Note Card Review - AP World History

33. Technology and Innovations 1450-1750

- Gunpowder - Paper-making and block printing (printing press) - The magnetic compass - Astrolabe - Carvels - Sternpost rudder - Lateen sails Most of the major and popular technologies that emerged during 1450-1750 were introduced to European society following interaction with Chinese merchants. Portuguese development of maritime technology and navigational skills led to increased travel to and trade with Africa and Asia and resulted in the construction of a global trading-post empire. Knowledge, scientific learning, and technology from the Classical, Islamic, and Asian worlds spread, facilitating European technological developments and innovation.

59. Technology and Innovations 1750-1914

- Steam engine (Newcomen and Watt) - Electric light - Railroads - Indoor pluming - Telephone - Spinning Jenny - Dynamite - The photograph - The typewriter

22. Commercial Revolution

11th-18th century The Commercial Revolution may be defined as the creation of a European economy derived from trade. Mercantilist policies and practices were used by European rulers to expand and control their economies and claim overseas territories. Joint-stock companies, influenced by these mercantilist principles, were used by rulers and merchants to finance exploration and were used by rulers to compete against one another in global trade. The Dutch East and West India companies were both joint-stock companies, which meant that they sold shares to individuals to raise money for their trading enterprises and to spread the risks/profits among many investors. During the Commercial Revolution, these companies have a reduced risk in new expeditions, and when investors purchased stock, the companies got money to buy large amounts of raw materials. In Asia, the wealth of the Indies was now open for the Europeans to explore. The Portuguese Empire was one of the early European empires to grow from spice trade during the Commercial Revolution. In the fifteenth century, the city of Malacca on the strait between the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra was a entrepôt for trade from China, Japan, India, mainland Southeast Asia, and Moluccas. Malacca was especially beneficial for the Portuguese, who seized the strategic trading center in 1511. *CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (trade and commerce)

2. Mongols

1206-1368 Mongols were first mentioned in the records of the Tang Empire (618-907), living as nomads in northern Eurasia. After 1206 they established an enormous empire under Genghis Khan, linking western and eastern Eurasia. By the late 1200s, the Mongol empire split into 4 khanates (the Golden Horde in the northwest, the Chagatai in central Asia, the Ilkhanate in the southwest, and the Yuan dynasty in the east) The Mongols greatly thrived through military conquest (with help from Timur-I Lang) and trade (they traded internationally on a great level and even protected the silk road), especially during Pax Mongolica, which was their golden age. The expansion of empires—including the Mongols—facilitated Afro-Eurasian trade and communication as new people were drawn into their conquerors' economies and trade networks. Interregional contacts and conflicts between states and empires, including the Mongols, encouraged significant technological and cultural transfers, including during Chinese maritime activity led by Ming Admiral Zheng He. *STATE-BUILDING, EXPANSION AND CONFLICT, (political structures and forms of governance & empires) AND CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (trade and commerce)

5. Aztecs

1352-1521 C.E. Aztecs, also known as Mexica, created a powerful empire in central Mexico initially through political alliances and military conquest. Through the tribute system they forced defeated peoples to provide goods and labor as tax. Politics= monarchial, similar to more powerful neighboring states. Social structure= women held substantial power, and individuals were identified as nobles (pipiltin), commoners (macehualtin), serfs, or slaves. The noble class consisted of government and military leaders, high level priests, and lords (tecuhtli). Economy= Aztec merchants controlled long distance trade, which was a great source of wealth. Religion= Aztecs were very religious, their chief god was Huitzilopochtli. Their intense religious beliefs and rituals caused a lot of human sacrifice among their society. *DEVELOPMENT AND INTERACTION OF CULTURES (religion and belief systems, philosophies & ideologies), STATE-BUILDING, EXPANSION AND CONFLICT (empires), CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (trade and commerce and labor systems), and DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSFORMATION OF SOCIAL STRUCTURES (gender roles and relations and social and economic classes)

30. Ming China

1368-1644 The Ming Empire was based in China and established by Zhu Yuanzhang after the Yuan Empire was overthrown. Yongle, the Ming emperor, sponsered the building of the Forbidden City and the voyages of Zheng He. The later years of the Ming saw a slowdown in technological development and economic decline. Zheng He was a Muslim who made a series of state voyages (7) that took his enormous ships through the Indian Ocean, from Southeast Asia to Africa from 1405-1433. Zheng had good prior knowledge and was interested in the Middle East, so he explored maritime connections to the Middle East. Under emperor Hongwu, silver replaced paper money for tax payments and commerce. Silver in the Ming Empire had many economic and social effects because it expanded trading connections with Asia, caused inflation, and the forced labor class had a hard life in its production. Interregional contacts and conflicts between states and empires, including the Mongols, encouraged significant technological and cultural transfers, including during Chinese maritime activity led by Ming Admiral Zheng He. *STATE-BUILDING, EXPANSION AND CONFLICT (empires), and CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (trade and commerce)

6. Incas

1438-1572 C.E. Largest and most powerful Andean empire (happened through military expansion). Controlled the Pacific coast of South America from Ecuador to Chile from its capital of Cuzco. The eventually imperial bureaucracy initially developed from a chiefdom to a formal empire based on military conquest and the forced transfer of food and other products from defeated peoples through payment. The laborers built important roads, irrigation networks, terracing, and other technologies to provide material, communication, and easier transportation in a region with a difficult climate and topography. The Incans were polytheistic, like the Aztecs, but didn't participate in as much human sacrifice, and believed the rulers descended from the Sun. The hereditary chiefs of ayllus (family clan) that carried out local administration and judicial functions included women. After a century of regional dominance, a civil war beginning in 1525 weakened the Incan empire on the eve of European arrival. *INTERACTION BETWEEN HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT (technology), DEVELOPMENT AND INTERACTION OF CULTURES (religion and belief systems), STATE-BUILDING, EXPANSION AND CONFLICT (empires), and DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSFORMATION OF SOCIAL STRUCTURES (gender roles and relations and family and kinship)

35. Putting it all together 1450-1750

1450-1750 is often called the Age of Explorations, because the Americas became part of the global trade network, initiated by the Columbian Exchange. New diseases, crops, people, and cultures were distributed throughout the world. In addition, technological improvements in shipbuilding and gunpowder weapons gave European empires more power, eventually leading to colonialism and imperialism. While Europeans gained power, Indigenous populations in the Americas died quickly due to their European diseases and mistreatment. This extinction led to the forced migration of African people to work the plantations in the New World through the African slave trade, where they were treated like savages. In Asia, land-based empires like the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal, grew to their greatest extent. Meanwhile, maritime powers like the Portuguese and the Dutch spread throughout the world, mostly in the Americas. Domestically in Europe, the Renaissance, Enlightenment, Protestant Reformation, and Scientific Revolution all challenged the power of the Catholic Church and weakened traditional ideologies.

11. Renaissance

14th-17th CENTURY The Renaissance (which may be defined as a revival of art and learning) started in Italy because there was a breakthrough of trade and wealth that struck Italian society in the 14th century. This wealth partially stemmed from the Medici family, who are most famous for their patronage of the arts during this time. Humanism was an intellectual movement that focused on human potential and achievement, and revived interest in Greek and Roman traditional/cultures. Humanists influenced art and architects to carry on classical traditions. They also popularized the study of subjects common to classical education. Around 1450, the printing press was invented, which revolutionized printing and stimulated and spread new ideas quicker than ever. The Gutenberg Bible of 1454 was the first book in the West to be printed with the printing press, and as a result became wildly popular. *DEVELOPMENT AND INTERACTION OF CULTURES (religions, science & technology, and the arts and architecture)

14. Scientific Revolution

1543-1687 The scientific revolution was a period of change in European thought, and paved the way for modern science. It was based upon careful observation and a willingness to question accepted beliefs. Deism was the new "religion of nature," which insisted that religious truth should be subject to the authority of human reason rather than general/random revelation. Nicolaus Copernicus was a Polish cleric and astronomer who discovered that the planet's orbited around the sun (heliocentric theory). Copernicus never personally published his findings out of fear of persecution and ridicule, but was eventually published by Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler. Galileo Galilei did not have the same fear as Copernicus, and published a book called "Starry Messenger" that described his astonishing observations about space. Galileo's shamelessness and popularity caused conflict between Galileo and the Church. During this time, Francis Bacon and René Descartes developed the scientific method, which can be defined as a logical procedure for gathering/testing ideas. *INTERACTION BETWEEN HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT (technology), DEVELOPMENT AND INTERACTION OF CULTURES (belief systems, philosophies & ideologies, and science & technology), and STATE-BUILDING, EXPANSION AND CONFLICT (revolts and revolutions)

13. Counter-Reformation

1545-1648 The Counter-Reformation was a movement within the Latin Christian Church that was initiated in opposition to the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century. It started with the Council of Trent (a council that met at the city of Trent in northern Italy between 1545 and 1563 who sought to distinguish Catholic beliefs from Protestant beliefs and reaffirm the supremacy of the pope) and largely ended with the conclusion of the European wars of religion in 1648. The Society of Jesus, better known as Jesuits, was a new religious order created in 1540 by Ignatius of Loyola. Jesuits founded schools throughout Europe, and converted non-Christians to Catholicism and ultimately stopped the spread of Protestantism. They especially succeeded their mission in Poland and Southern Germany. *DEVELOPMENT AND INTERACTION OF CULTURES (religion and belief systems, philosophies & ideologies), and STATE-BUILDING, EXPANSION AND CONFLICT (revolts and revolutions)

