Next Step FL2 P/S

Kubler-Ross model (DABDA)

1) Denial 2) Anger 3) Bargaining 4) Depression 5)Acceptance

Ekman's 7 universal emotions

1) Happiness 2) Sadness 3) Anger 4) Contempt 5) Disgust 6) Fear 7) Surprise

formal operational stage

11+ years -people develop the abilities of abstract and moral reasoning

preoperational stage

2-7 years -symbolic thinking -centration -egocentrism

concrete operational stage

7-11 years -children develop an understanding of conservation and begin to understand mathematics -become less egocentric and can think logically about concrete events and objects, but they still have not developed a full capacity for abstract thought

An individual who scores highly on a measure of positive feelings towards the culture to which he immigrated and low on a measure of positive feelings towards his native culture would likely be employing what strategy of acculturation? A) Assimilation B) Separation C) Marginalization D) Integration

A) Assimilation -Assimilation is a strategy in which the individual seeks to interact with the new culture and reject the native culture.

Which of the following types of bias is most likely to affect research on cultural relativism and ethnocentrism? A) Social desirability status B) Test-retest bias C) Researcher bias D) Attrition bias

A) Social desirability bias -Participants may have felt pressured to respond in a way that minimizes ethnocentrism and promotes cultural relativism, because that may be the more socially acceptable response. This could cause a social desirability bias. This type of bias is most likely to affect research on cultural relativism and ethnocentrism

Which decision-making phenomenon best explains why researchers told participants that monies held at the end of session one would be used to fund games in session two? A) The house money effect B) The gambler's fallacy C) The prisoner's dilemma D) The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

A) The house money effect The researchers most likely did this to avoid the subjects treating the money as if it was not important to their continuation in the study. The researchers needed the subjects to think of this money as their own. Thaler and Johnson have found that individual risk-taking behavior is affected by prior gains and losses. They found that after a prior gain, people become more open to assuming risk since the new money is not treated as one's own.

If researchers desired to examine brain activity associated with participants' recollections of sexual risk-taking behavior using a neuroimaging technique, they would: A) examine the interaction between the prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens using functional MRI. B) examine the interaction between the prefrontal cortex and amygdala using structural MRI. C) examine the amount of white matter in the hippocampus using CT imaging. D) examine the pons using PET scanning.

A) examine the interaction between the prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens using functional MRI. -Functional MRI, or fMRI, is a functional neuroimaging technique which would allow the researchers to assess the operation of brain regions, not just their structure. Risk-taking individuals, especially teens, exhibit hyperconnectivity between the amygdala, a center responsible for emotional reactivity, and specific areas of the prefrontal cortex associated with emotion regulation and critical thinking skills. This behavior is also associated with increased activity between areas of the prefrontal cortex and the nucleus accumbens, a center for reward sensitivity that is often implicated in addiction research.

Some sociologists believe that the purpose of education is to foster the development of children so that they may reach their full potential and achieve their goals to the best of their individualized ability. What psychological theory would fit best with this belief?

Abraham Maslow's self-actualization theory

Parkinson's law

Added a 7th characteristic to Weber's six, demonstrating that the management and professional staff of bureaucracies tend to grow at a steady, predictable rate, regardless of why the organization is actually doing

One theory of high crime prevalence within a certain community is that weakened cultural values have been transmitted throughout the community; another theory is that individuals in the community seek out resources they perceive themselves as lacking. What is the best description of these theories, respectively?

Anomie theory; relative deprivation theory

Assuming that the children studied are 6-7 years old and are in the normal stage of Piaget's stages of cognitive development, which of the following would most likely be observed among these subjects? A) An ability to mentally manipulate information B) A high degree of symbolic play C) Empathy based on understanding the viewpoint of another child D) An ability to solve puzzle games using simple deductive logic

B) A high degree of symbolic play -In Piaget's stages of development, children from ages 2 to 7 are in the pre-operational stage of development. At that level, children learn to operate symbolically and engage in a lot of symbolic play (e.g. a stick is a sword, a plastic toy is a cake, a doll is a person, etc.).

