nutrition ch. 14
The majority—__ to __%—is added during food processing and at restaurants, as either salt or sodium-containing food additives. Sodium naturally present in foods provides about __% of the sodium we consume, and the salt added in cooking and at the table provides another ___%.
- 75- 80 - 10 - 10-15
Water also is abundant in fruits and vegetables, typically ___ to ___% water by weight. Other sources that fall between __and ___% water content are potatoes, chicken, and steak. Foods that are less than __% water include jam, honey, crackers, and various fats in general.
- 75-95 - 50- 75 - 35
Approximately __% of dietary vitamin K (primarily as phylloquinone) is taken up by the small intestine and incorporated into ______. This process requires_____.
- 80 - chylomicrons - bile and pancreatic enzymes
Medication usually isn't prescribed for hypertension until diastolic blood pressure measures at least __ mm Hg and/or systolic blood pressure reaches ___ mm Hg on _ or more occasions
- 90 - 140 - 3
Vitamin K AI: DV:
- 90 μg/day; for men, it is 120 μg/day - 120ug
Excessive intakes of vitamin _ and vitamin _ negatively affect the actions of vitamin K. Vitamin A is thought to interfere with the ______of vitamin K from the small intestine, whereas large doses of vitamin E can lead to a decrease in vitamin K-dependent _____ factors and increased bleeding tendency.
- A, E -absorption - clotting
Because prothrombin contains the ____amino acid gamma-carboxyglutamic acid, it is called a Gla protein. All vitamin K-dependent proteins contain Gla residues, which are needed to bind ______ and form blood _____
- Gla - calcium - clots
In addition to its role as an electrolyte, chloride has other important functions: it is a component of the ___ produced in the stomach, and it is used during _____ when white blood cells attack foreign cells. Finally, chloride helps maintain _____ and dispose of carbon dioxide by way of exhaled air.
- HCL - immune responses - acid-base balance
Most of the sensible water loss is urine (typically, _____ ml/day). Insensible water losses, or those we do not normally notice, include water lost through the skin (______ ml for normal perspiration), lungs (______ ml), and feces (______ml).
- 1000, 2000 - 450, 1900 - 250, 350 - 100, 200
Individuals who donate blood more than _ to _ times a year may be at increased risk of iron deficiency. The donation of 1 pint (0.5 L) of blood represents a loss of____ to ____mg of iron. For most healthy individuals, it takes several _____ to replace this iron, although women may need a longer interval between donations to rebuild their iron stores.
- 2,4 - 200, 250 - months
major contributors to potassium in the U.S. are fruits and vegetables (__%), milk and milk drinks (__%), meats and poultry (__%), grain-based dishes (__%), coffee and tea (_%), and fruit and vegetable juices (_%).29 Other sources of potassium are salt substitutes (potassium chloride) and a variety of food additives, such as acesulfame-K, an artificial sweetener, and potassium propionate, a preservative.
- 20 - 11 - 10 -10 - 7 - 5
Some public health experts estimate that reducing sodium intake to less than 2400 mg per day will reduce the prevalence of hypertension by at least __% and will prevent thousands of heart attacks and strokes annually. Sodium intakes greater than _ g per day also increase calcium loss in the urine and are of potential concern for the loss of calcium from bones.
- 20 - 2
in typical U.S. diets, solid foods provide only about __% of the water consumed each day. Getting __% of water from fluid translates to a daily fluid intake of about __ cups (3 liters) for men and _cups (2.2 liters) for women. At a minimum, adults need - to _ liters of fluid per day to replace daily water losses.
- 20 - 80 -13, 9 - 1,3
Because the body produces approximately ___ billion erythrocytes each day, much of the body's iron is contained in _____. If the oxygen-carrying capacity of erythrocytes declines, the kidneys produce the hormone ____, which stimulates the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells
- 200 - hemoglobin _ erythropoietin
chloride AI: DV: UL: An average daily consumption of _ g of salt yields ____ mg of chloride.
- 2300mg/day - 2300 - 3600 - 9, 5400
- The intestinal tract is efficient at recycling water—about __ cups (8000 ml) of water enters the intestinal tract daily via secretions from the mouth, stomach, intestines, pancreas, and other organs - only about _____cup (100 to 200 ml) is lost in the feces - The kidneys also conserve water, reabsorbing about __% of the water filtered from waste products.
- 32 - ½ to ¾ - 97
Hemoglobin, which is found in erythrocytes (red blood cells), is composed of _ iron-containing heme compounds, each of which binds _ molecule of oxygen. As a component of hemoglobin, iron carries _____ in the blood from the lungs to all tissues of the body. It also transports _____ back to the lungs for expiration
- 4,1 - oxygen - carbon dioxide
- sweetened beverages , are so popular that they provide over __% of the added sugars - 2015 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend that added sugars from foods and beverages not exceed __ g/day in a 2000-calorie diet.6 A single 20 oz soft drink provides __ g added sugar.