21. Columbian Exchange

15th-16th century The new connections between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres (the New and Old World) resulted in the exchange of new plants, animals, technologies and diseases, known as the Columbian Exchange. European colonization of the Americas led to the the exchange of disease sources, including mosquitoes and rats, and also the spread of diseases including smallpox, measles, and malaria that often reduced the Indigenous populations. American foods became staple crops in various parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Cash crops were grown primarily on plantations with coerced labor and were exported mostly to Europe and the Middle East. Afro-Eurasian fruit trees, grains, sugar, and domesticated animals were brought by Europeans to the Americas, while other foods were brought by slaves from Africa. Populations in Afro-Eurasia benefitted nutritionally from the increased diversity of American food crops. The new global circulation of goods was facilitated by chartered European monopoly companies and the global flow of silver, especially from Spanish colonies in the Americas, which was used to purchase Asian goods for the Atlantic markets and satisfy Chinese demand for silver. This global silver trade was present throughout the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries , so it had a cross-over with the Columbian Exchange. *CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (labor systems, and trade and commerce), and INTERACTION BETWEEN HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT (demography and disease)

20. African Slave Trade

15th-19th century Portuguese raids on the northwest coast of Africa and the Canary Islands during the 1440s initiated a profitable slave trade. By the end of the 15th century, more than 80,000 Africans were captured or purchased on voyages, and kept growing in the 16th century. After 1500, the Atlantic system was established, the slave trade and plantation slavery became much more popular. Later on, by the eighteenth century when Caribbean colonies were the largest producers of sugar in the world, the slave trade expanded on a very large scale. Slaves represented 90% and provided all the labor in the plantations. This caused the ships carrying slaves from Africa even larger and faster and the human cost to increase. *CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (labor systems, and trade and commerce), and DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSFORMATION OF SOCIAL STRUCTURES (racial and ethnic constructions, and social and economic classes)

31. Qing China

1644-1911 The Qing Empire was established in China by Manchus who overthrew the Ming Empire in 1644. At various time the Qing also controlled Manchuria, Mongolia, Turkestan, and Tibet. The Qing ruled over a huge and multi-ethnic empire, consisting of Manchus, Han Chinese, Mongols, Uyghurs, Tibetans, and various other groups. Despite challenges, the 18th century was a time of prosperity and relative peace, with an ethnic minority unifying China under its control for nearly three centuries. To maintain control over trade, facilitate tax collection, and suppress piracy, the Qing permitted only one market point for each foreign sector, and the Europeans could only trade at Canton. Thus, the Canton System (1757-1842) was created and allowed China to control trade with the West within its own country by focusing all trade on the southern port of Canton. Imperial conquests and widening global economic opportunities contributed to the formation of new political and economic elites, including in China with the transition to the Qing Dynasty and in the Americas with the rise of the Casta system. *STATE-BUILDING, EXPANSION AND CONFLICT (empires), CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (trade and commerce), and DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSFORMATION OF SOCIAL STRUCTURES (racial and ethnic constructions)

12. Protestant Reformation

16TH CENTURY The Protestant Reformation was a movement led by Martin Luther created in efforts to change the abuses in the Roman Catholic Church. It ended in the establishment of Protestant Churches and the emergence of Lutheranism (one of the largest branches of Protestantism that identifies with the teachings of Martin Luther) and Calvinism (a theological system led by John Calvin and inspired by protestantism). The start of the Protestant Reformation can be marked by the publication of the 95 These, which consisted of formal statements attacking the "pardon-merchants" and unjust amount of indulgences being sold in the Catholic Church. King Henry VIII was a the "Supreme Head of the Church of England", so in 1521, he wrote a stinging attack on Luther's ideas. Later, in 1529, King Henry VIII called the Parliament into session and asked to pass a set of laws that ended the pope's power in England (this event is also called the English Reformation). *DEVELOPMENT AND INTERACTION OF CULTURES (religions), and STATE-BUILDING, EXPANSION AND CONFLICT (revolts and revolutions)

18. New World conquistadors

16th century In the early 16th century, Spanish conquistadors conquered Mexico, Central America, and Peru. Specifically, Hernán Cortes led the conquest of Aztec Mexico in 1519-1521 and Francisco Pizarro led the conquest of the Inca Empire of Peru 1531-1533. During this time of exploration and conquest, mosquitoes and rats carried diseases to the New World, and other diseases like smallpox, measles, and malaria became endemic. Some of these diseases substantially reduced the indigenous populations, with catastrophic effects in many areas. *INTERACTION BETWEEN HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT (demography and disease and patterns of settlement)

19. Encomienda System

16th century As newly developed colonial economies in the Americas started to largely depend on agriculture, they introduced new labor systems, which included the encomienda system. The encomienda system may be defined as a grant of authority over a population of Native Americans in the Spanish colonies. It provided the grant holder with cheap labor and periodic payments of goods by the Native Americans, along with the obligation to Christianize them. As epidemics and mistreatment led to the decline of Native American population, reforms such as the New Laws attempted to eliminate the encomienda system. The encomienda hierarchy held Peninsulares at the top, then Creoles, then Mestizos, then Native Americans, and lastly slaves. *DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSFORMATION OF SOCIAL STRUCTURES (racial and ethnic constructions, and social and economic classes), and CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (labor systems)

28. Islamic Gunpowder Empires

16th-18th century Most Muslim empires in 1450-1750 were gunpowder empires, which means they were largely based on the mastery of the technology of firearms. Political rivalries between the Ottoman and Safavid empires intensified the split within Islam between Sunni and Shi'a. Many states, such as the Mughal and Ottoman empires, adopted practices to accommodate the ethnic and religious diversity of their subjects or to utilize the economic, political, and military contributions of different ethnic or religious groups. In other cases, states suppressed diversity or limited certain groups' roles in society, politics, or the economy. Land empires included the Manchu in Central and East Asia; the Mughal in South and Central Asia; Ottoman in Southern Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa; and the Safavids in the Middle East. The Ottoman Empire was the strongest empire because it lasted the longest and was in the most convenient location because of their widespread territory. Because of their large amount of territory, they had access to trade with many valuable places, like Venice. Because of their trade, they had loads of money, ready to fund their powerful military. Also, the Ottoman empire had a very stable political system, it was very unbiased, but still managed to maintain law and order. The Mughal, Safavid, and Ottoman empires all declined in the 17th-18th century due to complex changes in military technology and being land-based empires while most of Europe were maritime empires. *INTERACTION BETWEEN HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT (technology), and STATE-BUILDING, EXPANSION AND CONFLICT (empires and regional, transregional and global structures and organizations)

15. Enlightenment

1715 - 1789 A philosophical belief system in the eighteenth-century Europe that claimed that one could reform society by discovering rational laws that governed social behavior and were just as scientific as the laws of physics. The Devine right, a theory that claimed kings based their authority from God and could not be held accountable for their actions by any earthly authority (such as a parliament). Enlightenment philosophers such as John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau challenged the idea of the divine right. Specifically, Locke believed that governments were created to protect life, liberty, and property, and that citizens had the right to revolt against the government/monarch if they violated natural rights (life, liberty, and property). Similarly, "The Social Contract", which was published in 1762 by Jean-Jaques Rousseau, argued that the will of the people was sacred and that the legitimacy of monarchs depended on the consent of the people. Locke and Rousseau agreed on the fact that government rested on the will of the people, but Locke emphasized the importance of individual rights secured institutionally, while Rousseau had much more distrust in secured institutions (government) and wanted a world where people acted collectively as a result of shared historical experience. The ideas of Enlightenment philosophers, as reflected in revolutionary documents—including the American Declaration of Independence during the American Revolution, the French "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen" during the French Revolution, and Bolívar's "Letter from Jamaica" on the eve of the Latin American revolutions—influenced resistance to existing political authority, often in pursuit of independence and democratic ideals. *DEVELOPMENT AND INTERACTION OF CULTURES (belief systems, philosophies & ideologies), and STATE-BUILDING, EXPANSION AND CONFLICT, (political structures and forms of governance, and revolts and revolutions)

63. Dynamics of Change

1750-1900 Population: Starting at 11 million in 1750 and then growing to a huge 40 million in 1900. The enlightenment ideologies led to various reform movements for women and slaves. This period saw the emergence of the movement for women's rights and equality based on enlightenment ideas. Family dynamics, gender roles, and demographics changed in response to industrialization.

62. Growth of Nationalism

1750-1900 Throughout 1750-1900, Nationalism became a major force shaping the historical development of states and empires. In Europe, nationalist movements led to the unification of Italy and Germany. In other parts of the world, such as Russia, China, Japan, and the Ottoman Empire, growing nationalism contributed to anti-colonial movements and other rebellions. Additionally, Nationalism was used to justify imperialism during this time.