What type of cultural norm is most directly involved in health behaviors? A) Folkways B) Mores C) Taboos D) Laws

B) Mores - Mores are norms that are deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society and have consequences if violated. Health behaviors (like seeking help for an acute medical illness) are standards of behavior that are necessary for the well-being of everyone; if a person does not seek help, they may be shunned by family members or friends.

sensorimotor stage

Birth - 2 years -individual experiences the world exclusively through sensing and moving through their environment *Key event: object permanence

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Bottom to top: -Physiological -Safety/security -Love/belonging -Self-esteem -Self-actualization

Which of the following is a kinship of affinity? A) Grandparents rearing their grandchildren B) Extended families living in the same household C) A husband and wife merging their children from a previous marriage D) Divorced parents sharing custody of their children

C) A husband and wife merging their children from a previous marriage -A kinship of affinity is one in which individuals are related by choice, such as through marriage, rather than through blood, such as the other choices.

Which of the following was NOT a finding by Harry Harlow in his experiments with rhesus monkeys and their pairing with a simulated mother made from wire (Wire Mother) or one made from soft cloth (Cloth Mother)? A) Monkeys paired with Wire Mothers drank similar amounts of milk and grew at a rate comprable to monkeys paired with Cloth Mothers. B) Monkeys paired with a Wire Mother sought soothing from their "mothers," but at a rate less than monkeys paired with Cloth Mothers. C) After early neglectful conditions, monkeys' abnormal behavior could be corrected by pairing them with the appropriate simulated mother. D) When given a choice, monkeys spent more time holding Cloth Mothers than Wire Mothers.

C) After early neglectful conditions, monkeys' abnormal behavior could be corrected by pairing them with the appropriate simulated mother. In Harlow's experiment, the infant monkeys preferred spending their time clinging to the cloth mother. Even when only the wire mother could provide food, the monkeys visited her just to eat. Harlow concluded that there was much more to the mother/infant relationship than milk and that this "contact comfort" was crucial to the psychological development and health of infants. After monkeys were paired with a Wire Mother, they showed abnormal behavior, which could not be corrected later in life by pairing them with a Cloth Mother.

Which of the following is an example of how altruistic behavior can improve inclusive fitness? A) Helping others leading to an increase in one's own self-esteem B) Having a large number of offspring leading to propagation of one's genes C) An animal making noise to alert its brood that there is a predator D) A soldier sacrificing himself to save his fellow soldiers

C) An animal making noise to alert its brood that there is a predator -Inclusive fitness involves an animal behaving in ways that ensures the propagation of its genes. An animal alerting its brood that there is a predator puts that animal at risk, but ensures that its genes may survive via its offspring.

Which of the following steps could an organization take to make itself into a more ideal bureaucracy? A) Making distinctions between management and employees less pronounced B) Cross-training employees to be proficient in different skills C) Evaluating how decisions impact stock price to promote value for stockholders in accordance with the company's mission D) Promoting individuals until they reach a level above their skill set

C) Evaluating how decisions impact stock price to promote value for stockholders in accordance with the company's mission An ideal bureaucracy will make decisions in accordance with its mission—in this case, to create value for shareholders.

Which of the following variables are negatively correlated with globalization? A) Number of multinational corporations B) Internet usage C) Protectionism D) Trade agreements

C) Protectionism -Protectionism refers to a country rejecting trade with others and being isolative, which is inversely proportional to globalization.

A physician suspects their patient's schizophrenia is caused by an overactive hippocampus. According to the passage what technique would most effectively eliminate the activity? A) Hippocampal receptor agonists B) Transcranial magnetic stimulation C) Surgical lesions D) Optogenics

C) Surgical lesions -The question asks for a permanent solution to the overactive hippocampal activity. The final paragraph states that lesions can be used to disable or reduce neural activity. Surgical lesions are most likely to be permanent, while chemical lesions could be permanent as well. Therefore, surgical or chemical lesions impairing brain regions is likely what the physician would recommend.

