon entering a new medium (such as glass or air from space), the velocity and wavelength of light change (although the velocity of light in a vacuum is higher than in any other medium), while the frequency remains unaltered.

cations<0<anions

atomic radius periods(rows) groups(columns) Due to the presence of protons, the nucleus of an atom is always positive. The attractive force of this positively-charged nucleus on the atom's negatively-charged valence electrons is termed the effective nuclear charge (Zeff). As the number of protons in the nucleus increases from left to right across a period (or row) of the table, Zeff also increases, since each additional proton adds positive charge to the nucleus. However, Zeff is not synonymous with the number of protons held by an atom. Moving down a group, the principal quantum number of the outermost energy level increases, which effectively means that more shells of electrons are added between the nucleus and the outermost, or valence, electrons. These layers of core electrons partially shield the valence electrons from the effects of the positive charge in the nucleus. Thus, Zeff decreases as one moves down a group. Periodic trends in Zeff help explain other trends on the periodic table. Atomic size, or radius, is inversely related to Zeff. Atomic radius decreases from left to right across a period as Zeff increases and the addition of protons pulls the valence electrons closer to the nucleus. In contrast, atomic radius increases down a column as more electron shells are added and electron shielding decreases the attractive force of the nucleus on valence electrons. To summarize this trend, the atoms with the largest radii are found nearest the bottom left of the periodic table. A concept that relates closely to atomic radius is ionic radius, or the radius of a charged species (for example, F−). It is important to understand that cations (positive ions) tend to have smaller ionic radii than the atomic radii of their corresponding uncharged elements. This is because an uncharged atom must lose one or more electrons to become positively charged. On the other hand, for anions (negative ions), the ionic radius is typically larger than the corresponding atomic radius, since these species must gain electrons, and thus become slightly larger, to take on their negative forms. The most common ionic configuration of an atom often relates to the number of electrons it must gain or lose to obtain the same electron configuration as its nearest noble gas. For example, fluorine needs to gain only a single electron to obtain the same electron configuration as neon, so its preferred ionic form is F−.

Binary fission vs transduction vs conjugation vs transformation

binary fission= bacteria reproduce asexually transduction= form of horizontal gene transfer in bacteria in which bacteriophages ( virus that infect bacteria) transmit gene material. conjugation= horiz gene transfer process in bacteria in which plasmid DNA is transferred from one bacterium to another via pilus. transformation = direct uptake of genetic material from the environment

antibiotics too big to pass

blood brain barrier

beta sheets

can be parallel or antiparallel pleated , sheetlike structures that consist of parallel backbone strands

G0(28)

cells dont divide epithelial cells divide the most ( would be a problem) Mitosis proceeds through prophase (where the nuclear membrane disappears, chromosomes condense, and the mitotic spindle forms), metaphase (where chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate), anaphase (where chromosome are pulled apart), and telophase/cytokinesis (where the nuclear envelope and nucleolus reappear and the cell divides). Meiosis occurs in sex/germ cells and turns a diploid (2n) parent cell into 4 haploid (n) daughter cells in a two-stage process, in which crossover between homologous chromosomes and the random allocation of maternal/paternal chromosomes to daughter cells work together to create genetic variability.

NS # 35 chemical synapse(initiated by electric signal,require movement of agents through intercellular space) vs electrical synapse( do not require movement of chemicals through a small opening/ lack gain of signal modification does not explain the difference in speed between the 2 synapse types)

chemical synapse must diffuse over large distance( intercell space) = SLOWER than electrical synpases Synapses are small structures at the end of the axon of a neuron that allow the neuron to communicate with another nerve, a muscle cell, or a gland. Neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles in the axon terminal. When the action potential arrives, voltage-gated calcium channels are triggered, allowing Ca2+ to rush into the axon terminal. These calcium ions serve as the signal for the cell to use exocytosis to push the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft—the space that exists between the axon and the post-synaptic membrane. The space of the cleft is exceptionally small, such that simple diffusion is enough to very quickly carry the neurotransmitters across the cleft to the post-synaptic membrane. There, the neurotransmitters can act as ligands binding to their receptors. Neurotransmitters must be cleared out of the synaptic cleft quickly. This allows the body to tightly regulate the strength and timing of the signals sent by nerves. Neurotransmitters can either be broken down by enzymes in the cleft (the classic example being acetylcholinesterase, which breaks down acetylcholine) or taken back up by the presynaptic axon for re-use later.

parallel play

children play adjacent to each other and observe each other , BUT not actually play together or interacting . They will play by themselves but observe another child playing and adjust their behavior in response. Behavior is common to younger children pretend play = 2-6 years old: concrete operational 6-11: more likely to play with each other / can be harmful Psychologist Jean Piaget proposed that cognitive development occurs in four discrete stages. In the first stage, termed the sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2), the individual experiences the world exclusively through sensing and moving through their environment. A key event in this stage is the development of object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even though we are not looking at them. The next stage is the preoperational stage (ages 2-7). Here, the individual develops symbolic thinking, or the idea that things and ideas can be represented through symbols such as words or gestures. During this stage, children tend to focus on a single aspect of a thing or experience, a phenomenon called centration, and they also display an inability to comprehend conservation, or the idea that a quantity remains the same despite a change in shape. Children in this stage are egocentric, meaning they do not understand that other people have thoughts or perspectives different from their own. The third stage is the concrete operational stage (ages 7 to 11). Here, children develop an understanding of conservation and begin to understand mathematics. They also become less egocentric and can think logically about concrete events and objects, but they still have not developed a full capacity for abstract thought. Finally, the fourth stage is the formal operational stage (age 12+). Here, people develop the abilities of abstract and moral reasoning.

A restriction enzyme

cleave DNA @ or near specific recognition nucleotides sequences, known as nuclear or restriction sites Type 1= cleave @ sites remote from recognition site; they require both ATP and S-adenosyl L- methionine Type 2= cleave w/n or @ short specific distances from their recognition sites. Type 3= cleave @ sites a short distance from their recognition sites and require ATP( but do not hydrolyze it) Type 4= modified DNA In a palindromic sequence, sequence of bases when read from 5' to 3' on one strand is the same as the sequence of the other strand when it read from 5' to 3'. resulting fragments have " blunt" ends " sticky ends" from restriction enzyme ligation= DNA ligase

competitive inhibitor vs allosteric inhibitor vs irreversible inhibitor

competitve inhibitor= LOOKS THE SAME allosteric inhibitor= binds to a site other than the active site irreversible= will bind to an enzyme so that no other enzyme-substrate complexes can form. It will bind to the enzyme use a covalent bond @ active site which makes enzyme denatured. high levels... feedback inhibition ..allosteric

titin

component of muscle

Bernouli equation

conservation of energy in fluids KE+PE=KE+PE when height is constant(as horiz pipe system) , an increase in velocity correspond to a decrease in pressure, and vice versa

validities

construct= refer to whether measures actually do assess the variables that they intended to measure . ecological = refer to how findings from an experimental setting can be generalized to the environment considerations in real world. researcher bias= researchers interject own views reliability=likelihood that results cannot be replicated

surface tension

contractive tendency of surface of liquid that allows it to resist an external force. Surface tension decreases as temperature increases Average KE of fluid increases, break intermolec bond surface tension decrease as surface area of the fluid rises due to molecules being stretched apart .

cross sectional limitation

correlation but NOT causation

delerium tremens vs schizotypical personality disorder

delerium tremens= acute episode of delirium that is caused by withdrawl from OH . schizotypical personality disorder= social isolation, anxiety in social situation, odd behavior, and thinking, and often unconventional beliefs.

