Nutrition Exam 4- Lessons 15-20

Green Vegetables

-Chlorophyll is present in all green plants. -Acids are enemies of green vegetables causing a drab green color-uncovered pot helps let the plant acids escape. -Both acid and long cooking turn green vegetables a drab olive green.

Process of ripening:

-Softening of the pectin -Conversion of starches to sugar, acid declines -Leads to development of aroma Enzymes play a key role in softening of pectin- it is most concentrated at the height of ripening. If you place unripe fruit in paper bag-this traps ethylene gas which accelerates ripening. Carbon dioxide (air) decreases respiration and hinders ripening.

Leaf

-Specialize in the production of high-energy food molecules - sugar through photosynthesis -Contains very little storage tissue -Leaves are the most fragile and short-lived parts of the plant. (i.e. Fresh herbs)

Shrimp

-Tail harbors most of the meat -Raw shell-on -Cooked shell-on -Cooked and peeled form -When sold in shell, they must be peeled They are sold headless, in either raw shell-on or cooked and peeled form -All three come both fresh and frozen but the majority of shrimp are frozen The "sand vein" contains the digestive waste of the shell fish and contributes a gritty, sandy mouth feel.

Changes During Preparation

-Tender juicy when properly prepared -When overcooked, meat becomes: Dry, tough, and stringy -Fat melts off bird during heating -Fat can be used to baste poultry or create sauces -Basting: Adds flavor; Keep meat tender & moist This is where the fat is located (under the skin) and it will melt off during the heating process which this fat can be used to create sauces/gravies and baste the meat.

Frozen Raw Fish

-Thaw in refrigerator -Small pieces can be cooked from a frozen state -Fillets, or other portions to be breaded or prepared in some other way before cooking, may be partially thawed -Handle thawed fish as you would fresh fish -Do not refreeze

Health Risks Associated with Obesity

-Type II Diabetes -Hypertension -Stroke -Osteoarthritis -Certain types of cancers -Chronic diseases

Surimi

-Type of fabricated fish -Fish that is skinned, deboned, minced, washed, strained, and shaped into pieces to resemble crab, shrimp, or scallops -Made from Alaska Pollack -Often labeled as "imitation crab meat"

Meat Alternatives

-Usually use soy- or vegetable-based protein -Meat-like texture and low cost -Some are fortified with important nutrients for vegetarians: vitamins B12 and D, calcium, iron and zinc

Examples of fruits that are culinary vegetables:

Avocado, Acorn Squash, Cucumber, Eggplant, Okra and Green Pepper

Other Tender Fruited-Vegetables

Avocado, eggplant, tomato, sweet and hot peppers. -Eggplant, tomato and peppers are part of the Nightshade family.

Seeds and Pods

Beans, peas, corn, and okra

Roasters

Gender/Age: Either gender, 3-5 months Weight: 3 1/2 - 5 pounds Description: Tender skin & meat, less flexible breastbone

In place of butter, use:

Margarine -Baking- Canola oil with a ratio of applesauce

Grading

Means the animal was not diseased and the meat is clean and fit for human consumption. Prime very heavy marbling - snowflakes Choice- Moderate marbling- delicate and lacy Select Spotty marbling like scattered rice grains

Solutions: Cooking Methods

Select cooking methods that require no added fat: -Simmering -Poaching -Baking -Steaming -Grilling -Sautéing

Obesity

(BMI ≥30) means a person carries 25 to 40 or more pounds of excess weight. -Body Mass Index = Measure of body fat based on height and weight.

Nonessential Amino Acids

-(Eleven) amino acids can be made in the body -Not necessary to include these in the diet

Essential Amino Acids

-(Nine) amino acids that either can't be made in the body or can't be made in the quantities needed -You have to get them from food

Solutions: Choose low fat ingredients

-1 % milk or skim vs. whole milk or cream -2 eggs whites for one egg -Low-fat cut of meat vs. higher-fat -Grade (select vs. prime) -Site (round is lean) -Trim off extra fat Select meat with that has as less marbling with fat -For example, use lean hamburger (90% lean)

No state had a prevalence of obesity less than 20%.