36. Industrial Revolution overview

1760-1851 The Industrial Revolution may be defined as a period of transformation of the economy, environment, and living conditions, occurring first in England, that resulted from the use of steam engines, the mechanization of manufacturing in factories, and innovations in transportation and communication. It greatly involved the process of Industrialization, which led to a new demand for markets, resources, and labor. As states industrialized, they also expanded existing overseas empires and established new colonies and transoceanic relationships. Additionally, during the Industrial Revolution, new social classes, including the middle class and the industrial working class, developed. A variety of factors contributed to the growth of industrial production and eventually resulted in the Industrial Revolution, including: - Proximity to waterways/access to rivers and canals - Geographical distribution of coal, iron, and timber - Urbanization Improved agricultural productivity - Legal protection of private property - Access to foreign resources - Accumulation of capital The rapid development of steam-powered industrial production in European countries and the U.S. contributed to the increase in these regions' share of global manufacturing during the first Industrial Revolution. While Middle Eastern and Asian countries continued to produce manufactured goods, these regions' share in global manufacturing declined. The need for raw materials for factories and increased food supplies for the growing population in urban centers led to the growth of export economies around the world that specialized in commercial extraction of natural resources and the production of food and industrial crops. The profits from these raw materials were used to purchase finished goods. In response to the expansion of industrializing states, some governments in Asia and Africa, including the Ottoman Empire and Qing China, sought to reform and modernize their economies and militaries. Reform efforts were often resisted by some members of government or established elite groups. *CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (industrialization, labor systems, and trade and commerce), INTERACTION BETWEEN HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT (technology), and DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSFORMATION OF SOCIAL STRUCTURES (social and economic classes)

51. American Revolution (enlightenment, Causes and Consequences)

1775-1783 The ideas of Enlightenment philosophers, as reflected in revolutionary documents—including the American Declaration of Independence during the American Revolution—influenced resistance to existing political authority, often in pursuit of independence and democratic ideals. Colonial subjects in the Americas led a series of rebellions inspired by democratic ideals. The American Revolution, and its successful establishment of a republic, the United States of America, was a model and inspiration for a number of the revolutions that followed. The American Revolution, the Haitian Revolution, and the Latin American independence movements facilitated the emergence of independent states in the Americas. The American Revolution occurred as conflict emerged between American colonists and the British government, caused by growing resentments based on taxation and governing policies. The Revolutionary War lasted from 1775 to 1781; ultimately ended in American independence and the first large-scale democracy since ancient Greece.

52. French Revolution

1789-1799 The French Revolution may be defined as a conflict between the Third Estate (peasants, townsfolk, and merchants; paid all taxes) and the First and Second Estates (wealthy clergy and nobility) for political and social control. It was also an issue regarding unfair taxation, war debt, social inequity, and little representation in the government. It was inspired by the American Revolution, and various political factions competed for control of the government, with Napoleon Bonaparte ultimately seizing power in a coup. The Estates General was the the representative assembly of the three estates, who were the only ones to vote. The Reign of Terror went from 1793-1794, and is considered France's most radical and chaotic phase. It all started on August 10, 1782, when a crowd invaded Louis XVI palace in Paris and suspended his authority as king by guillotining him. During the Terror, deaths rose to 40,000 and imprisonments rose to 300,000. Other notable aspects are the fact that the National Assembly became radical, and the reign of terror being led by Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety. The ideas of Enlightenment philosophers, as reflected in revolutionary documents—including the French "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen" during the French Revolution—influenced resistance to existing political authority, often in pursuit of independence and democratic ideals.

38. IR: Technological Innovations

17th century The domestic system, also referred to as the putting-out system, was a popular production system in Western Europe in which merchant-employers 'put out' materials to rural producers who usually worked in their homes (but sometimes labored in workshops or put out work to others). The domestic system differed from the handicraft system of home production in that the workers neither bought materials nor sold products, and it also brought the first widespread industrial employment of women and children. The advantages to the merchant-employer were the lower wage costs and increased efficiency due to a more extensive division of labour. In the textile industry before the Industrial Revolution, textiles were primarily made of wool and were handspun. But after invention of the spinning wheel and the loom, cotton was produced quicker and eventually replaced wool in the textile field. The development of machines, including steam engines and the internal combustion engine, made it possible to take advantage of both existing and vast newly discovered resources of energy stored in fossil fuels, specifically coal and oil. The fossil fuels revolution greatly increased the energy available to human societies. *CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (labor systems)

46. European Imperialism in India

17th-20th century The British East India Company was founded in 1600 for the British to start participating in the East Indian spice trade and ultimately exploit trade with East and Southeast Asia and India. The BEIC ended up overthrowing the nawab of Bengal, which ensured their power and dominance. As time went on, they invaded more regions of India (like Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, etc.) that became a center of British power.term-47 However, there were still many other states that remained in the hands of local princes who accepted the political control of the company. The Sepoy Rebellion or Mutiny was the revolt of Indian soldiers in 1857 against certain practices that violated religious customs. In 1857, the BEIC grew with 200,000 new sepoys and 38,000 British troops. This provided the sepoys with modern weapons and orderly fighting methods, which benefitted them in their later rebellion, called the Sepoy Mutiny (1857-58) that occurred in a flow of Indian rebellions, led by citizens as poor as peasants and as powerful as sepoys. In 1857-58, Indians gained a new centralized government (the Indian Civil Service), entered a period of rapid economic growth, and began developing a new national consciousness. The Indian National Congress was a political party founded in 1885. It was a response to modernization, and was formed by Indian nationalists that arose in the increasingly educated middle class. The Indian National Congress consisted of Hindu British-educated officials and leaders, and pushed for Indian independence. *DEVELOPMENT AND INTERACTION OF CULTURES (belief systems, term-48philosophies & ideologies), STATE-BUILDING, EXPANSION AND CONFLICT, (political structures and forms of governance, nations and nationalism, and revolts and revolutions)

48. Boxer Rebellion

1899-1901 The Boxer Rebellion started in 1900 (towards the end of the Qing Empire) when a Chinese secret society, the Righteous Fists, rose up with the encouragement of the Empress Dowager Cixi and attacked foreigners and their establishments. This revolt stemmed out of the fact that foreigners, especially the British and French, were inflicting unfair laws and taking advantage of China's weakness/non-modernized society and policies. The British and French both imposed treaty ports where they could trade at will. Additionally, the British took over China's customs and allowed the free import of opium up until 1917. The direct consequence of the Boxer Rebellion of 1900 was that the ruling Chinese Qing dynasty became even weaker and foreign influence in China continued, however, the Western Powers did give up the idea of colonizing China. *STATE-BUILDING, EXPANSION AND CONFLICT (revolts and revolutions, and regional, transregional and global structures and organizations)

42. IR: Major negative effects of free market capitalism exist in factories and cities: opinions/responses

18th century Free-market capitalism= an economic system that maximizes supply-and-demand forces—prices, costs, and wages are self-regulated by participants in the market (buyers, sellers, producers, laborers)—and minimizes government oversight, regulation, and intervention. Industrial allowed the bourgeoisie (wealthier middle class class) gain money and power, while the working class suffered through poor working conditions. Specifically, the workers were being abused and injured/dying daily. They also suffered with low wages, a lack of worker rights and horrible working conditions. As one may infer, workers started to riot, go on strike, and protest prices of goods, the length of their work day, etc. *CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (labor systems)

40. IR: The Factory System

18th century The factory system was a method of manufacturing primarily using machinery and division of labour. The development of the factory system concentrated production in a single location and led to an increasing degree of specialization of labor. With the formation of large factories, people began to move to the cities which sometimes became overcrowded. This movement from a rural society to an urban society created a dramatic shift in the way people lived. The factory system replaced the domestic system, which meant that families could no longer work at their own pace or rely on opportunities such as weaving for their income. Children were expected to go to work in factories along with their parents and lost the time they formerly had to spend with their families. *CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (labor systems), and DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSFORMATION OF SOCIAL STRUCTURES (family and kinship)

37. IR: Agricultural Revolution Part II

18th century The second agricultural revolution, the one that occurred in the 18th century due to the transformation of farming. It resulted in the spread of new crops, improvements in cultivation techniques and livestock breeding, and the consolidation of small holdings into large farms from which tenants and sharecroppers were forcibly expelled. It also consisted of the development of large-scale irrigation, which was extremely essential for the cultivation of many popular crops. One of the most important aspects of the revolution was the acceptance of the potato, introduced from South America in the 16th century. In humid/cool regions of Europe, potatoes yielded significantly more than wheat, rye, oats, etc. Additionally, maize (American corn) started to be grown across Europe, from northern Iberia to the Balkans. *INTERACTION BETWEEN HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT (technology), and CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (labor systems)

41. IR: Economic & Social Philosophies

18th century There were 3 main social classes during the Industrial Revolution and 2 of these were new social classes: the middle class and the industrial working class. The working class were the poorest, and consisted of mostly factory workers. The middle class were not wealthy nor poor, and consisted of merchants and mid-level bureaucrats, as well as some skilled laborers whose jobs had not been replaced by industrial machines. Industrial capitalism refers to an economic and social system in which trade, industry and capital are privately controlled and operated for a profit. The development of industrial capitalism led to increased standards of living for some, and to continued improvement in manufacturing methods that increased the availability, affordability, and variety of consumer goods. Marxism can be defined as the political and economic theories of Karl Marx (who is well known for his two books: Manifesto of the Communist Party (1848) and Das Kapital (Vols. I-III, 1867-1894), that are basically a materialist interpretation of historical development to understand class relations and social conflict as well as a dialectical perspective to view social transformation. The basic idea is that there is a class conflict, and that the world is split into two classes of people that are the workers and the rich. Marx's ideas also provided an intellectual framework for the growing dissatisfaction with raw industrial capitalism. *CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (capitalism and communism and industrialization), DEVELOPMENT AND INTERACTION OF CULTURES (belief systems, philosophies & ideologies), and DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSFORMATION OF SOCIAL STRUCTURES (social and economic classes)

45. IR: European justification for colonization

18th-19th century A range of cultural, religious, and racial ideologies were used to justify imperialism, including Social Darwinism, nationalism, the concept of the civilizing mission, and the desire to religiously convert indigenous populations. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) was a very influential scientist of the 19th century, who created the Social Darwinism. Social Darwinists saw social and racial differences as a resulting from natural processes and opposed state intervention to alleviate inequities. This gave a scientific-sounding justification for the power of the privileged. Ethnocentrism means to apply one's own culture or ethnicity as a frame of reference to judge other cultures, practices, behaviors, beliefs, and people, instead of using the standards of the particular culture involved. In other words, it is based on the attitude that one's own group is superior. This ideology gave Europeans justification for colonization and ethnic cleansing. Christianity was one justification that European powers used to colonize and exploit Africa. For example, some missionaries believed that "the agenda of colonialism in Africa was similar to that of Christianity." Also, many believed that Christianity allowed Africans to submit themselves to the Europeans as they are considered as the heathen needed to be converted. *DEVELOPMENT AND INTERACTION OF CULTURES (belief systems, philosophies & ideologies), and DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSFORMATION OF SOCIAL STRUCTURES (racial and ethnic constructions)