- 40 - 50 - 65
Salt is ___% sodium and ___% chloride, which means that a teaspoon of salt (about 6 g) provides ___ mg of sodium
- 40 - 60 - 2400
Potassium AI: DV: U.S. adults fall below both of these recommendations, ranging from ____ mg in women to ___ mg in men
- 4700 - 4700 - 2320, 3016
A typical urine output of approximately _____ cups (1 to 2 liters) daily can easily change in response to fluid, protein, and sodium intake.The minimum urine output required to excrete usual amounts of urea and sodium waste is ___ cups (600 ml) per day. If urine output is this low frequently, its heavy ion concentration may increase the risk of ______ formation in susceptible people, especially men.
- 4¼ to 8½ - 2½ - kidney stone
milk (about 100 mg/cup) is an exception. Consider that, if we ate only unprocessed foods and added no salt, our daily sodium intake would be about ___ mg. Comparing this with the average daily intake of 4094 mg by men and _____mg by women in the U.S.,15 it is clear that food processing contributes most of our dietary sodium.
- 500 -4094 - 2997
Iron RDA: DV: RDA values are based on the premise that approximately __% of dietary iron is absorbed each day
- adult women is 18 mg/day; it is 8 mg/day for adult men, After age 51, the RDA for women drops to 8 mg/day - 18 - 18%
Menaquinones also are synthesized by ______ in the human colon. A synthetic compound, called ______, can be converted to menaquinone in body tissues. Phylloquinone, the main dietary form of the vitamin, is the most biologically ____ form.
- bacteria - menadione - active
Iron is absorbed across the______ into the small intestine by carrier-mediated mechanisms. The _______(intestinal absorptive cells) produce different iron-binding carrier proteins that play an important role in the absorptive process and overall regulation of iron status. _____, a key iron-binding protein produced in the enterocytes (and other tissues), binds and stores mucosal iron, thereby preventing it from entering the bloodstream
- brush border membrane - enterocytes - Ferritin
______ causes abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. In severe cases, an accumulation of _____ in the liver and the brain causes _____ and neurological damage, respectively.
- copper toxicity - copper - cirrhosis
The menaquinones synthesized by bacteria in the colon are absorbed by _____ diffusion. Vitamin K can be incorporated into the lipoprotein VLDL in the liver for storage or carried by chylomicrons, ______ to cells throughout the body.
- passive - VLDL, HDL, and LDL
The family of compounds known as vitamin K, or the _____, include phylloquinones (vitamin K1) from plants and menaquinones (vitamin K2) found in
- quinones - fish oils and meat
Zinc is absorbed into the cells of the small intestine by ______. When zinc is absorbed into enterocytes, it induces the synthesis of ______ rich intestinal protein (CRIP) and metallothionein, proteins that bind zinc in much the same way that mucosal ferritin binds iron.
- simple diffusion and active transport - cysteine
When ____ are selected over milk, riboflavin, vitamin D, calcium, and phosphorus intakes drop. Similarly, replacing fruit juice with _____decreases vitamin C, vitamin A, and folate intake.
- soft drinks - sweetened beverages
First, water has a high heat capacity, or ______. That means that water ____ temperature changes, so its temperature rises slowly when it is heated. This occurs because water molecules form ______ bonds with each other, and a relatively large amount of heat is required to overcome this attraction.
- specific heat - resists - hydrogen
In combination with zinc, copper also functions as part of a family of enzymes known as ________ (SOD) enzymes. These enzymes eliminate superoxide _____, which prevents oxidative damage to cell membranes.
- superoxide dismutase - free radicals
All cells have transferrin receptors, located on their surface membrane, that allow them to take in the _____ complex. Cells can control the amount of iron they take in by altering the synthesis of transferrin receptors. When more iron is needed, the cell _____the number of transferrin surface receptors to enhance iron uptake. Conversely, when cellular iron need is low, the number of receptors ______.
- transferrin-iron - increases - decreases
As we eat more protein, more ___ must be excreted in the urine. Likewise, the amount of ____ in the urine increases with higher dietary intakes of sodium
- urea - sodium
intracellular fluid major cation: major anion: extracellular fluid major cation: major anion:
-Potassium (K+), Magnesium (Mg2+) - Phosphate*, Sulfate (SO42−) extracellular; • Calcium (Ca2+) • Sodium (Na+) • Chloride (Cl−) • Bicarbonate (HCO3−)
Nearly _ in 3 adults, or 80 million Americans, have high blood pressure (hypertension)
1
This regulation is so precise that, under normal conditions, a loss of _% body water is usually compensated for within 24 hours.