Which of the following is a biological factor among all adolescents that could contribute to risky behaviors in adolescence? A) Underdeveloped hippocampus B) Lack of neural plasticity C) Underdeveloped prefrontal cortex D) Poor parental support

C) Underdeveloped prefrontal cortex -The prefrontal cortices of adolescents are still developing. Much executive decision-making, such as considering risk and making choices, takes place in this area.

The most appropriate way to explain the impact of the short-term stress exposure used in the experiment on individual decision-making would be to cite: A) parasympathetic response B) activation-synthesis hypothesis C) general adaptation syndrome D) theory of cognitive appraisal

C) general adaptation syndrome -General adaptation syndrome is a term created by Hans Selye to describe the body's short-term and long-term reactions to stress. Selye thought that the general adaptation syndrome involved two major systems of the body, the nervous system and the endocrine system. He then went on to outline what he considered as three distinctive stages in the syndrome's evolution. He called these stages the alarm reaction (AR), the stage of resistance (SR), and the stage of exhaustion (SE).

If the children in the follow-up study included both 4-year-olds and 8-year-olds, researchers would likely observe: A) more examples of parallel play among the 8 year-olds B) more cooperative behavior among the 4 year-olds C) more examples of parallel play among the 4 year-olds D) more harming behavior among the 4 year-olds

C) more examples of parallel play among the 4 year-olds -Parallel play is a normal part of the behavior of preschool children, in which they will play by themselves but observe another child playing and adjust their behavior in response. Parallel play does not entail direct interaction between the children. As children reach school age, they are much more likely to engage in forms of play together.

Which neurotransmitter is primarily responsible for the generation of behaviors observed during dowsing? A) Dopamine B) Serotonin C) GABA D) Acetylcholine

D) Acetylcholine -he passage describes the response as characterized by movements of the skeletal muscle (writing, dowsing), which is primarily carried out by the actions of acetylcholine released at the neuromuscular junction.

A researcher hypothesizes that there is institutional discrimination, but no individual discrimination, at a particular organization. Which of the following options would allow the researcher to fully confirm this hypothesis? A) Compare the demographics of individuals hired at the organization with the demographics at similar organizations B) Compare the demographics of individuals hired by several hiring directors within the organization C) Neither A nor B D) Both A and B together

D) Both A and B together -Method A could show that there is a difference between organizations with regard to hiring practices, which implies institutional discrimination. Method B could show that no individual discrimination is present. Since the hypothesis proposes that there is institutional discrimination and that there is no individual discrimination at the organization, both A and B are required to fully confirm (or reject) the hypothesis.

A surgeon suspects that the supernatural ability of a dowser to locate a hot coal buried in the ground is best explained by the presence of particularly sensitive thermoreceptors in their hands. Lesioning which area of the brain would best allow the surgeon to test her hypothesis? A) Lateral geniculate nucleus B) Hippocampus C) Frontal lobe D) Parietal lobe

D) Parietal lobe The parietal lobe integrates multiple inputs of sensory information, from spatial sense and navigation (proprioception) to temperature (thermoreceptors) and touch (mechanoreceptors). Lesioning this area of the brain would likely interfere with the dowser's ability to detect hot objects, if this were the true basis of the ability.

Which of the following is NOT an example of a strategy people use in impression management? A) Complimenting coworkers on their clothing B) Bragging about one's financial success on a date C) Matching the behavior of a boss D) Revealing a friend's personal information on a date

D) Revealing a friend's personal information on a date -Impression management involves the control of information about oneself and is characterized by flattery, boasting, and ingratiation. In contrast, in choice D, an individual is attempting to control information about someone else.