-7 states and the District of Columbia had a prevalence of obesity between 20% and <25%. -23 states had a prevalence of obesity between 25% and <30%. -18 states had a prevalence of obesity between 30% and <35%. -2 states (Mississippi and West Virginia) had a prevalence of obesity of 35% or greater

Composition of Meat: Connective Tissue

-A part of ligaments & tendons -Acts as "glue" that holds muscles together -Proteins make up connective tissue >Collagen: most abundant >Elastin & reticulum Meats highest in connective tissue are muscles that are more exercised (muscles in legs, have more than the back) They come from older animals: veal is more tender than meat from a young Steer which in turn is more tender than meat from an old bull or cow. -Increased connective tissue takes longer to cook

Root

-Anchors the plant in the ground -Absorbs and conducts moisture and nutrients to the rest of the plant. -Stores food supplies

Complete Proteins

-Animal proteins -Contain all the essential amino acids in the proportions needed by the body -Come from animal and egg sources

Meat is defined as the muscle of animals- can include organs and glands

-Beef cattle: heifers, steer, bulls -Pigs/Hogs -Lamb -Veal -Game: deer, elk, rabbit, etc. Important source of complete protein -Largest expense item of a food-service operation

Moist Heat Preparation: Poaching

-Best for white, lean fish -Add to pan, add water up to an eighth to a quarter of the fish's thickness -Water at 160°F-180°F, never boiling because this will cause flavor loss and toughens the fish. -Can add vegetable and seasoning

Dry Heat Preparation: Broiling

-Broil at 5 inches under heat source -Season, place skin side down in greased pan, cook until tender. -Broiling is best dressed or filleted finfish or steaks - lean fish should be coated with butter or oil but this could be omitted with fatty fish.

Inspection of Poultry

-Checked for wholesomeness (fit for consumption) -USDA inspection before & after slaughter -Ensures the poultry is processed under sanitary conditions (encourage to follow HACCP plan) -Required by US law & indicated by round stamp -Refers to the safety of poultry products Inspection is mandatory and required by law and looks at the products safety, wholesomeness, labeling and the plants systems for sanitation and preparation.

Domesticated birds raised for meat:

-Chicken -Turkey -Duck -Goose -Guinea -Pigeon/Squab -Game birds: Pheasant, wild duck, quail, partridges They are lower in fat and cholesterol than other meats.

Retail Cuts

-Chuck: beef for stewing: Pot roast -Fore shank: brisket- ground beef- short plate- tenderizes -Rib: rib eye steak or rolls, roast -Short plate- ground beef -Short loin- Tenderloin -Sirloin- Steaks Top sirloin -Flank- flank steak -Round- Roasts

Protect the color of green vegetables by:

-Cooking uncovered to allow plant acids to escape. -Cooking for the shortest possible time. Properly cooked green vegetables are tender crisp, not mushy. -Cooking in small batches rather than holding for long periods in a steam table. -Do not use baking soda to maintain green color- Alkalis destroy vitamins and makes texture unpleasantly mushy and slippery.

Crayfish

-Crayfish, crawdads, crawfish -Small crustaceans ~ 4 oz. -Appear similar to lobsters - smaller -Food source in freshwater -Sold head-on & tails only, fresh & frozen Cray fish- Louisiana and New Orleans- similar to appearance of lobsters but are smaller Tails are where the meat is found - fresh water streams and ponds.

Muscles are composed of bundles of muscle cells (fibers).

-Each of these muscle cells (fibers) is a bundle of fibrils. -The individual fibrils are responsible for muscle contraction and relaxation. Made up of a collection of muscle fibers bound together in bundles -Determines texture or grain of meat

Moist Heat Preparation: Steaming

-En papillote - When fish is wrapped in parchment and cooked along with seasoning and vegetables -Can also be cooked in foil envelopes -Lobster tails - Saddleback, season, cook shell-side down -Clams and mussels - Place in pot with small amount of liquid, cook at 145°F for 5 minutes Saddleback- involves splitting the tail by cutting through the hard top shell and pulling the meat out so it lies on top.

Miso or Bean Paste

-Fermented paste of grains and soybeans -Several types of miso ranging from light, sweet, and mild to dark, salty and robust

Tempeh

-Fermented soybean product -Can be made with soy plus grains (barley, millet and rice) -Sold in cakes and has a dense, meaty texture -Able to be sliced, diced, braised, sautéed, stir-fried, baked and added to casseroles.

Fabricated Fish

-Fish sticks, fish cakes, nuggets, and simulated fillets -Uses less popular species -Deboned, ground, seasoned, shaped, and often frozen for sale.