1
__ in 4 children in the U.S. ages 12 to 23 months has intakes below the RDA, increasing the risk of iron deficiency
1
Each myoglobin contains _ iron molecule (attached to heme) that binds with oxygen from red blood cells and serves as an intracellular source of oxygen for ______.
1 - skeletal and heart muscle cells
Water produced from metabolism is about___ cups (250 to 350 ml) per day
1 to 1½
In addition, zinc stabilizes the structures of cell membrane proteins, gene transcription fingers (known as "zinc fingers"), and receptor proteins for vitamin _, vitamin _, and ____ hormone.
A, D, thyroid
Mild zinc deficiencies have been reported in young children, individuals with ______ and other malabsorptive diseases, those on kidney dialysis, and individuals who restrict their intake of animal-based foods
Crohn disease
_____ designed to test the effect of a diet ___ in saturated fat, total fat, and cholesterol and ___ in fruits, vegetables, and low-fat dairy products on blood pressure. The diet is rich in magnesium, potassium, calcium, protein, and fiber. - The DASH Diet provides for 2 levels of sodium consumption:______mg/day.
DASH diet - low - high - 2300 and 1500
Vitamin K is converted to an _____form once it has activated the clotting factors. It must then be reactivated for its biological action to persist. Drugs such as ____ (Coumadin®), which strongly inhibit this reactivation process, act as powerful _______.
- inactive - warfarin - anticoagulants
____ is a component of the part of red blood cells that delivers oxygen, ____ is needed to synthesize the heme portion of red blood cells, and ____ helps the body access iron stores. Also important to normal blood function is vitamin _, a fat-soluble nutrient essential for clotting
- iron - zinc - copper - k
Vitamin K is needed for the synthesis of blood clotting factors by the ____ and the conversion of preprothrombin to the active blood clotting factor called ______. In these reactions, ____ is added to a _______ in preprothrombin, yielding prothrombin
- liver - prothrombin - carbon dioxide - glutamic acid
copper has an important role in connective tissue formation as a component of ______. Lysyl oxidase cross-links the strands in 2 structural proteins (_______) that give tensile strength to connective tissues in the lungs, blood vessels, skin, teeth, and bones.
- lysyl oxidase - elastin and collagen
The richest sources of iron in North American diets are ______ . Because iron is added to _________flour as a part of the enrichment process, bakery products (e.g., bread, rolls, and crackers) provide iron as well. Relatively high amounts of iron also are found in spinach and other dark, leafy greens and in kidney, garbanzo, and navy beans. However, many factors cause the iron in enriched and plant-based foods to be less _____ than iron from animal-based foods. - In addition to the iron in foods, ____cookware can contribute to iron intake
- meats and seafood - refined - bioavailable - iron
However, excess copper can bind to intestinal ________, which may increase the short-term availability of copper. Copper is excreted mainly through the bile into the intestinal tract for ____ elimination.
- metallothionein - fecal
Zinc absorbed into the bloodstream binds to blood proteins, such as _____, for transport to the liver. The liver repackages and releases zinc into the blood bound to alpha-2-macroglobulin, albumin, and other proteins.
albumin
Conversely, when the concentration of sodium in the blood is low, the hormone _____ inhibits sodium excretion by the kidneys. Sodium also is lost via the feces and perspiration
aldosterone
Studies suggest that copper deficiency may increase the risk of neurological disorders, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig disease) and
alzheimer disease
A deficiency of vitamin K in older infants, children, teens, and adults is rare, although it can occur with prolonged use of _____ that disrupt vitamin K synthesis in the colon or with impaired fat absorption
antibiotics
ethanol increases urine output by inhibiting the action of _____. This hormone helps control the amount of fluid lost in the urine. When antidiuretic hormone action is blocked, ______ can occur.
antidiuretic hormone - dehydration
Primary hypertension develops over a period of years in response to changes in the
arteries, kidneys, and sodium-potassium balance
premature infants fed milk-based formulas, in infants recovering from malnutrition, in patients on long-term total parenteral nutrition without added copper, in those consuming excessive amounts of zinc, and in individuals with the rare genetic disorder Menkes disease
at risk deficiency of copper
Although iron deficiency increases infection risk, iron overload also can increase the incidence of infections because_______ require iron to grow and proliferate.