An outspoken skeptic and opponent of automatic writing attends multiple séances where a medium appears to successfully contact someone who has recently died. If the skeptic's views shift over time to view the practice as harmless entertainment, this evolution is best described by: A) subjective norms B) a locus of control C) cognitive dissonance D) reciprocal determinism

D) reciprocal determinism -Reciprocal determinism is the theory set forth by Albert Bandura that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the environment. In this scenario, the skeptic does not believe in the supernatural power of a medium, but attends multiple séances where they may see evidence that could soften their views. It appears this behavior of attending séances, in conjunction with the social environment of others who attend the séances, caused the skeptic's views on supernatural phenomena to shift.

What would be a possible ratio level measure of religiosity? A) Whether or not a person believes in God B) the type of religion with which a person identifies C) the degree one's belief in afterlife D) the number of times a person has been to church in the last month

D) the number of times a person has been to church in the last month - A ratio level of measurement is one in which there are a range of quantitative responses, ordered at equally-spaced intervals, and with it being possible to score 0 (complete absence of the quantity).

Which of the following is/are examples of conflict theory in society? I. A trade union forming to promote workers' rights at the cost of company owners II. A company maximizing profits for shareholders at the expense of its middle- and lowest-tier employees III. Families paying taxes for the education of their children in public schools

I and II only -Conflict theory states that individuals compete with each other in society over limited resources. Because of this, certain institutions, such as corporations, rise to the top, which statement II reflects. Groups can also come together, such as in a union (statement I).

Based upon the information provided in the passage, which of the following could be a cultural factor which impacts adolescent risky behavior? I. Culturally-based expectations II. Cultural response to onset of puberty III. Cultural taboos regarding alcohol use

I, II, and III

If a psychologist were to claim that the ideomotor effect is unconscious, Freudian psychologists could argue this effect resides in which components of the psychic apparatus? I. The id II. The ego III. The superego

I, II, and III

What characteristics of society are associated with high levels of anomie? I. Rapid changes in society II. Low levels of income III. High heterogeneity

I, II, and III -Anomie refers to society feeling fragmented and lacking cohesiveness. All of the characteristics listed are associated with anomie.

Which of these statements describe(s) primary aging? I. Aging related to social factors and environmental context, like changes in romantic relationships II. Aging related to biological factors and the physical body, like molecular changes III. Aging related to controllable behavioral factors, like changes in diet and exercise

II only -Primary aging describes the aging of biological factors and the physical body.

Which of the following statements accurately describes a major assumption of the functionalist theory of social stratification? I. Social stratification affects what people believe about themselves and others and influences their daily life, lifestyle choices, and interactions with others. II. Social stratification is unnecessary and results from both lack of opportunity and discrimination against the poor and people of color. III. Social stratification is necessary and results from the need for those with special intelligence, knowledge, and skills to be a part of the most important professions and occupations.

III only -Functionalist theories assert that aspects of culture are necessary and need-based.

house money effect

Individual risk-taking behavior is affected by prior gains and loses After prior gain, people become more open to assuming risk since the new money is not treated as one's own

The media portrayal of shoppers who are violent and aggressive or who misbehave on Black Friday in order to shame or ridicule them is an example of what type of social control?

Informal negative sanction

What measure of central tendency most accurately captures the average wealth of most Americans, and why?

Median American wealth, because the median is less sensitive to outliers

If it was found that individuals in the first study who took Truvada but had a high level of perceived stigma relating to Truvada use were more likely to use condoms than those who took Truvada but had a low level of perceived stigma relating to Truvada use, then which of the following terms would best describe the role of perceived stigma on the relationship between taking Truvada and using condoms?

Moderating variable -A moderating variable is one that either decreases or increases the strength of an association. In this case, perceived stigma moderates the relationship between taking Truvada and using condoms.

A student has never been very good at math and is struggling in his algebra course; additionally, this student is pressured by his parents to work more hours at a job rather than do homework. What issues does the student experience?