43. IR: Reforms

18th-19th century Organized labor unions fought for better wages, reasonable hours and safer working conditions. This led to the establishment of movements such as the Grand National Consolidated Trade Union (founded by Robert Owen), and Chartism (led by William Lovett and Fergys O'Connor), which were both made in efforts to improve the lifestyle of a worker during the 18th century. Eventually acts such as The Factory Act of 1833 and The Mines Act of 1842 were passed, which also helped workers. Ultimately, these laws and unions led efforts to stop child labor, give health benefits, and provide aid to workers who were injured or retired. Leaders such as Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton formed groups to push for women's suffrage during the Industrial Revolution. One of the major events being the Women's Rights Convention in 1848 that took place in Seneca Falls, New York, to discuss women's role in society. This demand for women's suffrage and an emergent feminism challenged political and gender hierarchies. Railroads, steamships, and the telegraph made exploration, development, and communication possible in interior regions globally, which led to increased trade and migration. Migration in many cases was influenced by changes in demographics in both industrialized and unindustrialized societies that presented challenges to existing patterns of living. Because of the nature of new modes of transportation, both internal and external migrants increasingly relocated to cities. This pattern contributed to the significant global urbanization of the 19th century. The new methods of transportation also allowed for many to return, periodically or permanently, to their home societies. The new global capitalist economy continued to rely on coerced and semicoerced labor migration, including enslavement, Chinese and Indian indentured servitude, and convict labor. Migrants often created ethnic enclaves in different parts of the world that helped transplant their culture into new environments. Receiving societies did not always embrace immigrants, as seen in the various degrees of ethnic and racial prejudice and the ways states attempted to regulate the increased flow of people across their borders. *CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (labor systems and industrialization), INTERACTION BETWEEN HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT (migration), and DEVELOPMENT AND INTERACTION OF CULTURES (belief systems, philosophies & ideologies)

44. IR: Natural Resources

18th-19th century The need for raw materials for factories and increased food supplies for the growing population in urban centers led to the growth of export economies around the world that specialized in commercial extraction of natural resources and the production of food and industrial crops. The profits from these raw materials were used to purchase finished goods. Britain had large and accessible supplies of coal and iron - two of the most important raw materials used to produce the goods for the early Industrial Revolution. Also available was water power to fuel the new machines, harbors for its merchant ships, and rivers for inland transportation. However, as global population increased, the amount of accessible natural resources depleted. The use of chemicals and fuel in factories resulted in increased air and water pollution and an increased use of fossil fuels. *CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (industrialization)

65. World War I

1914-1918 The causes of World War I included imperialist expansion and competition for resources. In addition, territorial and regional conflicts combined with a flawed alliance system and intense nationalism to escalate the tensions into global conflict. World War I was the first total war. Governments used a variety of strategies, including political propaganda, art, media, and intensified forms of nationalism, to mobilize populations (both in the home countries and the colonies) for the purpose of waging war. The U.S. first declared themself neutral in 1914, but by the end of the war in 1918, they had helped the British Empire, French and Portuguese forces defeat and turn back the powerful final German offensive, and most importantly, the Americans played a role in the Allied final offensive. Consequences: - End of empires (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Ottoman Empire) - Communism in Russia - Instability in Europe - Growth of government functions - Even more industrialization, except so much was now destroyed - Remnant aristocracy really gone now; lots middle and lower class - Women's suffrage - Pacifism movements grow - Uncertainty and anxiety, disillusionment with materialism, consumerism, and democracy - Increase in European propaganda led to increased colonial awareness therefore nationalist and independent movements grew - Mandate system - Japan gets Germany's former Asian territories - No Zionist state - Japan and China increased tensions

67. Russian Revolution

1917-1923 In WWI, Russia got destroyed by Germany, had low materials/resources, lost alliances and eventually gave up the thrown. Then, Lenin rose to power after Nicholas II abdicated due to February and March Revolution. Lenin led of the Bolsheviks in Russia during World War I and created the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The current prime minister, Kerensky, became one of the members representing the Social Revolutionary party during the Russian Revolution. He was the leading political figure in the first months after the February Revolution and became the Russian Revolution's first cult of personality.

90. Independence in North Africa

1922 Egypt became an independent state in 1922. However, British influence in the country remained very strong. Above all, Britain continued to control the Suez Canal, along with France. This annoyed Egyptians, who felt that this valuable asset in their own country should belong to them. Nonviolent boycotts, petitions, pamphleteering, demonstrations, and a sustained general strike by students, professionals, and workers forced the British to declare limited independence for Egypt on February 28, 1922.

70. Great Depression

1929-1933 The Depression started in 1929 in New York, on "Black Thursday," when the stock market crashed. After this day, unemployment rates increased, while world trade decreased. This decrease in trade (which was due to an increase in tariffs), evidently took a large toll on countries all over the world. For instance, Germany had 6 million people unemployed by 1932, Egyptians government became autocratic, and Latin America experienced a huge increase in homelessness. However, there were two nations that did not get hit with the drawbacks of the Depression, Russia and South Africa, who were both benefiting from individual successes (Stalinism and an increase in gold's value).

75. World War II

1939-1945 World War II was a total war. Governments used a variety of strategies, including political propaganda, art, media, and intensified forms of nationalism, to mobilize populations (both in the home countries and the colonies or former colonies) for the purpose of waging war. Governments used ideologies, including fascism and communism to mobilize all of their state's resources for war and, in the case of totalitarian states, to repress basic freedoms and dominate many aspects of daily life during the course of the conflicts and beyond. Technological and economic gains experienced during World War II by the victorious nations shifted the global balance of power.

77. Cold War

1947 - 1991 The Cold War may be defined as an ideological struggle between the capitalist United States and the communist Soviet Union from 1949 to 1993 that included many other states in proxy wars and alliance networks, like NATO and the Warsaw Pact. The Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power or counterweight to NATO. Conferences like the Potsdam conference and the Yalta Conference were end-of-war conferences that impacted relations during WWII greatly. The Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy with the primary goal of containing Soviet geopolitical expansion during the Cold War. The Iron Curtain was a political border between the Soviet-controlled Eastern part of Europe and the U.S.-controlled Western part of Europe. This political division was a popular motto during the Cold War and up until 1991, but originated in 1946 during Winston Churchill's (Britain's wartime leader) speech in Missouri. During the Cold War, Germany became the center for all the tensions between Democracy and Communism.

97. Iranian Revolution

1980-1988 During the Iranian Revolution, Shah Reza Shah introduced many social, economic, and political reforms during his reign, ultimately laying the foundation of the modern Iranian state. The revolution of 1979 ended the westernization and modernization of Iran, and set up a traditional government and society based upon the Koran. In September 1980 the Iraqi army carefully advanced along a broad front into Khūzestān, taking Iran by surprise. But under the leadership of Ruhollah Khomeini, who bore a strong personal animosity toward Saddam, Iran remained intransigent and continued the war in an effort to overthrow the Iraqi leader.

87. Soviet Union Collapses

1991 Gorbachev's decision to allow elections with a multi-party system and create a presidency for the Soviet Union began a slow process of democratization that eventually destabilized Communist control and contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union. On December 25, President Mikhail Gorbachev resigned, declared his office extinct, and handed over its powers—including control of the nuclear launch codes—to Yeltsin. That evening, the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin for the last time and replaced with the Russian tricolour flag. Glasnost allowed for economic expansion, while perestroika created political confusion. Glasnost led to revolutions in Soviet states, while perestroika created economic confusion. Glasnost resulted in the imprisonment of military leaders, while perestroika resulted in political freedom.

99. War in the Gulf: Oil & Saddam Hussein

1991 The Gulf War oil spill, or the Persian Gulf oil spill, was one of the largest oil spills in history, resulting from the Gulf War in 1991. In January of 1991, Iraqi forces allegedly began dumping oil into the Persian Gulf to stop a U.S. coalition lead water landing on their shores.

86. Cold War Ends

1991 Traditionally, Cold War was regarded as a political, military, economic, strategic or ideological conflict between the capitalist and democratic West, on the on hand, and the communist and non-democratic East, on the other. Poland appeared to be on the 'wrong' side of the Iron Curtain. While its communist government was imposed by the Soviet Union in 1944, the Polish people supported the Western world. Germany was divided into four occupied zones: Great Britain in the northwest, France in the southwest, the United States in the south and the Soviet Union in the east. Berlin, the capital city situated in Soviet territory, was also divided into four occupied zones.

55. Effects of Independence movements in Latin America

19th century The American Revolution, the Haitian Revolution, and the Latin American independence movements facilitated the emergence of independent states in the Americas. However, the upper class remained in control of wealth and power, the plantation system was kept in many places, and a strong class system remained present.