Sn2 nucleophile(Next steop MCAT diagnsotic #21)

ex: water and methanol are weak nucleophile but deprotonated, they will be strong Nucelophilicty decreases from L to R(lower)(N>O>F), increases as charge on atom become more negative, increase with size , inc going down periodic table, WHEN MOVING ACROSS A ROW, NUCLOPHILICTY FOLLOWS BASICITY (I->Br>Cl>F)

stereotype and prejudice

example of attitudes , and all three carry a (-) connotation stereotype= prevalent but oversimplified idea about a certain group. This stereotyped group consist of ppl with similar characteristics/ generalizations - it can also unintentionally fulfill stereotype, making it an example of self-fulfilling prophecy. prejudice= preconceived notion about a specific person, place, or thing

Conjugation

excitation occur fluorscence . Electrons can delocalize throughout that π system. For the purposes of the MCAT, conjugation can be associated with structures containing alternating single and double bonds in carbon chains. An important characteristic of compounds with conjugated systems is that they absorb ultraviolet (UV) light, and can therefore be well visualized using UV spectroscopy. Aromatic compounds are conjugated cyclic molecules with a planar structure that also satisfy an additional criterion known as Hückel's rule: having (4n + 2) π-electrons, where n is an integer. The most important and well-known example of an aromatic compound is benzene. However, many other biologically relevant aromatic rings contain non-carbon molecules, for which reason they are known as heterocyclic rings. These include pyridine (present in the vitamin niacin), pyrimidine and purine (present in nucleic acids), imidazole (present in many important drugs), and pyrrole (which is a component of the porphyrins contained in heme). In contrast, antiaromatic molecules are highly unstable compounds with 4n π-electrons.

Magnetic field

field strength is proportional to current and inverse proportional to radius. ex: inc radius, lower strength P=IV: increased power= increase current magnetic field (B) run from north to south pole uo= constant known as the permeability of free space i= current run through the wire r= distance from wire Force exerted by a magnetic field on moving charge Fb=qvBsin(theta). q= magnitude of the charge v=velocity B= strength of magnetic field angle= angle of velocity of the particle to the magnetic field.

Activation of sympathetic nervous system

fight or flight pupils dilate increased rate heart contraction blood vessel dilation in skeletal muscle and constriction in GI organs inhibition of peristalsis

different form of capitals

financial, material, social , structural social(opportunites to achieve social goals), cognitive social(shared norms, values, and beliefs of a people who seek mutually beneficial group) , intellectual capital, and spiritual capital

Object floats in fluid,

fluid exerts an upward force on the object known as the buoyant force. For an object float, magnitude of buoyant force MUST exceed weight of object. Fb=pfluidVolumeg Fluid is PROPORTIONAL to volume of liquid: Archimedes principle

Kinesthetic sense

focused on balance and individual sense of his body in world Kinesthetic sense refers to our ability to sense linear and rotational acceleration. The organ responsible for this is the ear, which is divided into three major parts: the outer, middle, and inner ear. The inner ear contains the cochlea, which is crucial for hearing, and the vestibule and the semicircular canals, which account for linear and rotational acceleration, respectively. The inner ear is protected by a thick layer of bone called the bony labyrinth. Together, the structures of the inner ear form a mass called the membranous labyrinth, which is filled with endolymph, a potassium-rich fluid. Outside of the membranous labyrinth, between it and the bony labyrinth, is a thin layer of another fluid called perilymph. Perilymph transmits vibrations from the stapes, but also protects the membranous labyrinth. The vestibule, which contains the utricle and saccule, is responsible for sensing linear acceleration, which helps us balance and determine our orientation in space. The utricle and saccule contain specialized hair cells, otoliths, that resist motion as the body accelerates, and send information to the brain. The semicircular canals sense rotational acceleration. Each canal ends in an ampulla, which houses hair cells. Endolymph in the ampullas resists motion when the head rotates, stimulating hair cells to send information to the brain. The kinesthetic sense is also linked to proprioception, which occurs due to receptors found mostly in the muscles and joints. Proprioception allows us to perceive where our bodies are in space. For example, even with your eyes and ears covered, you can know where your foot is in space.

steroid hormone

freely diffuse through cell membrane . As a hormone, testosterone is transported throughout the body in the circulatory system , not confined to the nuclei of cells in testes. Testosterone must bind to transport protein since it's NOT hydrophilic and thus CANNOT simply dissolve in blood plasma directly.

Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases

gas mixtures DO NOT act differently from pure gases

cell differentiaion (NS 58)

gene expression levels , position, cell signaling look @ reasoning

NS CP 3 BB( inactive chromosome from upper gel Xa from mom and Xa from dad Xa= active

gene methylated, cant cut ( too big) (SDS-PAGE) is quite possibly the most important to understand. The purpose of this technique is simple: it allows proteins to be separated by their mass alone. You may recall that gel electrophoresis accomplishes a similar goal for DNA and RNA: it uses an electric field to separate these molecules by length alone. So why can't gel electrophoresis also function to separate proteins? The answer is twofold. First, proteins vary widely in their structure, or folding patterns. If we simply tried to run a mixture of proteins through a gel electrophoresis apparatus, these variations would impact the proteins' migration. Additionally, simple gel electrophoresis relies on the fact that DNA and RNA molecules contain a uniform negative charge, causing them to travel toward the positive pole of the apparatus. In contrast, proteins can have positive, negative, or neutral charges, and these charges may not be uniformly distributed throughout the molecule. SDS-PAGE addresses both of these issues. First, to eliminate the effects of differences in shape, SDS-PAGE uses a strong anionic detergent: sodium dodecyl sulfate. The "sulfate" portion of this name denotes the negatively-charged head of the molecule, while the "dodecyl" refers to a long hydrocarbon chain that forms the molecule's tail. The SDS molecule denatures native proteins into their unfolded polypeptide states, which prevents protein shape from impacting the separation. To address charge differences and ensure that the proteins actually travel down the gel, SDS coats the proteins with an even distribution of charge per unit mass. Specifically, when the highly anionic SDS associates with the polypeptide backbone, the intrinsic charge of the polypeptide becomes negligible in comparison to the negative charges due to SDS. Since the protein is now highly negative, it will travel toward the positive end of the gel apparatus. Otherwise, SDS-PAGE functions similarly to standard gel electrophoresis. The larger the protein, the more hindered it is as it moves down the gel, and the shorter the distance it travels toward the positive end. In contrast, smaller proteins can travel through the pores of the gel more easily, so they migrate farther toward the positive pole.