bacteria
Most vitamin K excretion occurs via the ____ that passes out of the body in the feces. A small amount of excretion also occurs via the urine
bile
Consuming too little potassium also can raise
blood pressure and the risk of stroke, increase the risk of kidney stones and bone loss
Diets rich in _____ also have been linked to lower blood pressure
calcium, magnesium, and fiber
reducing sodium intakes to below the Upper Level is likely to improve the health of many by lowering the risk of
cardiovascular disease and kidney stone formation
blood loss, a decline in red blood cell production, and an accelerated breakdown of red blood cells
causes of anemia
Copper is transported from the liver to other tissues bound primarily to the protein______. Within the tissues, ceruloplasmin binds to specific receptors, which release copper to transporters within the cells
ceruloplasmin
Like iron, copper is an important component of many enzymes because of its ability to alternate between 2 oxidation states (Cu1+ and Cu2+). For example, the enzyme _____ (also called ferroxidase I) is involved in oxidizing ferrous (Fe2+) iron to ferric (Fe3+) iron for incorporation into _______ and subsequent transport from the liver to body cells.
ceruloplasmin - transferrin
weakness, anorexia, and lethargy - The loss of HCl can disrupt the balance of
chloride deficiency - acids and bases
____ is strong oxidant widely used to purify water, disinfect swimming pools, bleach fabrics, and produce many products (e.g., paper, plastics). Chlorine, along with chlorine gas, is ___.
chlorine, toxic
Therefore, individuals trying to rebuild iron stores are advised to reduce _____ consumption, particularly at mealtimes. Excessive intakes of other minerals, such as zinc, manganese, and calcium, may interfere with nonheme iron absorption.
coffee and tea
Zinc also may play a role in shortening the duration of ______ in healthy people, when used within the first __ hours of the onset of symptoms.
common colds, 24
Within the mitochondria, iron is a component of ______ that carry electrons from NADH + H+ and FADH2 to molecular oxygen in the electron transport chain. Additionally, alcohol and many drugs are metabolized in the liver by the ___-containing P-450 enzymes prior to excretion.
cytochromes - iron
An adult can survive for several weeks without food, but only several ___ without water. This difference in survival time occurs because the body has reserves of carbohydrate, fat, protein, vitamins, and minerals, but no such reserves of ____. Water is the largest component of the human body, making up _____% of body weight, depending on age and body fat content.
days - water - 50-75
Like sodium, potassium influences the excretion of calcium, but in the opposite direction—when dietary potassium is high, the amount of calcium excreted in the urine
declines
When water intake exceeds that needed to excrete waste via the urine and replace insensible losses, the kidneys are able to _____ their reabsorption of water.With this, urine volume increases and the urine becomes more____
decrease, dilute
High blood pressure is considered the most significant risk factor for stroke and is a risk factor for heart attack,
dementia, kidney disease, and vision loss
Iron-containing enzymes are required for energy metabolism, _____ transformation, and the excretion of ________. Iron is required in the first step of the citric acid cycle for the conversion of _____ to subsequent compounds
drug and alcohol - organic compound - citrate
In some diseases, such as nephrotic syndrome and congestive heart failure, sodium excretion by the kidneys is faulty, causing significant fluid retention and
edema
Vitamin C provides an _____ to Fe3+ (ferric iron) to yield Fe2+ (ferrous iron), which then forms a soluble complex with vitamin C. Ferrous iron is better absorbed than ferric iron because it more readily crosses the _____ of the small intestine and reaches the brush border of the intestinal absorptive cells.
electron, mucosal layer
After transferrin binds to its surface receptor, it is engulfed into the cell by _______ . Within the cell ______, iron is released from transferrin and the receptor-protein complex is returned to the cell surface for reuse. The released iron is used for cellular functions or stored in the______with ferritin (the primary storage protein) or hemosiderin.
endocytosis - lysosomes - liver, bone marrow, and spleen
For the most efficient cooling, perspiration must be allowed to _____—if it rolls off the skin or soaks into clothing, it doesn't cool us as much. Evaporation occurs most readily when humidity is ___, which is why we feel more comfortable in hot, dry climates than in hot, humid ones.
evaporate, low
Vitamin K is relatively stable to heat processing, but it can be destroyed by
exposure to light
Chloride and sodium work together to maintain ______: the _____ charge of chloride (Cl−) balances the positive charge from the sodium ion (Na+). These minerals also aid in the transmission of
extracellular fluid volume - negative - nerve impulses
When water intake is too low to replace losses, chemical substances in the blood become more concentrated (the osmotic pressure of the extracellular fluid increases) and blood pressure ___. These changes signal the body that there is a shortage of water and trigger a series of fluid conservation measures.In response to increased osmotic pressure, the pituitary gland releases ______ (ADH), which signals the kidneys to ____ water, thus reducing urine ___
falls - antidiuretic hormone - retain, output
High intakes of dietary ____from plant-based diets also bind nonheme iron and reduce its bioavailability.