47. European Imperialism in China

19th-20 century During the Opium Wars (1839-1860), the British wanted to be able to free trade with the Qing Empire. Both of the wars ultimately stemmed out of isolation of the Ming Empire. Specifically, the first Opium war was based off of the fact that Chinese customs officials refused British imports of Indian opium due to the addictive effects it had on Chinese workers. This first war weakened the Qing Dynasty and made China more vulnerable to unequal trade with the West. The second opium war was a conflict between China, Great Britain, and France, spurred by the desire of the European powers to further weaken China's position in trade negotiations, to legalize the opium trade, and to expand the export of indentured workers from China. Britain eventually won because of China's lack of modern weapons. The Treaty of Nanking concluded the Opium War, which awarded Britain a large indemnity from the Qing Empire, denied the Qing government tariff control over some of its own borders, opened additional ports of residence to Britons, and ceded the island of Hong Kong to Britain. In 1800, the Qing Empire started encountering many issues relating to the British. However, there were already many domestic issues, like rebellions (such as the White Lotus Rebellion) and protests due to the racism and prejudice the indigenous, poor, and local magistrates were facing. Later on in 1850, Hong Xiuquan commenced the Taiping Rebellion, which he called the "Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace." He led the Hakkas and Taiping leaders in a fight to drive the Qing, or Manchu conquerors, out of China. With a large rebel army, including women, the Taipings were dominating in the rebellion and even conquered Nanjing in 1853 and settled there. The Spheres of Influence in China was when different European nations had control over prosperous Chinese ports and had control of trade in that region disregarding the rights of the Chinese people.

89. Independence in India

19th-20th century Indian National Congress was a political party founded in 1885 that had Hindu British-educated officials and leaders, pushed for Indian independence, involved Mahatma Gandhi (a leader of the independence movement in India). The Muslim League was a political party established in 1906 in British India. Its strong advocacy for the establishment of a separate Muslim-majority nation-state, Pakistan, successfully led to the partition of India in 1947 by the British Empire. The partition was outlined in the Indian Independence Act 1947 and resulted in the dissolution of the British Raj, or Crown rule in India. The two self-governing countries of India and Pakistan legally came into existence at midnight on 15 August 1947.

49. Japanese Imperialism

19th-20th century The Meiji Restoration was a successful rebellion in which young reform-minded Japanese sought to overthrow the isolationist Tokugawa shogunate and restore the power of Emperor Meiji; sparked by contact between Japan and the United States; following the restoration, Japan experienced rapid industrialization and modernization. During this time Japan also adopted a constitution and formed a strong army. As diplomatic conflict with the United States turned into the Great East Asian War. Japanese propaganda presented the war as one to free the Asian peoples from 'white' imperialism rather than a grab for their natural resources, the Army and Navy General Principles of National Policy of 1936 was an important forerunner of this policy.

50. European Imperialism in Africa

19th-20th century The slave trade didn't fully end until 1867, even though majority of America and Europe abolished slavery and slave trade by 1850. It was places such as Cuba and Brazil that promoted the continuous exchange of slaves from Africa. But, as the slave trade did come to an end, "legitimate" trade increased (especially with Britain), the social structure of the coastal trading communities altered and the once enslaved people could become wealthy, and Western influence grew rapidly (mostly cultural and educational influence). Some examples of this is the increase in trading palm-oil, King Jaja of Opobo, and the colony of Sierra Leone. In Southern Africa, where Afrikaners had already been for years, the Europeans used their large fields and rare deposits of diamonds, gold, copper, coal, and iron ore. The British fought hard for South Africa, considering they had to go to war with the Zulu in 1879 and then with the Boers in the South African War (Boer War) in 1899. By the early 1900s, the British passed laws stimulating racial segregation in Africa. The Berlin Conference was a gathers that German chancellor Otto von Bismarck called to set rules for the partition of Africa. It led to the creation of the Congo Free State under King Leopold II of Belgium, where he abused his citizens and inflicted laws that forced labor upon native Africans.

93. NGOs

20th century A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a non-profit group that functions independently of any government. NGOs, sometimes called civil societies, are organized on community, national and international levels to serve a social or political goal such as humanitarian causes or the environment.

72. Fascism in Italy & Rise of Hitler

20th century Benito Mussolini was a leader of Italy's Blackshirts and key proponent of fascism as an anti-communist movement. He deposed King Vittorio Emmanuel II and established a fascist government in 1922. Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German leader who planned to restore Germany to its prewar status 126 through militarism, ultranationalism, extreme violence, and anti-Semitism. He appointed chancellor in 1933; leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP), commonly called the Nazi Party. World War II was a total war. Governments used a variety of strategies, including political propaganda, art, media, and intensified forms of nationalism, to mobilize populations (both in the home countries and the colonies or former colonies) for the purpose of waging war. Governments used ideologies, including fascism and communism to mobilize all of their state's resources for war and, in the case of totalitarian states, to repress basic freedoms and dominate many aspects of daily life during the course of the conflicts and beyond.

71. Contrast Fascism & Totalitarianism

20th century Fascism: - Fascism is a form of far-right, authoritarian ultranationalism characterized by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition, and strong regimentation of society and of the economy, which came to prominence in early 20th-century Europe. - Rarely employed since the end of World War II in 1945, fascism is a form of government combining the most extreme aspects of both totalitarianism and authoritarianism. Even when compared to extreme nationalistic ideologies like Marxism and anarchism, fascism is typically considered to be at the far-right end of the political spectrum. Totalitarianism: - Totalitarianism is a form of government in which the state's power is unlimited and controls virtually all aspects of public and private life. This control extends to all political and financial matters as well as the attitudes, morals, and beliefs of the people. - According to Russian history expert and author Richard Pipes, Fascist Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini once summarized the basis of totalitarianism as, "Everything within the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state."

101. World Trade

20th century North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is a good example of free trade region, while the European Union originated from a usual market form of area economic integration to a large economic union. Similarities and Differences between NAFTA and EU.

84. Cuban Revolution

20th century On March 2, 1901, the Platt Amendment was passed as part of the 1901 Army Appropriations Bill. It stipulated seven conditions for the withdrawal of United States troops remaining in Cuba at the end of the Spanish-American War, and an eighth condition that Cuba sign a treaty accepting these seven conditions. On April 17, 1961, 1,400 Cuban exiles launched what became a botched invasion at the Bay of Pigs on the south coast of Cuba. In 1959, Fidel Castro came to power in an armed revolt that overthrew Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista. The Cuban Revolution was a crucial turning point in U.S.-Cuban relations. After the revolutionary government nationalized all U.S. property in Cuba in August 1960, the American Eisenhower administration froze all Cuban assets on American soil, severed diplomatic ties and tightened its embargo of Cuba. The Cuban Missile Crisis lasted for 13 days, and consisted of a verge-of-war confrontation between the Soviet Union and the U.S. after U.S. discovered the placement of nuclear-armed Soviet missiles only 90 miles from their shores, in Cuba.

96. Israel 1948

20th century The 1948 Arab-Israeli War was the second and final stage of the 1947-1949 Palestine war. The Israeli victory in 1948 can also be attributed to the international support Israel received, notably the Balfour Declaration of 1917, in which the British promised to support the Zionist cause of establishing a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine. In the Six Day War of June 1967, Israel defeated the combined armies of Egypt, Syria and Jordan, capturing the West Bank, East Jerusalem, the Gaza Strip, the Golan Heights and the Sinai Peninsula. For Israel, it was a stunning triumph; for Arabs, a humiliating defeat. The term "Palestinian territories" has been used for many years to describe the territories occupied by Israel since 1967, namely the West Bank (including East Jerusalem) and the Gaza Strip. The Palestine Liberation Organization is an organization founded in 1964 with the purpose of the "liberation of Palestine" through armed struggle. Intifada is the Palestinian uprising against Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, beginning in 1987. Hamas, as its name (Islamic Resistance Movement) implies, aims to liberate Palestine from the Israeli occupation, and transform the country into an Islamic state.

94. South Africa-Apartheid

20th century The 1980s was the last decade of Apartheid, and South Africa was experiencing loads of political pressure and violence. Political pressure was stimulated by the mainly white Tricameral Parliament, which was made up of the House of Assembly (the most powerful tier), the House of Representatives, and the House of Delegates. In 1983, a reform was made that allowed Colored and Indian citizens to represent the House of Representatives and Delegates (while the White, specifically Dutch and English, citizens still maintained authority in the House of Assembly). However, this attempt to expand political representation excluded Black citizens, and caused widespread dissatisfaction amongst the majorly Black South African society. As one can infer, this produced a rise in protests, which got a barbarous response from the government and explains the escalation in violence during the 1980s.

85. Latin America 20th century

20th century The United States got involved in Latin America because they wanted to keep their country safe. They needed to keep European countries from creating new republics there. This was the only way that they could stay safe and keep their people safe. The Good Neighbor Policy was the United States' approach to foreign policy established in 1933 by President Franklin Roosevelt. Its primary goal was to ensure mutual friendly relations between the U.S. and the nations of Latin America. The liberation theology in Latin America was a movement in the Roman Catholic Church that argued for Church attention to focus on world issues of poverty, human rights, and economic justice.

91. Independence in Sub-Saharan Africa

20th century Twentieth-century sub-Saharan Africa also saw a wave of independence movements, sometimes bloody, sometimes peaceful, but almost always the result of a long and hard-fought battle with colonial powers. The decolonization of sub-Saharan Africa was a gradual process. The British colonies were the first to gain independence. On 19 December 1955, the Sudanese Parliament proclaimed the country's independence. Two weeks later, on 1 January 1956, Sudan became officially independent. Europe viewed the African colonies as a source of wealth and natural resources. European colonization severely disrupted the natural nation-state development process in Africa and imposed artificial borders corresponding to colonial conquests. Nationalism significantly factored into independence movements by giving the local people of certain nations more pride, passion, and commonality in interest. With all these traits, the people could work collaboratively and lead independence movements, that lead to the creation of new nations and the administration of those nations. Regarding the administration of the new nations, nationalism promoted freedom and fulfillment of society.

92. Decolonization and Nation Building

20th century Various countries had various ways of achieving independence, and some were peaceful while others weren't. One of the bloodiest consisted of the Rwandan genocide occurred between 7 April and 15 July 1994 during the Rwandan Civil War. During this period of around 100 days, members of the Tutsi minority ethnic group, as well as some moderate Hutu, were slaughtered by armed militias.