Thinking back to the main ingredients for baking:

-Flour- gluten- provides structure to baked goods - cake flour can be chosen because of its fine texture- fluffier product and tender crumb -Eggs- Structure- Color, flavor -Fats- moisture and help give baked goods their tender crumb -Sugar- sweetness

Moist Heat Preparation: Preparing Foods En Papillote

-French for in parchment -Holds the moisture and steam cooks the food in side -Saddleback- involves splitting the tail by cutting through the hard top shell and pulling the meat out so it lies on top -Clams and mussels- shells open

Hidden ingredients of animal origin

-Gelatin: derived from hooves and cartilage of horses -Lard (pig fat) -Tallow -Honey

Complementary Proteins: Amino acids missing from one food is supplied by another food.

-Grains (6-14 % protein) + Legumes (14-34 % protein) Exp: rice and beans -Nuts and seeds (10-28% protein) + Legumes (14-34% protein) Exp: tahini and chickpeas

A plant-based, vegetarian diet is lower in saturated fat and cholesterol and high in fiber. This can lower risk for some diseases.

-Heart disease—diet rich in soluble fiber which reduces cholesterol levels. -High blood pressure—seen much more often in meat-eaters. -Type 2 diabetes—high fiber, plant-based diet helps reduce risk. -Cancers—prostate and colon cancer risk reduced. -Obesity—high fiber, plant based diet increases satiety, reducing overall calorie intake.

Myoglobin: A protein that stores oxygen for muscles to use during periods of great activity

-Higher amounts are found in muscles that are used more frequently - drumstick and thighs. -Wild birds such as ducks have darker breast meat because they actually use the muscles for flying. -Breast muscles of birds are used for flying and because turkeys and chickens rarely fly these muscles do not need a great deal of myoglobin. -Active muscles in addition to being darker because of increased myoglobin also have more connective tissue.

Effects of heat on color

-Initially converts raw meat to bright red -Denature pigment-containing proteins − well-done meat grayish brown -Storing meat too long turns meat a yellow, green, or faded

Tofu or Bean Curd

-Made by curdling soymilk , just as cheese is made by curdling dairy milk -Types: silken and firm

Textured Vegetable Protein (TVP)

-Made from defatted soy flour, processed and dried -Sponge-like texture -Available unflavored or flavored to resemble various meats -High in protein and fiber and free of cholesterol

Composition of Meat: Muscle

-Made up of a collection of muscle fibers bound together in bundles -Determines texture or grain of meat -Fine grain- small fibers bound in small bundles -Coarse texture- large fibers Most of the protein in meats is found in their muscles Lean meat is composed of long, thin muscle fibers bound in bundles.

Saltwater fish

-More distinct flavor -Halibut, flounder, haddock, red snapper, cod, salmon, striped bass, swordfish, shark, tuna Be familiar with some salt water fish- Halibut or salmon or cod

Composition of Meat: Protein

-Muscle tissue becomes firmer and loses moisture as it coagulates -Doneness is related to the desired degree of muscle protein coagulation -Excessive coagulation results in toughening of the proteins and moisture loss.

Exposure to oxygen affects color

-Myoglobin in meat is a purplish red -Exposure to oxygen turns it a bright red

Inspection of Fish

-National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the Department of Commerce -Inspection of finfish is voluntary & paid by processor Grading of fish is: -not mandatory -Based on wholesomeness of fish -Based on sanitary conditions of processing plant

Remember not all fat is bad. Fat is important for:

-Normal Growth -Hormone Production -Health Skin and hair -Facilitates absorption -Increases satiety value which contributes to good taste.

Dry Heat Preparation: Grilling

-Not for delicate fish because they can easily stick to the grill and break fatty firm fleshed fish salmon into steaks. -Good for firm fish or shrimp on skewers -Clean and grease grill, cook 4 inches away for heat source

Grading of Fish

-Only inspected finfish are graded -Based on appearance, texture, uniformity, good flavor, fresh odor, and an absence of defects

Composition of Meat: Collagen

-Pearly white, tough and fibrous -Coats muscle fiber bundle and provides support -Higher in older animals and exercised muscle -Long, slow, moist cooking turns collagen into gelatin and water Factors that help tenderize: -Acid helps dissolve collagen- ingredients like vinegar, wine, tomatoes -Enzymes- naturally present in meats -Tenderizers - enzymes like papain (extracted from papaya) -Papain- an enzyme found in unripe papaya- or green leaves. The enzyme helps to break down the tough bands between fibers in muscle tissue, making tough meats fall apart during the cooking process.