fiber
Although iron's ability to switch back and forth between Fe2+ and Fe3+ is vital, this reactivity also can be harmful because iron can form ____ compounds that damage cell membranes and DNA. To prevent these destructive effects and preserve iron for healthful uses, very little ____ iron is found in the body. Instead, iron is tightly bound to transport, functional, or storage _____
free radical - free - proteins
- liver, shellfish, nuts, seeds, lentils, soy products, and dark chocolate And Dried fruits, whole-grain products, and the tap water - Although meat is only a ______ source, it may promote copper absorption from other foods, as it does for iron
good sources of copper - marginal
Fruits, vegetables, milk, whole grains, dried beans, and meats
good sources of potassium
In adults, iron overload is most commonly the result of_____. In hemochromatosis, the mucosal block that usually protects the body from excess iron absorption is ____.
hemochromatosis - ineffective
Iron is an essential part of 2 proteins, _____, which are involved in the transport and metabolism of oxygen.
hemoglobin and myoglobin
Hemochromatosis causes a deficiency of _____ and, thus, prevents the normal degradation of the transport protein ferroportin. As a result, higher than normal amounts of iron are absorbed and transported across the enterocyte for binding to _____ and distribution to tissues
hepcidin, transferrin
WATER INTOXICATION :water accumulates in the blood and dilutes the sodium in the serum, a condition known as
hyponatremia
Toxicities also have been reported to impair _____ function and reduce _____ absorption and the activity of copper-containing
immune, copper
Dietary chloride may contribute to the effects of sodium chloride on ____ blood pressure. Still, as one lowers sodium intake as part of hypertension therapy, chloride intake _____ falls as well.
increasing - automatically
Water content is highest in ___________ and declines as we age. About ___% of an adult's body weight is water
infants and children, 55
In fact, the regulation of zinc absorption may be, in part, related to the synthesis of ______ because it hinders the movement of zinc from intestinal cells. If zinc is not transported out of the intestinal absorptive cell into the bloodstream before the intestinal cells are sloughed off, it passes out of the body in the ____. Thus, a mucosal block, similar to that for iron, decreases excess absorption of zinc. However, large doses of zinc can ____ the mucosal block.
- metallothionein - feces - overide
Vitamin K deficiency can occur in ____ because vitamin K stores are typically low at birth and the intestinal tracts of newborns do not yet have bacteria that can synthesize vitamin K. This increases the risk of bleeding due to defective blood clotting; thus, newborn infants in North America are given vitamin K injections within _ hours of delivery.
- newborns - 6
Potassium also is thought to blunt the effects of a high salt intake and help keep blood pressure ____. High dietary potassium intake suppresses the _____ system and promotes the excretion of excess sodium and water
- normal - renin-angiotensin
When iron needs are high, most of the iron absorbed into enterocytes is released into the ______. This iron is then transported out of the enterocytes, by a protein called ______, into the interstitial fluid for release into the bloodstream and distribution to body cells
intestinal iron pool - ferroportin
However, when kidney function is poor, potassium quickly builds up in the blood and can cause a
irregular heartbeat and even cardiac arrest. (hyperkalemia)
Sodium has 3 main functions:
it aids in water balance, it helps in the absorption of glucose and some amino acids in the small intestine, and it is required for normal muscle and nerve function
Cell membranes are mainly ____ and poorly permeable to water; thus, in many cells, water moves through water channels made from proteins called _____
lipid, aquaporins
Thus, when iron stores are low, very _____ ferritin is made, which allows greater amounts of iron to enter the mucosal iron pool for transport out of the enterocytes into the bloodstream. If iron stores are high or saturated, ____ amounts of ferritin are made to bind iron as it enters the intestinal cells. Although a portion of this ferritin-bound iron remains in the intestinal iron pool, much of it is ______when the intestinal cells are sloughed off after several days
little, larger - excreted
vitamin K can be stored in the
liver and bone - storage is limited
Although there is no storage site for zinc, the body maintains an exchangeable pool of zinc in the
liver, bone, pancreas, kidneys, and blood
this causes saturation of iron-binding proteins and, over time, results in iron deposits in the _____. Left untreated, this eventually can lead to liver disease and heart failure.
liver, heart, and other organ
Potassium is the major cation inside the cell, and it performs many of the same functions as sodium. Both are involved in
maintaining fluid balance, transmitting nerve impulses, and contracting muscle
The absorption of nonheme iron can be enhanced by a component of meat called
meat protein factor (MPF)
In contrast, injections of ______, a synthetic form of vitamin K, have caused hemolytic anemia, excess bilirubin in the blood (jaundice), and death in newborns. Thus, it is no longer used for the treatment of vitamin K deficiency.