The main source of carbon dioxide in human body is cellular production during the Kreb Cycle . If an individual breathes rapidly

he will exhale carbon dioxide more quickly than his cells produce it cause low carbon dioxide meaning high pH (alkalosis) the rate of co2 exhale>rate of co2 production Acid-base buffers confer resistance to a change in the pH of a solution when hydrogen ions or hydroxide ions are added or removed to solution. An acid-base buffer typically consists of a weak acid and its conjugate base. The most important buffer to know for the MCAT is the bicarbonate buffer system, which is shown below. H2O (aq) + CO2 (g) ⇌ H2CO3 (aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + HCO3− (aq) Carbonic acid (H2CO3) has the conjugate base of HCO3−. Buffers work because the concentrations of the weak acid and its salt are large compared to the number of protons or hydroxide ions added or removed. When protons are added to the solution from an external source, some of the bicarbonate in the buffer is converted to carbonic acid, using up the protons added; when hydroxide ions are added to the solution, protons are dissociated from some of the carbonic acid in the buffer, converting it to bicarbonate and replacing the protons lost. Buffers resist pH changes best when the pH values are at or near the pKa value for the acid/base used, because that is when the conjugate acid and base have equal concentrations. Optimal buffering occurs when the pH is within approximately 1 pH unit from the pKa value of the system. The pH of a buffer solution can be calculated using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: pH = pKa+ log [conjugate base] / [acid]. For example, hyperventilation (rapid deep breathing) results in excess CO2being expelled from the blood, causing the pH to rise. In response, the buffer needs to release more H+ to lower the pH back to physiological norms. An additional fact to be aware of is that other mechanisms in the body are also used to regulate pH, since carbonic acid works best at a pH below physiological conditions, because its pKa1 (pKa1 = 6.3, pKa2 = 10.3) is much lower than the normal pH of blood

DNA helix must be unzipped for transcription to take place

helicase and topoisomerase RNA polymerase is the enzyme responsible for RNA synthesis In eukaryotes, it bind to a promoter region upstream of the start codon w/ transcription factors, most important of which is TATA Box. RNA Pol : in 3'>5' direction, antiparallel complement in 5'>3' direction. -template strand : antisense strand and the opposite strand is known as sense strand, b/c it corresponds to codons on mRNA that is exported to cytosol for translation. -immediate product: hnRNA hnRNA>mRNA 3' Poly A tail: added to 3' end of an hnRNA transcript to prevent for degradation 5' cap refers 7-methylguanylate triphosphate= place on 5' end of hnRNA transcript poly A tail and 5' cap prevent degradation Splicing: noncoding sequences -introns are removed and coding sequences ( exon) ligated together( exons are expressed) Each gene has multiple distinct exons that can be ligated in differ combinations 4 exon: A,B,C, and D alternate splicing combinations: ABCD, ABC, ACD, etc Splicing is carried out by spliceosome , combination of small nuclear RNAs

(16)hyperventilation = Loss of carbon dioxide / increase oxygen in blood

increase Hb affinity for oxygen increase blood pH net exhalation of carbon dioxide ( co2 is lost due to excess exhalation) Oxygen enters the body in the lungs, where it diffuses through the alveoli into capillaries containing oxygen-poor blood brought to the lungs by the pulmonary arteries. Oxygen is carried through the blood to the tissues that require oxygen for respiration by hemoglobin, a metalloprotein that is composed of four heme-containing subunits. Hemoglobin exhibits cooperative binding, in which the first oxygen that binds to a heme group increases the affinity of the other heme groups for oxygen. Additionally, H +—high concentrations of which indicate an acidic environment—reduces the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen, which allows hemoglobin to deliver oxygen to the tissues that need it. CO2 is the major waste product of metabolism in the human body. The bicarbonate equilibrium reaction is crucial for understanding the physiology of CO2: CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ HCO3- + H+. The enzyme carbonic anhydrase converts CO2 to H2CO3 much faster than would otherwise be possible. Then, H2CO3 dissociates to HCO3- + H+, which is noteworthy for two reasons. First, HCO3- is charged and highly water-soluble, so it can easily be transported in the blood. Second, H+ directly acidifies the blood. Thus, a high concentration of H+, corresponding to a low pH, indicates that extensive metabolism has taken place in an area and that more O2 is necessary, which ties into the allosteric regulation of hemoglobin discussed above.

aldosterone

increase water and Na( increase blood sodium) reabsorption from the kidney while exchanging K+ ions for Na+ ions . ( low potassium level) increase blood Na hypersecretion = inhibit renin production / negatively feedback high BP= HIGH PRESSURE Fluid regulation is crucial for the maintenance of life. There are two basic scenarios that the body can encounter: too little fluid and too much fluid. Having too little fluid in one's system manifests in three important ways: reduced blood volume (because relatively little water is present in the blood plasma), reduced blood pressure (a consequence of reduced blood volume—less liquid is present to exert pressure against the walls of the blood vessels), and increased blood osmolarity (the same solutes are present, but less solvent is available). Correspondingly, increases in the amount of fluid present in the system manifest as increased blood volume (because more water is present in the blood plasma), increased blood pressure (more blood volume means more pressure against the walls of the blood vessels), and decreased blood osmolarity (the same solutes are present, but more solvent is available). Two major hormones respond to low fluid levels by increasing fluid retention: aldosterone (the main example of a class of steroid hormones known as mineralocorticoids) and anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), a peptide hormone that is also known as vasopressin. However, these two hormones have different mechanisms. Aldosterone works by increasing sodium absorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of the nephron, which drives water absorption. Aldosterone also increases excretion of potassium and hydrogen ions in the urine. In contrast, ADH increases the permeability of the collecting duct to water, thereby increasing water absorption. Thus, ADH acts to reduce the osmolarity of blood by increasing the amount of water present without changing the solute levels, whereas aldosterone does not affect osmolarity because sodium reabsorption drives water absorption. Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP; also known as atrial natriuretic factor [ANF]) is a hormone that the endocrine system uses to deal with the problem of excess blood volume. Essentially, it is the opposite of aldosterone. It is released in response to high blood volume and decreases sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct, as well as increasing the glomerular filtration rate and inhibiting aldosterone release.