White Vegetables

-Pigments called anthoxanthins (an-tho-zan-thins) and flavonoids range from pale yellow to white. -White pigments stay white in acid and turn yellow in alkaline water. -Covering the pot keeps acids in -Overcooking or holding long in a steam table turns white veggies yellow/gray.

Incomplete Proteins

-Plant proteins (except soybeans, quinoa and amaranth) -Dried beans and peas, grains, vegetables, nuts, seeds -Will support maintenance but not growth

Flower

-Plant's reproductive organ -Generally quite small compared to the rest of the plant -Rarely eaten by itself Vegetables from flower of plants: Artichokes, broccoli, cauliflower Fruits: seeds, bulbs

Wholesome Poultry Products Act 1968

-Poultry shipped across state lines must be inspected -Poultry sold within the state must meet similar regulations, but vary slightly from state to state

Looking at different dry and moist heat methods of cooking:

-Pressure steaming shortens cooking time but the high temps can destroy some vitamins -Braising (combination method) uses low heat, but cooking time is longer -Roasting/Baking eliminates the leaching but long cooking times could cause nutrient loss -Boiling is faster than simmering but higher temp can be harmful and the rapid activity can break up delicate vegetables and increase loss through leaching

Stem

-Principal function is to conduct nutrients between the root and rest of the plant -Also provides support for the food synthesizing organs (the leaves) -Stores nutrients as well -Vegetables that come from stems of plants: asparagus, celery and fennel

Live Shellfish

-Purchased alive & in the shell -Lobsters, crabs, oysters clams -Highly perishable Selecting live mollusks -Look for closed shells -Tap on shell should result in close more tightly -Discard shells that are broken, have decaying odor, or float Open shells = indicate that the fish are dead Crustaceans: Lobsters, crabs, oysters and clams may be purchased alive and in their shells but they are highly perishable -Must be kept alive until they are cooked or eaten raw in the case of oysters Unlike live crustaceans that are easily able to be seen alive, Mollusks with shells- if the shell remains open the mollusk is dead and should be discarded Mussels are an exception because the shell can gape and longneck steamer or soft shell clams.

Grading of Poultry

-Quality designation -Voluntary, not required by US law -Paid by producer (not all poultry is graded) -USDA Grade Shield Stamp and letter grade -Continuously monitored by USDA graders based on Quality standards.

Primary pigment in meat

-Red color comes primarily from myoglobin -Myoglobin receives oxygen from blood & stores it in muscles -↑ amount of myoglobin = brighter red color Factors that affect myoglobin concentration -Heavily exercised muscle -Age -Species differences The so called red meats: beef, pork, sheep and lamb have more of these pigments than poultry or fish Dark meat (exercised more) has higher myoglobin content Heavily exercised muscles has a higher demand for oxygen so it is higher in myoglobin and therefore is redder than the less exercised muscles and they have more connective tissue Red color in meat also increases as the animal ages which is why beef is redder than veal and mutton is darker than the pink hue of lamb It also varies from species to species- beef is darker than lamb which in turn is darker than pork a meat that is on the pink side with no visible red

Red Vegetables

-Red pigments, called anthocyanins, are found in only a few vegetables, mainly red cabbage and beets. -Acids turn anthocyanins a brighter red. -Alkalis turn anthocyanins blue or blue-green (not a very appetizing color). Anthocyanins are very soluble in water- short cooking time, only as much water as necessary; cook unpeeled (skins easily peel off), use solid pans when steaming to protect color. Blueberries are also colored by this pigment This is not the color of tomatoes and red peppers (yellow orange- Carotenoids)

Sugar in Vegetarian Recipes

-Refineries that process sugar from cane, often use charcoal made from animal bones as a filter -Use a sugar from a purely vegetarian source such as beet sugar or unbleached sugar

Fruit Purees

-Replace moisture in baked goods provided by fat without making gluten tough. -Some can interfere with taste. -Best in fruit based recipes or spice cakes, oatmeal cookies. -Reduces the amount of total calories.