menadione
This process is called a "_____" because it prevents iron from entering the bloodstream and, in effect, blocks the excess accumulation of iron
mucosal block
Hemosiderosis is the storage of excess iron in the form of hemosiderin. It does not cause organ damage the way hemochromatosis does because, in hemosiderosis, excess iron is stored in
normal iron storage proteins
Although caffeine is a mild diuretic, intakes up to 500 mg per day (the amount in about 4.5 cups of brewed coffee) do____cause dehydration or water imbalance in most people.
not
Iron plays an important role in diverse functions in the body. Many of these functions are dependent on iron's ability to participate in _____ (redox) reactions, changing Fe2+ (ferrous) to Fe3+ (ferric) iron and back.
oxidation and reduction
To transport absorbed iron to body cells, the iron is ______ from the ferrous (Fe2+) form to the ferric (Fe3+) form by a ______-containing enzyme (either hephaestin in the enterocyte or ceruloplasmin in the blood) and bound to a serum protein called _______.Each transferrin molecule can bind 2 molecules of ____ iron for transport through the blood to body cells.
oxidized - copper - transferrin - ferric
As iron deficiency progresses and stores are depleted, the lack of iron for heme and hemoglobin synthesis results in the development of iron deficiency anemia. This impairs _____ transport in the blood, causing fatigue and a decreased ability to perform normal activities. Iron deficiency anemia also compromises ______, impairs energy metabolism, and delays _______.
oxygen - immune function - cognitive development
In iron deficiency anemia, the red blood cells are smaller than normal (called microcytic) and ____ (called hypochromic)
paler
Osmosis is the ____ diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane—in the body, these are cell membranes
passive - water will move from the side with the lower solute concentration to the side with the higher concentration
In hemochromatosis, treatment consists of - Another treatment approach is to administer a _____ drug that binds iron and increases its excretion. However, chelator drugs also bind other trace minerals, possibly causing secondary trace mineral deficiencies.
periodic blood removal - chelator
marginal zinc deficiencies are likely to go undetected because they do not typically result in specific
physical symptoms
For example, a specific ____ located in the cell membrane can pump potassium ions into and sodium ions out of a cell. This sodium-potassium pump uses energy to move each ion against its _______
protein, concentration gradient
Copper has vital functions as part of many important _____ and enzymes in the body. One of these enzymes facilitates the formation of ______ by helping release stored ___, thereby making sufficient amounts of iron available for hemoglobin synthesis.
proteins, red blood cells, iron
Cocoa is made from cacao beans, which contain the flavanols epicatechin, catechin, and procyanidins. These flavanols may ____ blood pressure by improving vascular function and insulin sensitivity, as well as inhibiting the _____
reduce, renin-angiotensin system
At the same time, falling blood pressure initiates another sequence of events—highly sensitive pressure receptors in the kidneys trigger the release of the enzyme ____. In turn, renin activates _________ (a circulating blood protein made in the liver), forming _______. In the lungs, angiotensin I is converted to _______, which, among other effects, causes the constriction of blood vessels and release of the hormone _______ by the adrenal glands.
renin - angiotensinogen - angiotensinogen I - angiotensinogen II - aldosterone
Although these events alone can result in increased blood pressure, their additive effects on kidney function increase arterial pressure. In response to this, the kidneys release more ___, causing the formation of additional angiotensin II enzyme. Angiotensin II is a powerful ______ that triggers the kidneys' retention of sodium and water.
renin, vasoconstictor
The most abundant solutes are electrolytes, which form when ___ (e.g., sodium chloride or potassium phosphate) dissociate in solution and form ____ (e.g., NaCl forms Na+ and Cl-).
salts, ions
Like zinc, copper is absorbed by ____ into intestinal absorptive cells and then transported out of the mucosal cells into the bloodstream. In the blood, copper is bound to _____ and other proteins and moves rapidly to the liver (the main storage site) and kidneys.
simple diffusion and active transport - albumin
Chloride absorption follows right along with
sodium absorption
Aldosterone signals the kidneys to retain more _____ and _____, and therefore more water. (Remember, water always follows electrolytes.)