95. Israel: pre-WWII

20th century Zionism is a movement founded by Austrian jouralist, Theodore Herzl, that urged the creation of a Jewish national homeland in Palestine, now it is rather defined as Israel's national ideology. The Balfour Declaration was a public statement issued by the British government in 1917 during the First World War announcing support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, then an Ottoman region with a small minority Jewish population. The British Mandate for Palestine (1918-1948) was the outcome of several factors: the British occupation of territories previously ruled by the Ottoman Empire, the peace treaties that brought the First World War to an end, and the principle of self-determination that emerged after the war.

60. Changes and Continuities in the Role of Women 1750-1914

A feminism movement undertaken by women emerged as a result of the economic changes that occurred following industrialization. This movement challenged established gender roles and advocated for increased political, educational, and legal rights. Poor women who had taken care of home/worked in fields shifted to factories/sweatshops, little time/space for domestic work, more "opportunity" than middle/upper class. However, women were still paid less than men, lost manufacturing jobs of the domestic system, and expected to return to role as homemaker/childcare provider. Overall, Women gained some economic opportunities as a result of industrialization, but were paid considerably less than their male counterparts. These new economic opportunities and Enlightenment ideals prompted women to fight for political rights as well, though these rights would not become realized until the twentieth century in most parts of the world.

3. Interaction of Kush, Axum, Swahili coast

AROUND 1200 C.E.-1450 C.E. The Kush and Axum civilizations in Eastern Africa near the northern parts of the Nile River was linked to India and Southeast Asia through the Indian Ocean trade. Kush and Axum both maintained most of their power through trade, but also through territorial expansion (Kush) and religious conversion (Axum). The Swahili coast was the eastern coast of Africa that facilitated trade and was the home to many farmers, merchants, and fisherman. These people traded a lot of gold, ivory, and slaves. The success of trade along the Swahili coast allowed the Kush and Axum to become more urbanized and powerful economically. This trade also contributed greatly to the spread of Islam throughout East Africa. *DEVELOPMENT AND INTERACTION OF CULTURES (religions), and CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (trade and commerce)

1. Serfs

AROUND 1200-1450 C.E In medieval Europe, an agricultural laborer legally bound to a lord's property and obligated to perform set services for the lord. In Russia some serfs worked as artisans and in factories (they were the lowest group on the social pyramid, along with the peasants); serfdom was not abolished there until 1861. Europe was largely an agricultural society dependent on free and coerced labor, including serfdom. Enlightenment ideas and religious ideals resulted in a reform movement that ended of serfdom and the emergence of a more agricultural society with skilled workers. *CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (labor systems), and DEVELOPMENT AND TRANSFORMATION OF SOCIAL STRUCTURES (social and economic classes)

4. Ghana, Mali, Songhai

AROUND 800 C.E.-1450 C.E. In Ghana (about 800-100 C.E.) and Mali (about 1200-1450 C.E.) there was tons of gold, which the Islamic traders started trading with the West Africans when they travelled to the sub-Saharan in search for salt. After Ghana fell and Mali rose to power, Mansa Musa attained rule and built a capital at Timbuktu and expanded the kingdom beyond the bounds of Ghana. In 1307, Mansa Musa made an extravagant pilgrimage to Mecca that included hundreds of gold-carrying servants and camels. During this time, griots also emerged in Mali, which are storytellers that keep West African traditions, history, and importance heard. In the mid-fifteenth century, Songhai ruler Sonni Ali conquered the entire region and established the Songhai Empire. During the Songhai empire. Timbuktu became a major cultural center with a university that attracted scholars from all around the Islamic world. The expansion of empires—including Mali in West Africa-facilitated Afro-Eurasian trade and communication as new people were drawn into the economies and trade networks. *DEVELOPMENT AND INTERACTION OF CULTURES (all topics), STATE-BUILDING, EXPANSION AND CONFLICT (empires), and CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (trade and commerce).

16. European Expoloration

About 1450-1750 In the fifteenth century, Portugal, carried by Prince Henry the Navigator (a Portuguese prince who promoted the study of navigation and directed voyages of exploration in efforts of converting Africans to Christianity, and beginning joint crusades with them against the Ottomans), created a trading empire in Africa and the Indian Ocean. In 1497-98, a Portuguese explorer named Vasco da Gama sailed around Africa and reached India, which opened up an important commercial sea route. Spanish sponsorship of the voyages of Columbus and subsequent voyages across the Atlantic and Pacific dramatically increased European interest in transoceanic travel and trade. Specifically, he reestablished contact between the peoples of the Americas and the Old World, and paved the way for Spanish colonization. In 1494, The Treaty of Tordesillas divided the North Atlantic Ocean into two parts, one for Spain and one for Portugal, which caused Portugal to occupy Brazil and Spain to occupy the western parts of the Americas. *INTERACTION BETWEEN HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT (patterns of settlement), and STATE-BUILDING, EXPANSION AND CONFLICT (empires), and CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (trade and commerce)

17. Technologies assisting Age of Exploration

About 1450-1750 The main new technologies that supported the Age of Exploration were the: Astrolabe- an instrument of Arab or Greek invention that enables mariners to determine their location at sea by measuring the position of the sun or the stars in the night sky. Magnetic compass- a device with a magnetized pointer that gives directions used for navigation and geographic orientation. Caravel- a small, fast sailing ship. Sextant- a reflecting navigation instrument that measures the angular distance between two objects. Mercator's projection- a map shaped like a cylinder that was incredibly useful to European ocean traders and became the standard map projection for navigation. It was made by Gerhard Kremer (also known as Mercator, or the merchant) in 1569. The growth of interregional trade in luxury goods was encouraged by innovations in previously existing transportation and commercial technologies, including the caravanserai, forms of credit, and the development of money economies as well as the use of the compass, the astrolabe and larger ship designs. *INTERACTION BETWEEN HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT (technology and patterns of settlement), DEVELOPMENT AND INTERACTION OF CULTURES (science & technology), and CREATION, EXPANSION AND INTERACTION OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (trade and commerce)

29. Africa 1450-1750

Angola: - Angola provided the most slaves out of any region during the African slave trade. It was also the one place along the Atlantic coast where a single European nation, which was Portugal, controlled a significant amount of territory. Kongo: - The expansion of maritime trading networks fostered the growth of states in Africa, including the Asante and the Kingdom of the Kongo, whose participation in trading networks led to an increase in their influence. - African kingdoms reacted differently to the opportunities and threats created by the arrival of the Portuguese, but only Kongo embraced Christianity and accepted a large Portuguese military presence in the sixteenth century. Songhai: - The Songhai Empire of West Africa challenged the status quo when it pushed its frontier into the Sahara from the south. Ruled by an indigenous Muslim dynasty, Songhai drew its wealth from the trans-Saharan trade, which was smaller than the Angola slave trade, but lasted longer.

27. Russia 1450-1750

During the Age of Exploration, Russia broke free from Mongol domination and expanded rapidly. By 1750, Russia was a major power. Ivan III the Great freed the Russians from the Mongol yoke and centralized power in Muscovy (the territory surrounding Moscow). Ivan IV the Terrible was Ivan III's Grandson and the first tsar of Russia who took power from the Boyars (nobles) and expanded Muscovy. Cossacks were the people who lived outside the farming villages in Russia, often as herders, mercenaries, or outlaws. Cossacks led the conquest of Siberia in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Romanovs (named after Mikhail Romanov, who was the first Romanov tsar of Russia in 1613) were high-ranking aristocrats in Russia during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Emerging from the Time of Troubles (the end of Muscovite rule) the Romanovs worked to centralize royal authority and to institutionalize serfdom. Peter the Great (ruled from 1689-1725) modernized Russia by introducing Western languages and technologies to the elite, and building a new warm water port capital, St. Petersburg, and expanding Russia towards the Pacific. Along the way, he fought wars of expansion and enlarged the power of the tsar. As this expansion continued both in the east and west, Catherine the Great continued Peter's westernizing policies. She also made additions by promoting industry and building a canal system to improve trade.

53. Napoleon's Empire

Early 19th century After the French revolution, Napoleon overthrew the French government and transformed it to be imperialistic. He made the Napoleonic Code, which stated that had laws created to keep control over France and the land he conquered, took away some rights from women that were established in the first phase, and pleased the majority. During the Napoleonic Wars, France conquered Egypt, Belgium, Holland, much of Italy, Austria, much of Germany, Poland and Spain. France directly conquered or controlled through alliance most of western Europe by 1812. Napoleon also tried to conquer Russia, but faced some trouble. The Congress of Vienna of 1814-1815 was the most important international diplomatic conference in European history, reconstituting the European political order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon I. It was held in Austria and sought o preserve conservatism and legitimacy, while destroying nationalism and liberalism. They also wanted to stop future revolutions, along with getting rid of Napoleon's influence to preserve their power.

64. Prewar Alliances and tensions

Early 20th century The Balkans referred to a cluster of nations in Eastern Europe. It lay between the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires. It is considered as one of the causes of the First World War as it was strategically placed and it would help European nations achieve invincibility. This region was also politically unstable as there were different ethnicities and there was also rising nationalism in the region. Nationalism brought about tensions. There was also rising Serbian nationalist groups. These Serbian nationalist groups, in particular, the 'Black Hand' brought about the assassination of Archduke. The assassination of Archduke is often referred to as the spark of WWI, considering within days after the murder, Germany declared war on Russia—Serbia's ally—and invaded France via Belgium, which then caused Britain to declare war on Germany.