Dry Heat Preparation: Baking Fish

-Rinse, pat dry, place in shallow pan -Season and bake at 350°F-400°F for around 10 minutes (time vary with thickness of fish) -Moisture loss prevented by basting with butter, leaving skin on, covering w/vegetables, or wrapping fish -Leaving skin on keeps moisture in

Preparation

-Roasting times for Poultry: 350ºF(chicken) and 325ºF (turkey) -Takes about 1 ½ hours at 350ºF for a 3 ½ lb chicken; turkeys vary because of weight. -Low temperature roasting is best for large items (250-325)

Overview of Fish and Seafood

-Seafood long a food source -20,000 known species -Only major food source still hunted -250 harvested commercially -Millions of tons served annually -High in protein and relatively low in fat

Storage: Frozen Meats

-Should be stored at 0°F (-18°C) or colder -Wrap frozen meats well to prevent freezer burn. Recommended shelf life for meats at 0°F (-18°C) -Beef, veal and lamb: 6 months -Pork: 4 months (pork fat turns rancid easily in the freezer) -Defrost carefully in the refrigerator -Do not refreeze thawed meats

Storage: Fresh Meats

-Should be stored at 32°F (0°C) to 36° F (2°C). -Allow for proper air circulation -Do not open vacuum packaged meats until ready to use -Keep meats separate in the cooler and avoid cross-contamination -Use as quickly as possible; fresh meats keep well for only two to four days

Adipose Tissue (fat)

-Since poultry are leaner meats, it does not contain the intramuscular fat known as marbling which allows for flavor and juiciness in red meats. -Fat is stored in skin, abdominal cavity and fat pad near its tail -Poultry fat is softer and has a lower melting point that other animal fats.

Fine Dessert Baking

-Use egg whites and gelatin to make meringues to substitute for whipped cream in mousses -Mix meringues with egg whites to make "enlightened" versions of whipped cream or sour cream -Use sponge method to produce low fat cake -Use best chocolate and cocoa to bring out flavor -Substitute evaporated skimmed milk for heavy cream. Foaming method of whipping egg whites can provide lots of volume for a low fat cake (think of ANGEL FOOD Cake) Pasteurized egg white product could be used instead of whipped cream

Dry-Heat Preparation: Broiling or Grilling

-Use lower temperatures- skin browns and burns easily -Usually only cut up pieces are used -Marinade should be cooked fully if served or used for basting -Utensils and plates exposed to raw meat should be washed before used for serving -Skin up when oven broiling; Skin down when grilling to help with browning. -Approx 20 minutes per side -Add sauces during the last 15 minutes-- large pieces not suited for this.

Sweetening without sugar

-Use only minimal amount of sugar, syrups, or other sweeteners necessary to give a recipe it's desired flavor -Use sweet spices, such as allspice, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, and vanilla bean -Use fruit juice concentrate as a sugar substitute -Serve sweet dishes warm, warmth intensifies all flavors. Sugar in desserts, sodas and flavored drinks are the top sources of added sugars for most Americans which is also contributing to the obesity epidemic- Adds a lot of calories without very much nutrition.

Composition of Meat

-Water: 75% -Protein (essential nutrient): 20% -Fat: 5% of muscle tissue, and as much as 30% of the beef carcass -Carbohydrate: very small amount: responsible for Maillard Reaction.

Composition of Meat: Elastin

-Yellow in color -Higher in older animals -Includes tendons, blood vessels -Cannot be broken down in cooking Tenderizing is accomplished only be removing or by mechanically breaking up the fibers -Pounding and cubing (Cubed steaks) -Grinding (hamburger) -Slicing meat very thin against grain -Exp: London broil (flank)

In place of 1 cup heavy cream, use:

1 cup evaporated skim milk.

In place of 1 cup light cream, use:

1 cup evaporated skim milk.

In place of 1 cup sour cream, use:

1 cup reduced fat or light sour cream or low-fat Greek yogurt.

Moist Heat Preparation: Simmering

1. 180°F to just under boiling 2. Good for shrimp, lobster, crab, crayfish 3. Lobster -Kill before cooking to prevent tail from curling when cooking -Heat 5 minutes for each pound 4. Crayfish -Remove stomach and vein before cooking -Cook for around 7 minutes Uses higher temperature than poaching- just under boiling -For shellfish this is a popular method -Should be killed by inserting it head first into boiling/salted water

Checklist for Fish Freshness:

1. Appearance: Good, clear slime, moist fins 2. Odor: Fresh, mild, no off-odors 3. Eyes: Clear, shiny, bulging 4. Gills: Red or pink 5. Flesh: Firm, elastic 6. Scales: Shiny, tight on skin 7. Belly Cavity: Natural colored flesh, pink or red along backbone.