context effect

increased recall when the subject is in a similar environment as the one in which the original learning took place ex: deja vu: expereince event before

affinity kinship is

individuals are related by choice , such as marriage, rather through blood Next Step explanation In an egalitarian family, both parents have equal power. In a patriarchy, men have more authority, and in a matriarchy, women have more authority. Kinship can be thought of as an extension of family, but it refers less to our blood relations and more to who we consider as belonging to our family (who do you spend holidays with, etc.). For example, family friends who have been around so long that they are called "aunt" and "uncle" would be considered kin, even though they are not blood relations. Several types of kinship exist. These types can be distinguished according to closeness of relation, or they can be distinguished by the nature of the relationship (blood, marriage, or other). According to the former system (which distinguishes on the basis of closeness), primary kinship involves a direct relationship, such as that between a brother and sister or between a father and daughter. Secondary kinship exists between an individual and "the primary kin of that person's primary kin." For example, the relationship between a grandson and his paternal grandmother would typically be secondary kinship, since the grandson is primary kin with his own father, who is primary kin with his mother (the grandmother). Finally, tertiary kin is one step further removed, and can refer to primary kin of one's primary kin's primary kin (three levels!) or to the secondary kin of one's primary kin, such as one's husband's grandmother. According to the latter system (which distinguishes by the nature of the relationship), affinal kinship, or a "kinship of affinity," exists without blood relationship, with the most common example being kinship due to marriage. In contrast, consanguineal kinship is based on blood - or genetic - relationship.

Inclusive fitness

involve an animal behaving in ways that ensure the propagation of its genes. Example - an animal alert its brood that there is a predator puts that an animal at risk, but ensure that its genes may survive via its offspring

Hormones are

large and cant enter brain

starch NS# 53

large polysaacharide

Monocytes

largest type of white blood cells @ site of injury

less likely for glycolysis

less affected from glucose starvation

Extraction

less dense organic (nonpolar solvents) on top of layer of water, which is a highly polar compound. nonpolar will move into the organic layer , while polar( or charged) will be in aqueous layer

laterate geniculate nucleus

light visual info relay center in thalamus detect information from retina and passes it onto primary visual cortex in occiptal lobe

lipid soluble vitamins vs water soluble vitamins

lipid soluble vitamins=A,D,E,K water soluble vitamins= B,C an enzyme ( bio catalyst) = another compound to be present to carry bio functionality. " helper" molecules such as co-factors. -Cofactors are either inorganic or organic and organic cofactors are sometimes known as coenzymes. -coenzyme A, transfer acyl groups from one place to another . -coenzyme that are tightly bond to enzyme : prosthetic groups.

Fatty acids

long alkyl chains that terminate in a COOH acid group a hydrophilic tail and hydrophobic tail Saturated : no C=C unsaturated : 1 or more C=C pi bond ex: 16:1 / symbol of triangle -complex membrane of lipids -stored fat in form of triglycerides -precursors of lipids -MP: increases as the length of carbon tail increases. -Unsaturated fatty acids: will have lower melting point than saturated fatty acid w/ same # of carbon atoms. -Unsaturated are liquids @ room temperature -saturated are solids @ room temperature -

NS BB 14) anti-CR3 antibodies( immunoglobin)

macrophages DO NOT produce antibodies Antibodies let the body know when it needs to mobilize the immune response. To do this, they must recognize substances/cells that need to be eliminated and be recognized by other components of the immune system. The term "antigen" is used to refer to what antibodies recognize. There is no specific structural property that defines an antigen, although they often happen to be macromolecules (especially proteins) expressed on the surface of a cell or a viral envelope/capsule. However, external substances like pollen can also serve as antigens, causing pollen allergies. The structure of an antibody provides a bridge between these two functions. Antibodies have a Y-shaped structure consisting of two heavy chains and two light chains that are linked by disulfide bonds. Five classes of antibodies exist, classified according to the details of their heavy chains: immunoglobulin (Ig) A, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. The "top" ends of the Y-shaped structure (that is, the part with both the heavy and the light chains) have a hypervariable antigen-recognizing area, and the rest of the antibody structure can be recognized by other cells of the immune system. The specific site on an antigen that is recognized by an antibody is known as the epitope. Extensive random recombination of the antigen-recognizing area of the antibody (also known as the paratope) allows the generation of antibodies that recognize potentially infinitely many types of antigens. Antibodies are used in the adaptive immune system, most notably by B cells. Antigen-antibody interactions are also used in many biotechnology-related applications, most notably western blotting, in which antibodies are used to visualize proteins of interest after gel electrophoresis.

ideal bureaucracy

make decisions in accordance to its mission

antibody

mobilize immune response "antigen" is used to refer antibodies recognize 2 heavy and 2 light bonded by disulfide bonds / protein that cause an immune response the top ends of the Y shaped structure: hypervariable antigen-recognizing area specific site on an antigen that is recognized by an antibody known as epitope antibodies are used in adaptive immune system (B cells)

38)nonpolar (37: tough difficulty)

more soluble in organic layer polar= aqueous

Low G ratio, higher( 21: understand why I got wrong)

myelination : increase velocity of action potential transmission 0 myelination means diameter of myelinated region = diameter of axon itself Myelin is a substance that coats the axons of some neurons. Composed largely of lipids, myelin is an effective electrical insulator. An action potential must propagate down the axon to reach the neighboring neuron or target cell, meaning that the faster the potential can propagate (i.e. the higher the nerve conduction velocity), the sooner the signal can reach its target. Myelin acts to increase this conduction velocity. As an insulator, myelin provides very high resistance around the membrane of the axon. In contrast, the interior of the axon - the inside of the cell - has much lower resistance, so the signal can propagate down the axon without "leaking" out of the neuron. However, maintaining a propagating action potential requires ions to enter and exit the axon, which cannot happen effectively in myelinated areas. For this reason, neurons contain gaps in the myelin sheath termed nodes of Ranvier. At these nodes, Na+ and K+ ions can cross the membrane when their respective voltage-gated membrane channels are open. The result is a signal that is strong and consistent, but that appears to move down the axon by jumping from one node of Ranvier to the next. This jump-like phenomenon is known as saltatory conduction. Nerve cells in both the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) can be myelinated. The key difference is in the cells that provide the myelin. Myelin forms when glial (supporting) cells wrap around the axon. In the CNS, these glial cells are oligodendrocytes, while in the PNS, the myelin-producing glial cells are Schwann cells