66. Treaty of Versailles/ League of Nations

Early 20th century The Paris Peace Conference produced the League of Nations and the Treaty of Versailles, which both left most people unsatisfied and weakened. These reforms also caused Austria-Hungary and Russia to crumble into several smaller nations like Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia. The Treaty of Versailles was a treaty imposed on Germany by France, Great Britain, the U.S., and other Allied Powers after World War I. It demanded that Germany dismantle its military and give up some land to Poland. It was resented by many Germans. The League of Nations was an International Organization founded in 1919 to promote world peace and cooperation but greatly weakened by the refusal of the United States to join. It proved ineffectual in stopping aggression by Italy, Japan, and Germany in the 1930s, and it was superseded by the United Nations in 1945. The League of Nations proposed in the 14 Points, which was a peace program that called for the evacuation of German-occupied lands, the drawing of borders and the settling of territorial disputes by the self-determination of the affected populations, and the founding of an association of nations to preserve the peace and guarantee their territorial integrity. It was rejected by Germany, but it made Wilson the moral leader of the Allies in the last year of World War I. Blame - Germany was forced to accept the blame for starting the war under article 231 of the treaty, known as the War Guilt Clause. Reparations - Germany was to be made to pay for the damage suffered by Britain and France during the war. In 1922 the amount to be paid was set at £6.6 billion.

68. Turks

Early-mid 20th century The partitioning of the Ottoman Empire after the war led to the domination of the Middle East by Western powers such as Britain and France, and saw the creation of the modern Arab world and the Republic of Turkey. Kemal was a Turkish field marshal, revolutionary statesman, author, and the founding father of the Republic of Turkey, serving as its first president from 1923 until his death in 1938. He undertook sweeping progressive reforms, which modernized Turkey into a secular, industrial nation.

74. Japanese Aggression

Early/Mid 20th century Beginning in the 1930s, Japan aggressively expanded the territories under its influence, taking over parts of China, invading territories claimed by the Soviet Union, and fighting across the Pacific during World War II. As a result of internal tension and Japanese aggression, Chinese communists seized power. These changes in China eventually led to communist revolution.

69. Stalin & Soviet Union

Early/Mid 20th century States responded in a variety of ways to the economic challenges of the 20th century. In the Soviet Union, the government controlled the national economy through the Five Year Plans, often implementing repressive policies, with negative repercussions for the population. The Great Purge or the Great Terror was Joseph Stalin's campaign of political repression in the Soviet Union that occurred from 1936 to 1938. Joseph Stalin was a Bolshevik revolutionary, head of the Soviet Communist party after 1924, and dictator of the Soviet Union from 1928 to 1953. He led the Soviet Union with an iron fist, using Five-Year Plans to increase industrial production and terror to crush all opposition.

23. Spain-Portugal 1450-1750

Even though Portugal set exploration of the Atlantic World into motion, Spanish explorers quickly made their control clear in the Americas. After Christopher Columbus's released his reports of the riches he found and would be found in the New World, Spanish conquistadors poured into the Americans to discover and conquer new lands. They accomplished this through both of military strength and strategic alliances with the Native Americans. Spanish rulers such as Ferdinand and Isabella encouraged the accumulation of these new lands in efforts to strengthen and glorify their country. As Spain's empire expanded and riches flowed in from the Americas, the Spanish experienced a golden age with art, literature, etc. However, Spain lacked strong national institutions, and Portugal had a small population; both had limited economic resources. Therefore, even though they accomplished a great deal during this Age of Exploration, they were not the most powerful countries in the world, China was still in the lead.

10. Putting it all together 1200 C.E. - 1450 C.E.

Existing trade routes (like the Silk road and sub-Saharan networks) expanded rapidly, while technology and commercial innovations increased as the world became more interconnected through trade and military conquest that moved empires borders. Great territorial expansion (especially seen with the Mongols and Incas) also as present during this time. All-in-all, a growth in trade throughout Afro-Eurasia caused cultural and technological diffusion, leading to a more intelligent and diverse world.

32. Japan 1450-1750

Following a century of civil war and turmoil, Japan faced internal and external military conflicts, political growth, expansion of commercial and cultural contact, and most importantly, reunification. The fact that Japan was small made the process of unification much shorter and debatably easier than in bigger empires like China or Russia. The Tokugawa Shogunate was established by Tokugawa Ieyasu in 1603 as a mew military government. The Tokugawa Shogunates were the last of the three shogunates of Japan, and provided Japan with economic growth and political unity. During this time, the merchant class arose and cities urbanized. The literature of the period gives voice to the culture of the new urban population, the "townsmen". The haiku form is perfected in this period by Bashô (1644-1694) from the linked verse written by townsmen in the new urban culture of the period.

25. France 1450-1750

France undertook Northern Atlantic crossings and established some new maritime empires during this Age of Exploration, but similarly to England, they weren't as involved in conquering the New World as Spain and Portugal were. It was during this time (1643 specifically) that Louis XIV, or the Sun King, came to power and really improved France. However, he was very obsessed with glorifying his wealth (through the Palace of Versailles, his clothing, etc.) and weakened the power of nobles by excluding them from his councils. But, those minor aspects of his way of ruling were unimportant considering he made France the most powerful country in Europe during 1450-1750 through mercantilism and gaining territory in Spain, Germany, etc.

26. German areas 1450-1750

In the beginning of the Age of Exploration, Germany was destabilized from the Protestant Reformation. As the Holy Roman Empire fragmented along religious and political lines, Spain, France, and England all achieved centralization and religious unity, while Germany did not. This conflict and tension between the Catholics and Protestants initiated the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) in Germany.

54. Independence in Haiti and South America

Late 18th-early/mid 19th century The Haitian Revolution was a slave revolt that lasted from 1791-1804 led by Toussaint L'Ouverture. It primarily sparked from the brutality of slave owners and inspiration from the French Revolution. The former French colony of Saint-Domingue became the independent nation of Haiti, the second independent nation in the Western Hemisphere and the world's first black republic. Bolivar led Bolivia, Perú, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador and Panama in an Independence movement that resulted in liberation for all of Spanish South America. Jose De San Martin also led Chile, Peru, and Argentina in this movement. The ideas of Enlightenment philosophers, as reflected in Bolívar's "Letter from Jamaica" on the eve of the Latin American revolutions influenced resistance to existing political authority, often in pursuit of independence and democratic ideals. Brazilian independence from their mother country, Portugal, was led by Dom Pedro and resulted in a constitution/constitutional monarch in 1822. Mexican independence from their mother country, Spain, was led by Father Hidalgo out of efforts to receive political freedom, end slavery, improve conditions for poor, and live under enlightened ideas. In 1821, Mexico finally became a republic and a United Province of Central America was formed.

56. Unification of Italy and Germany

Late 19th century (Nationalism, key names, Bismarck, Franco-Prussian War) The concept of the nation-state became a new aspect of cultural identity. In Europe, nationalist movements led to the unification of Italy and Germany. The process of unification illustrates the shift of nationalism from a radical democratic idea to a conservative method of building popular support for a strong centralized government, even an aristocratic and monarchial one. Italy: - Giuseppe Garibaldi was an Italian nationalist and revolutionary who conquered Sicily and Naples and added them to a unified Italy in 1860. - Italy became part of the French Empire and thus imbibed the ideals of the French Revolution which promoted liberty, equality, fraternity and strengthened the people's participation in the political process. Germany: - Otto von Bismarck was the chancellor of Prussia from 1886 until 1871 (during the Franco-Prussian War), when he became the chancellor of Germany. A conservative nationalist, he led Prussia to victory against Austria (1866) and France (1870) and was responsible for the creation of the German Empire. - Nationalism turned out to be a divisive rather than a unifying force, due to France tensions. - Became the most powerful state in Europe and a threat.

57. Czarist Russia

Late 19th-early 20th century In 1861 the moderate conservative Tsar Alexander II emancipated the peasants from serfdom. He did so partly out of a genuine desire to strengthen the bonds between the monarchy and Russian people, and partly to promote industrialization by enlarging the labor pool. In the early 20th century, suprematism, the invention of Russian artist Kazimir Malevich, was one of the earliest and most radical developments in abstract art. Inspired by a desire to experiment with the language of abstract form, and to isolate art's barest essentials, its artists produced austere abstractions that seemed almost mystical. After Alexander's assassination in 1881, his successors Alexander III (r. 1881-1894) and Nicholas II (r. 1894-1917) reluctantly permitted half-hearted attempts at social change. During the reign of Nicholas II, he gave support to the economic and political reforms promoted by his prime ministers, Sergei Witte and Pyotr Stolypin.

39. IR: Developments "Second Industrial Revolution"

Late 19th-early 20th century The "Second Industrial Revolution" is better known as the Technological Revolution, and it may be defined as a period of rapid standardization and industrialization. Specifically, it consisted of advances in steel production, electricity, and petroleum caused a series of innovations that changed society. With the production of reasonable priced steel, railroads were expanded and more industrial machines were built. Some notable inventions of this time were the light bulb, telephone, and typewriter. Modern medicine can trace some of its foundational principles to the 19th Century, like, for instance, Germ Theory and sterilization. The 1800s also saw the invention of some of the key diagnostic tools commonly used by doctors today - the stethoscope is a prime example. Other highly significant advances would be made in pharmaceuticals throughout this time as well as the introduction of the first vaccinations. All of which would save, and dramatically improve, millions of lives thereafter. *DEVELOPMENT AND INTERACTION OF CULTURES (science & technology)

58. U.S. Foreign Policy: 1800-1914

Late 19th-early 20th century The United States didn't want Europe to recolonize the Americas so they established the Monroe Doctrine that declared that the western hemisphere was off limits to Europeans/colonialism. The Roosevelt Corollary stated that the U.S. was in charge of the Western hemisphere and that they would intervene to ensure that other nations in the Western Hemisphere fulfilled their obligations. The United States seceded Panama from Columbia and built the Panama Canal. The U.S. established diplomatic relations with Panama in 1903 following its declaration of independence from Colombia. That year, through the Hay/Bunau-Varilla Treaty, Panama granted the United States rights to a zone spanning the country to build, administer, fortify and defend an inter-oceanic canal (the Panama Canal). The Spanish-American War was an armed conflict between Spain and the United States in 1898. U.S. victory in the war produced a peace treaty that compelled the Spanish to give up their claims on Cuba, and to cede sovereignty over Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines to the United States. The United States also annexed the independent state of Hawaii during the conflict.