sodium and chloride
Muscle contraction and nerve impulse conduction rely on the electrical charge created by the shift of both _____ ions across the cell membrane. Because _____ is the main solute in the extracellular fluid compartment (ECF), it regulates the ECF and plasma volumes
sodium and potassium - sodium
central to maintaining fluid balance
sodium, potassium, and chloride
- green leafy vegetables (e.g., kale, turnip greens, parsley, salad greens, cabbage, and spinach), broccoli, peas, and green beans - Vegetable oils, such as soy and canola
sources of vitamin K
anemia, decreased white blood cell counts (leukopenia), skeletal abnormalities (osteopenia), loss of skin and hair pigmentation, cardiovascular changes, and impaired immune function.
symptoms of copper deficiency
weakness, fatigue, constipation, and an irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia) that impairs the heart's ability to pump blood
symptoms of hypokalemia
include headache, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, and muscle cramps. Seizures, coma, and death can occur in severe cases.
symptoms of hyponatremia
suboptimal immune function, glucose intolerance, increased serum cholesterol, and cardiac abnormalities
symptoms of marginal copper intakes
Almost all the chloride in the diet is from____. ____ also is found in seaweed, olives, rye, lettuce, a few fruits, and some vegetables. Salt substitutes usually contain____
table salt - chloride - potassium chloride
many experts recommend using ____ receptor number to assess iron status because it reflects cellular iron need and is unaffected by the factors that limit the use of other iron biomarkers
transferrin
The depletion of potassium from the body and low blood potassium most often are caused by excessive potassium losses via the _____. Some diuretics used to treat hypertension deplete potassium from the body by increasing the amount excreted in the urine.
urine or the gastrointestinal tract
In addition, liver metabolism converts some fat-soluble compounds, such as certain medications and potential cancer-causing substances, into _____ compounds that can be excreted in the urine
water-soluble
contributes to heme synthesis, DNA and RNA synthesis, reproduction, growth and development, bone formation, immune function, the antioxidant defense network (as a part of the Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase [SOD] enzyme and taste acuity
zinc
scientists have learned that almost all the cells of the body contain ___ and use it for many different functions. As many as ___ different enzymes in the body require zinc. In fact, it is hard to name a body process or structure that isn't affected either directly or indirectly by this mineral
zinc - 300
when zinc or nonheme iron intake is excessive, dietary fiber and phytic acid intake is high, and zinc status is adequate.
zinc absorption decreases
loss of appetite, delayed growth and sexual maturation, dermatitis, impaired vitamin A function, alopecia, decreased taste sensitivity, poor wound healing, immune dysfunction, severe diarrhea, birth defects, and increased infant mortality
zinc deficiency
Compromised zinc status also impairs the integrity of zinc-containing structural proteins in cell membranes, ____, and protein receptors. As a result, these proteins can no longer perform their functions.
zinc fingers
loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, intestinal cramps, and diarrhea.
zinc toxity
Whole-grain breads and cereals can contribute significant amounts of ____ to the diet; however, unleavened whole-grain bread is very high in phytic acid and other factors that decrease zinc _____
zinc, bioavailability
Copper RDA: DV: UL: average adult intake in North America ranges from about ____ to _____ μg/day
900 ug/ day 900ug/day - 10mg/day - 1000, 1600
Sweat, which is __% water, is the 2nd way water helps maintain normal body temperature.
99
can cause anemia by limiting the synthesis of red blood cells
Nutritional deficiencies of iron, zinc, copper, and some B-vitamins (i.e., folate, vitamin B-6, and vitamin B-12)
shows water moving from the _____ (dilute) solution into the more concentrated red blood cell, which causes the cell to swell and possibly _____. there is no net movement of water because solute concentrations are ______(equal) on both sides of the cell's semipermeable membrane. water is drawn across the red blood cell's membrane into the _______ (concentrated) solution surrounding it, causing the cell to _____.
- hypotonic, burst - isotonic - hypertonic shrink
The body absorbs about __% of the potassium consumed. Like sodium, potassium is absorbed in both the small and large intestines. The potassium ion (K+) is transported to the body's cells, where __% of the body's potassium is found. As with sodium, potassium balance is achieved primarily through kidney excretion or retention.
90, 95
Iron is a cofactor for enzymes involved in the synthesis of neurotransmitters -The immune system requires iron for the production of
- dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and serotonin - lymphocyte and natural killer (NK) cells that help prevent infections.
As part of the enzyme cytochrome C oxidase, copper helps catalyze the last step of the ________. Copper is involved in the regulation of neurotransmitters (_________) via monoamine oxidase enzymes.
- electron transport chain - serotonin, tyrosine, dopamine, and norepinephrine
Dietary iron occurs in several forms. In animal flesh (beef, pork, seafood, and poultry), much of the iron is present as hemoglobin and myoglobin, which are collectively called _____. The rest of the iron present in these foods, as well as all the iron in vegetables, grains, and supplements, is called ______ iron.