natural immunity vs cell-mediated immunity vs passive immunity vs nonspecific immunity. NS 50

natural immunity = immunity that is present in the individual @ birth, prior to exposure to pathogen or antigen, and that includes intact skin, salivary enzymes, neutrophils, NK cells, and complement cell-mediated immunity= immune response that does involve antibodies,but rather involves the activation of phagocytes, antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to antigen passive immunity=transfer of active humoral immunity in form of ready-made antibodies, from 1 individual to another nonspecific immunity= innate/ skin/ intestinal epithelial layers, movement of intestines, etc The immune system refers to the complex set of mechanisms that the body uses to protect itself against foreign invaders and malfunctioning cells originating from the body itself. The highest-level distinction in the immune system is between the innate (or non-specific) immune system, which responds generally to threats but does not learn to recognize specific foreign bodies/molecules, and the adaptive immune system, which does. The non-cellular component of the innate immune system includes anatomical barriers and signaling molecules such as cytokines and complement proteins, while the cellular component includes a range of white blood cell types (leukocytes) that play various roles in responding to threats. White blood cells include neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes (which differentiate into macrophages or dendritic cells), eosinophils, basophils, and mast cells. The various components of the innate immune system can act independently or be coordinated in the process of inflammation. The adaptive immune system includes B cells and T cells, both of which are lymphocytes that are produced in the bone marrow and mature in the lymphatic system. B cells recognize antigens and secrete large amounts of antibodies in response. The human body utilizes five classes of antibodies: immunoglobulin (Ig) A, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM, which differ in the details of their heavy chains. This response is known as humoral immunity. In contrast, T cells correspond to the cell-mediated branch of the adaptive immune system. T cells, which mature in the thymus, recognize cells that were originally self, but have been damaged by viral infections or have malfunctioned in ways likely to turn them into cancer cells. Then, various subgroups of T cells either directly attack compromised/foreign cells or mobilize responses to them based on antigen fragments that are presented by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and II.

negative punishment vs positive punishment ( PS NS 10)

negative= take away a positive punishment = dec behavior positive= add (-) punishment= dec behavior Classical and operant conditioning are two common frameworks used to describe learning. They are both forms of associative learning, which takes place when associations are made between stimuli or events that occur together. The infinite number of scenarios in which these concepts can be applied makes it imperative to understand the underlying principles. In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus and the subsequent unconditioned response to it are used to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus, which causes a conditioned response. The best-known example is Pavlov's experiment on dogs. Pavlov's unconditioned stimulus was meat and the dogs' unconditioned, or instinctual, response to it was to salivate. Pavlov then introduced a neutral stimulus, which initially caused no response from the dogs. However, when he began ringing the bell before feeding meat to the dogs, the dogs began to associate the ringing of the bell with receiving meat. Eventually, the ringing of the bell alone actually made the dogs salivate. The neutral stimulus (the ringing of the bell), through association with the unconditioned stimulus (the meat), had become a conditioned stimulus that caused a conditioned response (salivating). Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning uses reinforcement to encourage a behavior and punishment to discourage it. An additional distinction is made between positive and negative reinforcements and punishments. "Positive" means adding a stimulus, and "negative" means removing one. Thus, positive reinforcement is adding a pleasant stimulus to encourage a behavior, while positive punishment is adding an unpleasant stimulus to discourage a behavior. Negative reinforcement is removing an unpleasant stimulus to encourage a behavior, while negative punishment is removing a pleasant stimulus to discourage a behavior. The reinforcement used in operant conditioning can also be adjusted according to four typical reinforcement schedules: A fixed-ratio schedule is when the behavior is reinforced after a specific number of responses. For example, a rat gets a treat every third push of a lever. Variable-ratio schedules occur when behavior is reinforced after an average, but unpredictable, number of responses. For example, a rat treat dispenser could be set to dispense a treat after an average of 1 out of every 10 presses, but the exact number of presses between rewards will vary. Fixed-interval schedules occur when behavior is reinforced after a specific amount of time has passed. An example would be semi-monthly paydays. Variable-interval schedules occur when behavior is reinforced after an average, but unpredictable, amount of time has passed. Of these methods, variable-ratio schedules are generally considered to be the most effective.

neural plasticity vs prefrontal cortex

neural plasticity = ability of a neuron of the brain to " rewire" and strengthen connections over time. If anything, younger individuals would display greater neural plasticity than older adults. prefrontal cortex= executive decision making/ such as considering risk and making choices, take place in this area. Content Foundations: Key Brain Structures and Divisions The brainstem consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata, and provides the connection from the brain to the spinal cord. It regulates crucial functions basic to the survival of the organism, such as like heart rate, respiration, sleep, and overall activation of the rest of the CNS. The cerebellum, found just underneath the occipital lobe, serves to direct complex coordinated movement, such as walking or playing the piano. The basal ganglia are located just under the cortex and connect to both the brainstem and the cortical lobes. The basal ganglia are involved in several functions, including voluntary movement, habitual behaviors, learning, and emotion. The cerebral cortices overlay the rest of the brain's structures and are responsible for many of the higher functions seen in humans. The cortices can be divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal. The frontal lobe is associated with making judgments and regulating behavior as a part of executive functioning. The occipital lobe is most closely related to visual processing, as data from the optic nerves are sent directly there. The parietal lobe is associated with integrating various sensory input, and both the parietal and temporal lobes are important for language. Additional key structures in the forebrain include the amygdala, which processes memory, emotions, and decision-making; the hippocampus, which consolidates short-term memory into long-term memory; the hypothalamus, which is the major link between the nervous and endocrine systems via the pituitary gland; the pineal gland, which modulates sleep through melatonin productions; and the thalamus, which relays sense and motor signals and regulates sleep and awareness. The limbic system includes the hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and several other structures, and plays a major role in emotions, memory, and motivation. It is distinct from the mesolimbic pathway (or reward pathway), which is located in the midbrain and plays a role in addiction.

pyyrole

nitrogen based

virus are unique

occupy a gray area between living and nonliving . They have been described as non-living pathogenic entities been described not being " living" some use DNA or RNA as gene material

George Mead

one's identity is developed through social interaction to have SELF, must develop or view oneself through the eyes of others , must be learned 2 versions of self: me and I Me=attitudes, roles, meanings around one that organized into one social self through role taking . I = part of the self that can be identified w/ desires, freedom, and creativity. ME= social self. part of identity that society sees and meet with societal expectations ( go to college after graduation) I=response to "me"/ NOT in congruence with society expectations. Example: travel after graduate high school