100. Taliban, Al Qaeda, bin Laden

Late 20th century Osama bin Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden was a founder of the pan-Islamic militant organization al-Qaeda. Bin Laden believed that Afghanistan, under the rule of Mullah Omar's Taliban, was "the only Islamic country" in the Muslim world.

81. China after Mao

Late 20th century The time period in China from 1976 (death of Chairman Mao Zedong) and 1989 is often known as Dengist China. In September 1976, after Chairman Mao Zedong's death, the People's Republic of China was left with no central authority figure, either symbolically or administratively. Led by Deng Xiaoping, often credited as the "General Architect", the reforms after Mao were launched by reformists within the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) on December 18, 1978 during the "Boluan Fanzheng" period. In what is known as the Tiananmen Square Massacre, troops armed with assault rifles and accompanied by tanks fired at the demonstrators and those trying to block the military's advance into Tiananmen Square.

80. Change: Dynastic China to Communist China

Mid 20th century As a result of internal tension and Japanese aggression, Chinese communists seized power. These changes in China eventually led to communist revolution. Specifically, the communist party in China gained strength by because Mao divided land that the Communists won among local farmers in order to gain support of peasants not just bankers and business people.

76. Consequences of WWII

Mid 20th century At the end of the war, millions of people were dead (39 million people) and millions more homeless, the European economy had collapsed, and much of the European industrial infrastructure had been destroyed. The Soviet Union, too, had been heavily affected. After the end of World War II, some colonies negotiated their independence, while other colonies achieved independence through armed struggle. In newly independent states after World War II, governments often took on a strong role in guiding economic life to promote development.

82. Cold War: Korea

Mid 20th century During the cold war, North Korea troops streamed across the 38th parallel to try and reunite Korea by force. The U.S. under a UN fought with the Republic of Korea against NK and some Chinese communists. The Korean War was considered a proxy war during the Cold War, and caused Korea to became divided because: North - supported by the Soviet Union South - supported by the US

78. Communist China

Mid 20th century In October of 1911, a group of revolutionaries in southern China led a successful revolt against the Qing Dynasty, establishing in its place the Republic of China and ending the imperial system. Sun Yat-sen served as the provisional first president of the Republic of China and the first leader of the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party of China). Kai-shek was a member of the Kuomintang (KMT) and a lieutenant of Sun Yat-sen in the revolution to overthrow the Beiyang government and reunify China. Mao Zedong was the leader of the Chinese Communist Party in the 1920s and 1930s; reemerged in the 1940s to fight the Nationalists (Kuomintang) under Chiang Kai-shek; leader of China from 1949-1976; promoted mass purges and modernization programs, following the Stalinist example. The Chinese Civil War was a civil war in China fought between the Kuomintang (KMT)-led government of the Republic of China (ROC) and forces of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) lasting intermittently between 1927 and 1949.

73. Appeasement/Brink of WWII

Mid 20th century The causes of World War II included the unsustainable peace settlement after World War I, the global economic crisis engendered by the Great Depression, continued imperialist aspirations, and especially the rise to power of fascist and totalitarian regimes that resulted in the aggressive militarism of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler. The general and dictator Francisco Franco (1892-1975) ruled over Spain from 1939 until his death. He rose to power during the bloody Spanish Civil War when, with the help of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, his Nationalist forces overthrew the democratically elected Second Republic. The Munich Conference on September 28--29, 1938, during which the leaders of Great Britain, France, and Italy agreed to allow Germany to annex certain areas of Czechoslovakia. On August 23, 1939-shortly before World War II (1939-45) broke out in Europe-enemies Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union surprised the world by signing the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact, in which the two countries agreed to take no military action against each other for the next 10 years.

83. Vietnam

Mid/Late 20th century France had been a long-time occupier of Vietnam before 1954. It wanted no part of the new conflict. After World War II, France reoccupied Vietnam as part of its attempt to reclaim its prewar empire. In 1954, Ho's forces won a decisive victory at Dien Bien Phu and succeeded in evicting the French once and for all. Ho Chi Minh led a long and ultimately successful campaign to make Vietnam independent. He was president of North Vietnam from 1945 to 1969, and he was one of the most influential communist leaders of the 20th century. Guerrilla warfare is a very unconventional style of warfare; it refers to small conflicts where groups of stealthy combatants use the element of surprise to eliminate the opponent. This tactic was widely used by the North Vietnamese Communists, also called the Vietcong.

79. Mao's China (Great Leap Forward, Cultural Revolution)

Mid/late 20th century The Great Leap Forward was Mao Zedong's plan starting in 1958 to collectivize all aspects of the econ- omy, most notably by having communal houses with backyard furnaces for steel production; led to millions of deaths from starvation. The Cultural Revolution, formally the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a violent sociopolitical purge movement in China from 1966 until 1976. The goal of the Cultural Revolution was to preserve Chinese communism by purging remnants of capitalist and traditional elements from Chinese society, and to re-impose Mao Zedong Thought (known outside China as Maoism) as the dominant ideology in the CPC.

9. Changes and Continuities in the Role of Women 1250- 1450 C.E.

Sexism still remained in all societies, as societies continued to prosper and interact, women gained access to more education and jobs that were once only available to men. In the most powerful and wealthiest social classes, women could overcome the status of her gender and assume leadership roles if there was no male heir or if the male heir was very young (ex. in the Incan and Aztec empires). But for the most part, as societies became more urban and wealthy, women, especially those of the elite or upper classes had their freedoms further restricted even as their status in society rose. This can be seen in the increased veiling of women in the Islamic world, the custom of foot-binding in China, and the young age of marriage in South Asia.

98. Oil

The 19th century was a period of great change and rapid industrialization. The iron and steel industry spawned new construction materials, the railroads connected the country and the discovery of oil provided a new source of fuel. The discovery of the Spindletop geyser in 1901 drove huge growth in the oil industry.

24. England 1450-1750

The Age of Exploration was the last time period in history before British imperialism in the nineteenth century. England wasn't very big, powerful, or peaceful during this time, considering they fought in the English Civil War (1642-1649). They weren't as heavily involved in conquering lands as the Spanish or Portuguese were, but they did establish the British East India company, which allowed the British to trade in and around the Indian Ocean. England also served as a Trading Post Empire along the US East Coast (13 Colonies), and some small trading posts along Africa and India.

8. Technology and Innovations 1250-1450 C.E.

The growth of interregional trade in luxury goods was encouraged by innovations in previously existing transportation and commercial technologies, including the caravanserai, forms of credit, the development of money economies, the compass, the astrolabe, and larger ship designs. Interregional contacts and conflicts between states and empires, like Mongol domination, encouraged significant technological and cultural transfers, like the Chinese maritime activity led by Ming Admiral Zheng He. Improved transportation technologies and commercial practices led to an increased volume of trade, for example on the Silk Road, and expanded the geographical range of existing trade routes, including the Indian Ocean and the sub-Saharan trade network, promoting the growth of powerful new trading cities. Technologies like the camel saddle and caravans encouraged interregional trade. Trade between the Arabs and Europeans also brought print technology to Europe which was later developed into the printing press

61. Putting it all together 1750-1914

The ideals of the Enlightenment inspired a wave of independence movements and revolutions throughout the Americas and Europe that promoted liberty and other democratic values. In addition, Industrialization increased economic interdependence between different regions of the world. Industrialized nations in Europe and the Americas sought to colonize portions of Africa and Asia to obtain raw materials and to open up new markets for trade. As industrialization increased rapidly, populations grew, and many people migrated to cities in search of work in factories. Wage laborers were more desirable than forced labor in this new market-driven economy, so slaves and serfs were emancipated. The working class emerged, and workers organized into unions to advocate for improving dangerous and oppressive working conditions. New political and economic ideologies emerged in response to industrialization. Liberalism promoted limited government interference with the free market, whereas socialism and communism advocated for government regulation and increased political power for the working class.

7. Trade Networks and Cultural Diffusion 1200-1450 C.E.

Various contacts and conflicts between states and empires, including the Mongols, encouraged significant technological and cultural transfers (ex. Greco-Islamic medical knowledge to Western Europe. numeric systems to Europe, the adoption of Uyghur script, etc.). The Mongols also demonstrated this encouragement for trade by taking control of the Silk Road, one of the most massive trade networks that spanned from China and the Far East to the Middle East and Europe. Improved commercial practices led to an increased volume of trade and expanded the geographical range of existing trade routes—including the Silk Roads—promoting the growth of powerful new trading cities. The Hanseatic League was an economic and defensive alliance of the free towns in northern Germany that traded extensively in the Baltic, founded around 1241 and most powerful in the fourteenth century. As real goods were traded, so were religions (Buddhism spread into East and Southeast Asia, Hinduism spread into Southeast Asia, and Islam spread into sub-Saharan Africa and Asia) and significant technological innovations such as papermaking and gunpowder from China.

34. Changes and Continuities in the Role of Women 1450-1750

Women remained secondary in most parts of the world and societies remained patriarchal. The Ottoman Janissaries were men, the Qing scholar-gentry were men, and the House of Lords in the English Parliament were men. Though some opportunities existed for women to earn economic and political power, for example Catherine the Great rule in Russia, it lacked consistency.