Role strain about getting good grades and role conflict about working more hours -Role strain involves a problem fitting into an existing role, such as the student's problem with getting good grades. Role conflict involves two roles coming into conflict, such as when the student experiences conflict as a student and worker.

Shopper A, a customer at Store 3, rudely screams at a staff member. He then receives a discount plus a free item from the manager while checking out. Shopper B witnesses the event. When it is her turn to check out, she behaves rudely and screams at the staff member too. Which theory best describes how she learned this behavior?

Social cognitive theory -Social cognitive theory asserts that people learn by watching others, and if they see someone is rewarded for a behavior, they are more likely to behave that way too.

Of the following theories, which provides the most applicable explanation for why some individuals interpret stigma negatively while others do not view stigma this way?

The cognitive appraisal theory of emotion

If research continues to indicate that the SAT is biased against students from low socioeconomic backgrounds and does not reflect their knowledge or skills, what does that mean for the test's psychometric properties?

They test may still have high reliability but low validity. -A test can be reliable but not valid. Students may be getting reliable, consistent scores over time, but if the test isn't a true measure of their ability and skills, then it is not valid.

amygdala

a limbic system structure found in the temporal lobes of the brain associated with fear

The music children listen to conveys certain typical social situations and the expected emotional reaction to those situations in a simple, repetitive way that allows children and adolescents to more easily internalize. This process of internalizing the expected reactions to life situations is:

a normal part of the socialization process -Socialization is the process of internalizing the social norms and values expected in one's society, and mass media (such as popular music) is one source of normal socialization.

informal sanction

action by a peer group or group of peers meant to make behavior more normative

secondary aging

aging that relates to behavioral factors like diet and exercise

external validity

an experiment must tightly control any situational variables in the execution of the study

consanguineal kinship

based on blood (or genetic) relationship

baby-boomer generation

born after World War II; entering old age and fastest-growing age demographic

cognitive component of emotion

brain's subjective interpretation of the feeling

test-retest bias

can happen when participants take the same exam over and over again, which affects their responses

deviance

can include behavior generally perceived as "bad" or morally wrong, such as stealing -also includes actions that contradict the norms of the time

physiological component of emotion

changes in heart rate, respiration, etc.

GABA

chief inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system

centration

children tend to focus on a single aspect of a thing or experience

role

collection of behaviors, values, norms, attitudes, and beliefs that are expected of a person holding a particular status

role set

collection of roles

case control design

compares individuals with a disease to individuals without a disease

activation-synthesis theory

deals with the differences in neuronal activity of the brainstem during waking and REM sleep, and the hypothesis proposes that dreams result from brain activation during REM sleep

Many elderly individuals struggle with the concept of death and dying. The Kübler-Ross model provides a series of stages that most people experience when facing the end of their life. Which of the following is the correct sequence of emotional stages from this model?

denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance

strain theory

describes how the social breakdown of Anomie can lead to social deviance and crime, which can in turn reinforce social stratification and dysfunction

primary aging

describes the aging of biological factors and the physical body

conflict theory

emphasizes the role of coercion and power in producing social order -ses society as fragmented into groups that compete for social and economic resources -social order maintained by those with the most power

The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion would suggest that any aggressive emotions that the children experience as a result of listening to aggressive music would:

entail simultaneous physiological arousal and the subjective feeling of aggression, which are separate and independent

secondary kinship

exists between an individual and "the primary kin of that person's primary kin" ex. grandmother and grandson

affinal kinship/"kinship of affinity"

exists without good relationship, with the most common example being due to marriage

kinship

extension of family, but it refers less to our blood relations and more to who we consider as belonging to our family

stigma

extreme disapproval and rejection targeted toward those thought to have broken important norms, such as those who commit incest

agents of socialization

factors that drive the most influence over our socialization

symbolic interactionism

focuses on the symbolic meaning that people develop and rely upon in the process of social interactions

informal norms

generally understood but implicit, unwritten, and not associated with criminal or legal penalties for their violation

family

group of people raised in some significant way - either by blood, marriage, adoption, or law - that have some degree of responsibility to each other