NS 27

parsimony= tree that require fewest events (mutation, transfer, etc) tree: near common ancestor, less alike ( less genes) Natural selection is the mechanism through which evolution takes place. The concept of natural selection refers to the tendency of certain phenotypes to be favored in terms of reproduction. Natural selection is closely linked to the term fitness, which in the evolutionary context only refers to the chance of reproduction associated with a certain phenotype compared to baseline. Fitness must be defined in terms of specific environmental constraints. In the 20th century, the concept of group selection was proposed, arguing that natural selection could act on the level of the group, not the individual. The related concept of inclusive fitness expands the rigorous evolutionary definition of fitness (defined in terms of the differential reproduction of alleles) to account not just for individuals but also their relatives, who can be expected to share many of the same alleles. This idea helps to explain altruistic behavior. Additionally, multiple "types" of selection have been identified to describe the outcomes associated with different types of selective pressures on phenotypes that vary along a spectrum. Stabilizing selection occurs if both extremes are selected against, directional selection occurs if only one extreme phenotype is selected against and the other extreme is favored, and disruptive selection occurs when the median phenotype is selected against. The concept of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is often used to model stable gene pools that satisfy the following assumptions: (1) organisms must be diploid and reproduce sexually; (2) mating is random; (3) the population size is very large; (4) alleles are randomly distributed by sex; (5) no mutations occur; and (6) there is no migration into or out of the population. The Hardy-Weinberg equations allow us to use allele frequencies to predict the distribution of phenotypes in the population and vice versa. If p and q are the only two alleles of a gene present in the population, then p + q = 1. Squaring the equation yields: (p + q)2 = 12 → p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1. This second equation allows us to connect genotypes and phenotypes, because the p2 and q2 terms correspond to individuals homozygous for p and q, respectively, while the 2pq term gives the frequency of heterozygotes. Other mechanisms are associated with changes in the gene pool of a species, such as genetic drift and bottlenecks. Genetic drift refers to the role of chance, in the absence of strong selective pressures, in determining the reproductive fitness of various alleles. When no strong pressure exists for a certain allele, it may randomly happen to be reproduced more or less often. These random effects can add up over the course of evolution. A related, but more specific, concept is that of an evolutionary bottleneck. Bottlenecks occur when some external event dramatically reduces the size of a population in a way that is essentially random with regard to most, if not all, alleles. This dramatically reduces diversity in the gene pool.

NS 17)Behaviorists would assert that self-defeating behaviors are maintained by immediate reinforcement in the form of: relief from anxiety

people are more likely to behave in self-defeating or destructive manner either when they perceive a threat or when they have low self- esteem People are more susceptible to have anxiety and emotional distress , which are problems that are usually directly related to a less favorable self-appraisal. Self-defeating or self-destructive : inability to handle either anxiety or stress which results lack of self- confidence. Thus engaging in these behaviors offers an immediate relief from anxiety which then reinforce behavior.

Higher median age

people are more likely to die from age-related causes , leading to higher mortality rate. Affluent countries has higher higher median ages than less affluent countries

Insulin

peptide hormone to big to diffuse in the cell.

subjective norms

perceived social pressure to engage or to not engage in a behavior

Weber law

percent difference between stimuli , not numerical difference just noticeable difference or change required to perceive a difference from an initial stimulus, is directly proportional to % change in orig stimulus. formula (If-Ii)/II = constanr i= stimulus intensity - magnitude effect, ex: one is less likely to detect removal of 3 grapes from a bowl of fruit when the bowl is full compared to when bowl is nearly empty Weber law can apply to any sensory system ( ex: vision, hearing touch, smell)

noncoding RNA

play a role in gene expression microRNA: single-nucleotide strand incorporated into an RNA structure small interfering RNA: (siRNA)- short and double stranded

charged molecule

polar polar molecules cannot pass hydrophobic interior of membrane ampipathic phospholipids: polar head and nonpolaar tail polar face intracellular and extracell nonpolar face interior Cholesterol and lipid rafts within plasma membrane help contribute the fluidity of membrane @ low temperatures/ its stability @ higher temperature polar molecules need specialize transporters

sn2

polar aprotic(no H bonding) solvent such as acetone or DMSO

sirna #42

prevent mRNA from being translated/ bind to other RNA(NOT DNA or protein) versus repressors= protein molecules that bind w/ DNA or RNA molecules to prevent translation of a protein. The central dogma of molecular biology states that information is passed from DNA to RNA to protein. This means that when a cell needs more of a certain protein, it can increase the degree to which the gene corresponding to that protein is transcribed. Transcribing more or less of a gene in response to the cell's needs is known as gene expression. It plays a major role in the differentiation of organs in multicellular organisms, and can also vary on shorter time scales in response to changing environmental conditions. The details of how gene expression is regulated in eukaryotes are quite intricate, but you should be aware of some key concepts for the MCAT. Promoters are regions of DNA that lie upstream to a given gene and initiate transcription by binding specific transcription factors that contribute to the binding of RNA polymerase. Additionally, expression is upregulated by enhancers, which are DNA sequences that can be located further from the gene of interest, and work by binding transcription factors that twist DNA into a hairpin loop, bringing distant regions into close proximity for transcription to begin. Silencers are the opposite of enhancers in eukaryotic cells; they are regions of DNA to which transcription factors known as repressors bind. Additionally, the methylation of C and A residues can reduce transcription. Methylation is associated with epigenetics, which refers to inheritable phenotypic changes involving mechanisms other than the alteration of the genome itself. Gene expression can also be regulated on the level of nucleosomes (i.e. chromatin and histones). Acetylation promotes transcription by attaching acetyl groups to lysine residues on histones, making them less positively-charged and causing a looser wrapping pattern that allows transcription factors to access the genome more easily. Finally, non-coding RNA plays a role in gene expression. MicroRNA (miRNA) strands are single-nucleotide strands incorporated into an RNA structure with a characteristic hairpin loop, while small interfering RNA (siRNA) molecules are short and double-stranded. Both tend to be approximately 22 nucleotides in length, and silence genes by interrupting expression between transcription and translation.