- heme iron - nonheme iron
One effect of low ceruloplasmin levels is that little iron is transported from storage, resulting in decreased _______ and the development of ______. Ceruloplasmin also increases during _______ and infection to prevent damage to body cells.
- hemoglobin synthesis - anemia - inflammation
About __% of the vitamin K absorbed each day comes from bacterial synthesis in the colon
10
Zinc RDA: DV: The RDAs are based on the average amount needed to replace the daily losses in feces, urine, and sweat and on an estimated dietary absorption of __%
11 mg/day for adult men and 8 mg/day for adult women - 11mg - 40
Copper absorption is the primary means of regulating copper balance. Thus, absorption can vary from approximately __ to ___% of dietary intake. Copper absorption _____ when dietary copper is low and _____ when intakes of copper, iron, and/or zinc are excessive.
12, 70 - increases - decreases
recommended sodium intakes range from ___ mg/day to ___mg/day, with lower intakes recommended for older adults and those with medical conditions, such as hypertension. Most healthy adults should strive to consume no more than ___ mg per day.
1200, 2300 - 2300
When iron status is adequate, approximately __ to ___% of dietary iron is absorbed from a typical North American diet. However, when iron need is high and stores are low, the small intestine absorbs up to __ to __% of dietary iron. In contrast, when iron need is low and stores are saturated, less than _% of dietary iron is absorbed.
14, 18 - 35- 40 - 5
Water AI
15 cups (3.7 liters) for adult men and 11 cups (2.7 liters) for adult women
In North America, the average daily iron intake is approximately __ mg for men and __ mg for women.
17, 12
However, only when weight loss from perspiration exceeds about _% of total body weight (or about 5 to 6 lb) should sodium losses be of concern
2
Almost _____ of body water is found in the intracellular fluid compartment. The rest is in the extracellular fluid compartment, where it is divided into 2 additional compartments: ________, the fluid between cells, and _______, the fluid in the blood and lymph.
2/3 - interstitial fluid - intravascular fluid
Upper Level and Daily Value for sodium for adults are set at ____ mg per day and are aimed at reducing hypertension and cardiovascular disease. Fewer than one-third of adults consume less than this amount. As stated previously, the American Heart Association recommends that people eat no more than ____mg sodium/day but also acknowledges that, for many people, reducing to ____ mg/day or less will bring cardiovascular benefits.
2300 - 1500 - 2400
This means that only about____% of people experience high blood pressure with a high salt intake
25-50
During prolonged physical activity, sweat loss ranges from ____ cups (750 to 2000 ml) per hour.
3 to 8
The FDA has ruled that all iron supplements must carry a warning about toxicity. As an added precaution, supplements that contain __ mg or more per tablet must be individually wrapped.
30
Upper Level of __ mg/day has been set for iron. Intakes above this level, especially from supplements and highly fortified foods, can cause nausea and vomiting, stomach irritation, diarrhea, and impaired absorption of other trace minerals
45
Signs of zinc toxicity have been reported with supplemental intakes of zinc at _ or more times the RDA. Thus, the Upper Level is set at __mg/day
5, 40
According to the CDC, more than __% of our sodium intake is from retail processed foods
65
Protein rich meat and seafood are usually good sources of zinc. North Americans obtain about __% of their dietary zinc from animal-based foods, such as beef, lamb, and pork. Plant-based foods, such as nuts, beans, wheat germ, and whole grains, also can contribute significant amounts of zinc to our diets. Therefore, refined flour products are ____sources of zinc.
70 - poor
Lean individuals have a greater percentage of body water than those who are obese because lean tissue contains about __% water, whereas adipose tissue is only __% water
73, 20
approximately __% of the iron used each day is recovered and recycled Only about __% is excreted, mainly via the small amount of bile lost in the feces. One of the proteins that aid in the regulation of iron absorption and balance is called _____. When iron stores are adequate or high, hepcidin is released from the liver and promotes the ______of ferroportin, which in turn decreases the release of iron from enterocytes to body cells.
90, 10 - hepcidin - degration
critical to blood health
Iron, zinc, and copper
Although copper toxicity is not common in humans, it has been reported in children taking accidental overdoses, in individuals consuming copper-contaminated food or water, and in
Wilson disease (a genetic disorder resulting in excess copper storage)
Severe zinc deficiency can result from a rare genetic condition called _________. This condition develops after weaning and results in impaired intestinal zinc absorption
acrodermatitis enteropathica
Sodium, like potassium and chloride ions, is absorbed by ___ transport in both the small and large intestines. Energy for the active transport of sodium is supplied by the _____
active, sodium-potassium pump