James-Lange theory

hypothesized that a stimulus triggers a physiological response, which then leads to a subjective, conscious experience of emotion

symbolic thinking

idea that things and ideas can be represented through symbols such as words and gestures

ethnocentrism

idea that your own culture is better than someone else's

integration

identifying with both cultures

behavioral component of emotion

includes body language, facial expression, etc.

cognitive appraisal theory of emotion

individuals make different interpretations about stimuli

mores

informal norms that carry importance for society, and, if broken, can result in severe social sanctions ex. unmarried young woman lives with boyfriend and comes from religious family

folkways

informal norms that have less significance attached to them but still influence everyday behavior -usually brings less severe consequences than breaking a more ex. eating with hands instead of silverware

dopamine

involved in some motor control (ex. Parkinson's disease is caused by a loss of dopamine-secreting neurons in the substantial nigra); primarily involved in pleasure- and reward-oriented behaviors

primary kinship

involves a direct relationship, such as that between brother and sister or father and daughter

primary socialization

learning of acceptable actions and attitudes during childhood, mostly from observation of our parents, siblings, friends, teachers, and other authority figures

role exit

leaving a role

mirror neurons

located in the frontal and parietal lobes; have a major role in observational learning -fire when we perform and action but also when we observe someone else performing the same action -role in human empathy

validity

measure of how well a given experiment actually measures what it sets out to measure

heuristics

mental shortcuts or simplified iterations of principles that can help us make decisions but can also lead to poor judgment

gambler's fallacy

mistaken belief that if something happens more frequently than normal during some period, it will happen less frequently in the future

A shopper behaves very aggressively towards another shopper and, in response, the store manager refuses to sell a coveted toy to the shopper. This experience would most likely serve as:

negative punishment

egocentrism

no understanding of other people having thoughts or perspectives different from their own

parallel play

normal part of the behavior of preschool children, in which they will play by themselves but observe another child playing and adjust their behavior in response. -does not entail direct interaction between children -as children reach school age, they are much more likely to engage in forms of play together

researcher bias

occurs when a study's design is biased

assimilation

occurs when an individual from one culture takes on characteristics of another culture

formal negative sanction

official punishment for an action or behavior

formal positive sanction

official reward for an action or behavior

tertiary kin

one step further removed ex. husband's grandmother

social cognitive theory

our attitudes and behaviors are a result of observation of the attitudes and behaviors of others

in-group bias

people are biased towards those viewed as being part of their in-group

emotion

person's instinctive, current state of mind, based upon mood, circumstances, and interactions with others

three components of emotion

physiological, cognitive, and behavioral

Cannon-Bard Theory

posited that cognitive and physiological responses to a stimulus occur simultaneously and independently of one another, with a behavioral response following them

Erikson's psychosocial theory of development

posited that each developmental stage is marked by a key conflict; resolution of this conflict promotes healthy development, while a lack of resolution and can lead to related problems later in life 0-1: Trust vs. mistrust 1-3: Autonomy vs. shame and doubt 3-6: Initiative vs. guilt 6-12: Industry vs. inferiority 12-20: Identity vs. role confusion 20-40: Intimacy vs. isolation 40-65: Generativity vs. stagnation 65+: Ego integrity vs. despair

rational choice theory

posits that people make individualistic, rational, and calculated decisions about all things in their lives

ageism

prejudice or discrimination based on age

serotonin

primarily implemented in feelings of happiness and well-being

cultural relativism

principle that a person's beliefs and health behaviors should be understood in the context of their own culture

socialization

process of internalizing the social norms and values expected in one's society; mass media (such as popular music) is one source

observational learning

process of learning through watching or imitating others

resocialization

process through which we get rid of old behaviors in order to take on new ones -ex. joining the military