NS BB 25)

prokaryotes= 70 S ribosomes while a 50S and 30S subunit eukaryotes= 80S ribosomes while a 60S and 40 S subunit Translation is the process in which an mRNA sequence is translated into a protein, with each codon corresponding to an amino acid. Transfer RNA, or tRNA, is a relatively small RNA molecule characterized by a hairpin structure that is responsible for "translating" between codons and amino acids. The other structure needed for translation is the ribosome, which is primarily made up of ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Ribosomes contain multiple rRNA strands with associated proteins, and have two major components: the large subunit (50S in prokaryotes and 60S in eukaryotes) and the small subunit (30S in prokaryotes, 40S in eukaryotes), with overall sizes of 70S for the prokaryotic ribosome and 80S for the eukaryotic ribosome. The large subunit catalyzes the formation of the polypeptide chain, while the small unit reads the RNA. Translation has three main steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation occurs when the mRNA sequence binds to the small ribosomal subunit, either at a region in the 5' untranslated region known as the Shine-Dalgarno sequence (in prokaryotes) or to the 5' cap in eukaryotes. The first tRNA is known as the initiator tRNA, and it binds to the start codon (AUG). The initial amino acid is methionine in eukaryotes, but N-formylmethionine in prokaryotes. Once this happens, initiation factors facilitate the binding of the small ribosomal subunit to the large ribosomal subunit, forming the initiation complex. Elongation is the next step. During elongation, the ribosome reads the mRNA in the 5' to 3' direction and synthesizes a polypeptide from its N terminus to its C terminus, which is one of the reasons why amino acid sequences are traditionally written in the N-to-C order. Proteins known as elongation factors help move this process along. Three main binding sites are involved in elongation. The A site contains the next aminoacyl-tRNA complex, and at the P site a peptide bond is formed between the growing polypeptide chain and the incoming amino acid. The tRNA, which is now no longer "charged" with an attached amino acid, briefly pauses at the E site and detaches from the mRNA. After all of the charged tRNA sequences have been translated, translation is terminated.

myelin sheath ( NS 17)

protect neurons, do increase speed of impulse propagation , provide electrical insulator for neurons, and increase AP strength Myelin is a substance that coats the axons of some neurons. Composed largely of lipids, myelin is an effective electrical insulator. An action potential must propagate down the axon to reach the neighboring neuron or target cell, meaning that the faster the potential can propagate (i.e., the higher the nerve conduction velocity), the sooner the signal can reach its target. Myelin acts to increase this conduction velocity. As an insulator, myelin provides very high resistance around the membrane of the axon. In contrast, the interior of the axon - the inside of the cell - has much lower resistance, so the signal can propagate down the axon without "leaking" out of the neuron. However, maintaining a propagating action potential requires ions to enter and exit the axon, which cannot happen effectively in myelinated areas. For this reason, neurons contain gaps in the myelin sheath termed nodes of Ranvier. At these nodes, Na+ and K+ ions can cross the membrane when their respective voltage-gated membrane channels are open. The result is a signal that is strong and consistent, but that appears to move down the axon by jumping from one node of Ranvier to the next. This jump-like phenomenon is known as saltatory conduction. Nerve cells in both the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) can be myelinated. The key difference is in the cells that provide the myelin. Myelin forms when glial (supporting) cells wrap around the axon. In the CNS, these glial cells are oligodendrocytes, while in the PNS, the myelin-producing glial cells are Schwann cells.

NS 51-52/54/55

reasoning DNA virus: made up of genetic material retrovirus: positive - sense RNA genomes, NOT DNA genomes

promoters

regions of DNA that lie upstream and initiate transcription by bind specific transcription factors that contribute to bind DNA polymerase. expression upregulated by enhancers, DNA sequences bind transcription factors , bring distant regions to cloer proximity. silencers: opposite; regions of DNA to which transcription factors known as repressors bind. methylation reduce transcription methylation associated w/ epigenetics

homotrophic regulation

regulator when a molecule serve as a substrate for its target enzyme , as well as regulatory molecule of enzyme activity. O2 is homotrophic allosteric modulator for Hb because 4 subunits of Hb actually bind to oxygen cooperatively means the bind of O2 to one of the 4 subunits will increase likelihood that remaining sites will bind w/ oxygen as well.

Phosphatase(READING COMPREHENSION)

removes phosphate part of transferase (kinase and phosphatase)

oxidative phosphorylation

require intact mito membrane ( no pores) -energy released by oxidative phosphorylation and used to make ATP from potential energy in form of H+ gradient , cause electric potential process begins by pass e- thorough series of reaction in ETC to final electron acceptor water( strongest reduc potential). ONLY TIME IN EUJARYOTIC AEROBIC RESPIRATION WHERE OXYGEN IS REQUIRED. THESE RXN CAN TAKE PLACE WHERE THE ENERGY FROM FADH2 AND NADH IS USED UP , AND MOLEC OXYGEN IS REDUCE TO WATER

reseacher bias vs test-retest bias vs social desirability bias

researcher bias = when a study design is biased test-retest bias= when participants take the same exam over and over again , which affect their responses. social desirability bias= participants may have felt pressured to respond in a way that minimizes ethnocentrism and promote cultural relativism , because that may be more socially acceptable / ppl answer questions in a way they think that is socially beneficial to them ( report using more drugs than actual usage) negativity bias= - aspects are focused on

Meissner corpuscles

responsible for touch mechanoreceptors: PVTS Notes Hair cells (hearing; linear and rotational acceleration) respond to movement of fluid in the inner ear. Olfactory receptors (smell) respond to volatile compounds in the air. Osmoreceptors (water homeostasis): respond to the osmolarity of blood. Nociceptors (somatosensation, a.k.a. touch): respond to painful stimuli. Photoreceptors (sight) respond to the visible spectrum of electromagnetic waves. Taste receptors (taste) respond to dissolved compounds in substances. These receptors can also be broadly divided into exteroceptors, which respond to stimuli from the outside world, and interoceptors, which respond to stimuli generated within the body.

Meiosis I

result in 2 haploid cells w/ 23 chromosomes, each chromosome consist of 2 sister chromatids.

self perception vs self image vs self esteem

self -esteem= judgement of one's own value or self worth self-image: mental construct built in large part by internalizing judgements that others have bout self. self-perception: notion that a person develop an attitude by watch their own behavior and concluding they must hold whatever attitude would have led to that behavior

self

self-efficacy= efficient one is / can make changes to their lives self-fulfilling prophecy= one believe an event will occur and behaves in such way to bring out this predictino self-handicapping= process of developing(anticipating failure) behavioral reactions that minimize personal responsibility for the failure.

a shock automatically tend to favor a fear response

shock= unconditional stimulus fear= unconditional response ( natural) During fear conditioning in this study, different-sized circles were displayed before a shock was delivered to the participant. Eventually the participants displayed a fear response when only viewing the circles. Which of the following terms best describes the circles? in this case, the circles are conditioned stimulus

Types of support

social support : one of the most important benefits of living in a society and can from friends , family, loved ones, and acquaintances. -Emotional support: empathy and condolences -esteem-based support: Hey I know you can do it, you are a great student -material support: material -informational:ex- mentorship from someone further along in one professional field -network-based: group hug, many likes on Facebook -social support: reduce depression/anxiety -instrumental support: various types of tangible help -companionship support: sense of belonging -emotional support: feel loved and cared for -informational support: info

anomie

society feeling fragmented and lacking cohesiveness. rapid changes in society, low level of income, and higher heterogenity Within sociology, several models have been developed to describe social dysfunction. Anomie refers to the breakdown of social bonds, such as social norms, between individuals and communities. Sociologists use strain theory to study how the social breakdown characteristic of anomie can lead to social deviance and crime, which can in turn reinforce social stratification and dysfunction. Social dysfunction may also involve poverty, which refers to the state of having low socioeconomic status and few resources, financial or otherwise.