A public health advocacy group has developed a program to encourage adherence to a Truvada medication regimen using operant conditioning principles. An example of the group using thinning in the program is:

reducing the frequency of rewards for medication compliance. - In operant conditioning, thinning refers to reducing the frequency of rewards for a given action.

bureaucracy

refers to a rational system of administration, control, and discipline that is characteristic of large organizations Ideal: -formal, hierarchical structure -managed by a set of defined, specific rules and regulations -functional specificity with specialized tasks -unified mission -purposefully impersonal -employment based on technical qualifications

role strain

refers to difficulty in fulfilling multiple expectations within the same role ex. babysitter taking care of three young kids, one in diapers

role conflict

refers to difficulty in fulfilling the expectations of two or more roles at once ex. father who is also a youth league coach

reliability

refers to how consistent and repeatable an experimental assessment is

construct validity

refers to how well a given assessment (a survey, a test, etc.) actually measures what it claims to measure— whether it has been properly constructed to measure the relevant thing

role performance

refers to how well a person carries out a particular role

Anomie

refers to the breakdown of social bonds, such as social norms, between individuals and communities

relative poverty (relative deprivation_

refers to the conditions in which a person lacks the minimum income or resources needed to maintain the average standard of living for a community or society

absolute poverty

refers to the deprivation of basic needs like food, potable water, shelter, and healthcare

anticipatory socialization

refers to the process by which we prepare for future changes that we anticipate ex. switching job shifts

secondary socialization

refers to the process of learning what is acceptable and appropriate in a smaller, more focused section of society ex. school or workplace

social desirability bias

refers to the tendency that people have to give socially approved responses to questions in the context of research

separation

rejecting the new culture and maintaining the native culture

marginalization

rejection of both cultures

altruism

selflessness and concern for others

Piaget's cognitive development theory

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

prisoner's dilemma

standard example from psychological game theory that shows why two completely "rational" individuals might not cooperate, event if it appears in their best interests to do so

Schachter-Singer Theory

stated that a stimulus first leads to physiological arousal, then a cognitive interpretation of the circumstances, and finally a perception of emotion

internal validity

study has internally been well constructed, using things like large random samples, safeguards against confounding variables, reasonable and reliable processes and instruments, etc

neuromuscular junction

synapse that separates a motor neuron and a muscle fiber -vesicles can fuse with the axonal membrane in a calcium-dependent manner to release acetylcholine into the synapse -binding of acetylcholine to receptors on the muscle fiber membrane initiates the contraction process

retrospective cohort design

takes a group of individuals and asks them about their experiences in the past

self-serving bias

tendency people have to credit their successes to themselves and their failures either to the actions of others or to situations

confirmation bias

tendency that people have to focus on information that is in agreement with the beliefs that they already have, rather than the information that is contrary to those beliefs

belief bias

tendency that people have to judge things based not upon sound logic, but upon already held beliefs

representativeness heuristic

tendency to make decisions about actions or events based upon our standard representations of those events

fundamental attribution error

tendency to place less importance on the import of a situation or context on behavior, and instead place undue emphasis on dispositional or internal qualities in order to explain behavior

role partner

the person with whom one interacts within a given role

object permanence

understanding that objects continue to exist even though we are not looking at them

game theory

views social interaction as a game in which there will be winners, losers, and proper ways to "play" in order to achieve "victory"

social exchange theory

views society as a series of interactions that are based on estimates of rewards and punishments -posits that interactions are determined by the rewards or punishments that we receive from others

functionalism

views society as a system of interconnected parts that carry out a specific role that enables them to cooperate to maintain social equilibrium for a society as a whole

cognitive biases

ways in which our perceptions and judgments systematically differ from reality

actor-observer bias

we often blame our own actions on external situations but the actions of others on personality

attrition bias

when participants drop out of a study over time, which affects the results

formal norms

written, explicit, and generally enforced with penalties ex. laws