NS 50: Common ion effect

solution that contain a salt that partially dissolve into ions and extra quantity of one of these ions is added . This results in the combination of this ion with existing dissolved ions , causing an additional quantity of salt to precipitate out of solution.

Surface tension (part 2)

surface tension= due to cohesive forces between liquid molecules cause formation of a layer of strongly bonded water surface tension= should be understood as the property of the liquid surface that allows it to resist an external force. Due to surface tension, small objects will " float" on fluid surface. surfactant decreases surface tension of the lungs, allow them to more expand upon inspiration. surface tension = Force/length

NS 56 (look @ reasoning)

synapse/dendrites= characterisitc of neurons and are therefore NOT present in endothelial cells of blood-brain barrier tight junction = blood-brain barrier blood brain barrier: endothelial cells w/ tight junction that prevent movement of most solutes

social norms

taboo= unacceptable by almost every culture law= offical / written down standard rules and clear consequences mores= right or wrong folkway=right or rude mores and folkway are informal ( NOTES IN COMP BOOK)

reciprocal altruism NS #51

the act of helping others in the hope that they will help us in the future

Gambler's Fallacy

the mistaken belief that, if something happens more frequently than normal during some period, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa

Titration

the process of finding the concentration of an unknown solution (the analyte) by reacting it with a solution of known concentration (the titrant). The analyte is generally placed in an Erlenmeyer flask, while the titrant is placed in a burette so that the volume of solution added can be monitored. Titrations are typically performed for acid/base reactions but are not limited to them. At equivalence points during the titration, we can calculate our unknown concentration or volume using the formula NaVa = NbVb, where N and V are the normality (mol/L) and volume of the acidic and basic solutions, respectively. It is important to convert from molarity (M) to normality (N) for polyprotic acids and polyvalent bases. The flat regions of titration curves represent buffering solutions (a roughly equal mix of an acid/base and its conjugate), while the steep, near-vertical sections of the curve contain equivalence point(s), which indicate that enough of the titrant has been added to completely remove one equivalent (acid or base group) from each of the original molecules in the unknown solution. Species with multiple acid or base groups (e.g. H3PO4 or Ca(OH)2) will have multiple equivalence points during the titration. The final key point of any titration is the endpoint. To be successful, there must be some method for observing the endpoint of the reaction. The type of titration reaction that is being used will determine the method used for observing the endpoint. For example, in an acid-base titration, a specific pH value will be the endpoint (monitored by color-changing indicators), while for precipitation reactions, the endpoint is realized by the appearance of a precipitate.

NS CS 6

the wavelength emitted during a particular electronic transition is determined by energy difference between the final and initial energy level.= E initial-E final . Thus, the emission or absorption of electromagnetic radiation results in a characteristic atomic emission spectrum and atomic absorption spectrum that are unique to each element. For hydrogen, the amount of energy gained or lost in an electron transition is given by the Rydberg formula, ∆E = R(1/nf2 - 1/ni2), where R is the Rydberg constant (2.18 × 10-18 J) and nf and ni represent the final and initial energy states of the electron, respectively. If enough energy is absorbed by an atom, an electron can be expelled from the atom entirely. The minimum amount of energy necessary to do so is known as the work function of a substance. The fact that this energy can be delivered by an incident photon is known as the photoelectric effect.

NS 39 C/P TLC depend on differential affinity of a compound for stationary vs mobile phase Depend on how polar solvent , temperature, and adsorbent are, compound will move @ a certain rate. Temp will affect the rate : a polar will attract the adsorbent (dipole-dipole) and move slower eluting strength:how strongly one compound adsorb onto absorbent ( typical adsorbent are polar, eluting strength increase w/ increase polarity)

they share the principle that the molecules in a mixture are applied onto a stationary phase (usually a solid), while a fluid known as the mobile phase (generally a solvent chosen to match the target molecules, e.g. polar or nonpolar) containing the molecules of interest travels through the stationary phase. Molecules that interact more strongly with the stationary phase will take longer to pass through it, whereas molecules that interact more weakly with the stationary phase will pass through it more quickly. A chiral stationary phase can also be used to separate stereoisomers based on the principle that the various enantiomers of a compound may interact differently with such a stationary phase.

By inhibit Ach release

toxin interferes w/ nerve impulses and cause flaccid (sagging ) paralysis of muscles. The presence of Ach @ neuromuscular junction is required for skeletal muscle contraction Muscle receive signal to contract @ neuromuscular junction Action potential propagates down a motor(efferent) neuron Ach released into neuromuscular junction Ach bind to receptor on the cell membrane, bind sarcolemma in muscle cells and then depolarizes Result in AP when AP reach sarcoplasmic reticulum, Ca release into sarcoplasm Ca bind to troponin, contraction

T/F: production of PEP, glucose, and fructose 6- phosphate by gluconeogenesis - specific enzymes that bypass irreversible steps of glycolysis push equilibrium of reversible enzymes that function both in glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in direction of glucose production

true glycolysis(exergonic) and gluconeogenesis are reliant on changes in enthalpy( bond breaking and form high energy bond)

electrical forces

unaffected by increase temp

ETC

use free oxygen as a final electron acceptor of electrons removed from NADH and FADH2 formed glycolysis and Kreb Cycle. 4 complexes in inner mito membrane energy release to pump H+ unequal conc of H+ across membrane establish an electrochem gradient , lead to chemiosmosis, passive diffusion of protons down their conc gradient, which is coupled to ATP synthase if ruin proton gradient, it can harm electrochem gradient

Pouiseuille's Law 2

used to describe laminar flow of imcompressible fluids through a cylindrical tube. Flow rate is proportional to radius to fourth power . NEVER NEED TO ACTUAL CALCULATIONS , but relationships

We can relate the velocity of a wave to its frequency and wavelength using the equation

v=wavelength x frequency Upon entering a new medium (such as glass or air from space), the velocity and wavelength of light change (although the velocity of light in a vacuum is higher than in any other medium), while the frequency remains unaltered.

positive correlation

when one variable decreases, the other variable decreases OR when one variable increase, the other variable increase LOOK @ NS #8-9 ( look for best answer : the word"any" might be too broad