Fiber in the Plant: Associated with cell walls

1. Cellulose -Fibrose cell wall structure -Makes vegetables permanently stringy 2. Hemicellulose and pectin -"glue" fibers together 3. Pectin -Softens with ripening 4. Lignin -Increases with plant maturity, woody, hard -Example - old string beans, broccoli stems

Flavor loss can be controlled in four ways:

1. Cook for as short a time as possible. 2. Use boiling salted water: -Starting vegetables in boiling water shortens cooking time. -The addition of salt helps reduce flavor loss. 3. Use just enough water to cover food to minimize leaching of flavor, color and nutrients. 4. Steam vegetables whenever appropriate: -Reduces leaching out of flavor. -Shortens cooking time.

When cooking fish, it is important to avoid:

1. Cooking at too high of temperature 2. Cooking too long

Factors that determine cooking times and doneness:

1. Difference in type, size, cut of meat 2. Presence of bones 3. Temperature: oven temp and temp of the meat prior to cooking 4. Consumer preference

Handling and Storage of Fish

1. Frozen -Extends keeping time of fish depending on type -Stored up to 9 months -Freeze fish, if not cleaned, within 24 hours of being caught to arrest microbial growth 2. Freezing -Reduces quality -Dryer -Tougher -Less springy -Less flavorful

Reasons for becoming vegetarian:

1. Health 2. Ethics and animal rights 3. Environment 4. Economics 5. Religion

Standard American (western) Diet

1. High intake of red meats 2. High intake of refined sugar and sweets 3. Low intake of vegetables and fruits -As a country, we work more, cook less, prevalence of eating out at restaurants has dramatically increased. -We eat more! Food is easy to get, portion sizes have double and tripled in some cases, and are sometimes more cost-effective. -We sit more and move less—Americans are eating ~300 calories more daily since 1985—but also expending fewer calories during the day=energy imbalance and weight gain

Six factors are responsible for most nutrient loss:

1. High temperature 2. Long cooking 3. Leaching (dissolving out) 4. Alkalis (baking soda, hard water) 5. Plant enzymes (which are active at warm temperatures but destroyed by high heat) 6. Oxygen

Doneness is judged by:

1. Internal temperature 2. Appearance 3. Touch 4. Time weight charts

Determining Doneness of Poultry

1. Internal temperature should reach 165ºF 2. Color change -Golden brown skin and juices run clear-- some bone may be showing from the tip of the legs -- breast side up, breast should be covered with metal foil or cooking oil to keep breast from overbrowning- this could be removed 45-hour before the end to help with final browning. -Juices inside the cavity of a roasted bird are clear yellow rather than a cloudy and red or pink. 3. Touch -Firm flesh: white meat firmer than dark -Drumstick: Moves easily at joint 4. Time/weight charts -On packaging

Goals for cooking meat

1. Minimize loss of juices and muscle shrinkage 2. Develop flavor 3. Maintain tenderness (low final temp <140F) 4. Destroy harmful bacteria (>145F) 5. Denature tougher collagen

Two rules for cooking meat

1. Moist heat, slow cooking for tough cuts 2. Quick dry cooking and low final temperature for tender cuts.

Purpose of cooking fish is to:

1. Reduce parasites, bacterial and viral contamination 2. Soften the small amount of tissue 3. Improve flavor and texture

Other Solutions

1. Remove skin of poultry and fish after cooking for lower fat and maximum taste 2.Reduce portion size 3. Skim fat off stocks and broths 4. Make gravies with minimal fat 5. Use meat as a flavoring ingredient rather than main course -Mix with vegetables -Flavorful sauces 6. Low fat cheese -Use 2 % cottage cheese

Dry-Heat Preparation

1. Roasting or Baking -Can use whole bird or pieces -Breast up: Juices escape and can be used as sauce -Breast down: Juice stays in creating more juicy meat -Season inside of cavity and oil skin to prevent cracking skin and dry meat -Baste bird with juices every 20 minutes -Dry Heat preparations ideal for younger poultry/ Moist for older tougher poultry

Artificial Sweeteners

1. Saccharin (Sweet 'n Low) -Strong aftertaste in baking -Pink 2. Sucralose (Splenda) -Heat stable for baking (most often used for baking) -Yellow 3. Aspartame (Equal or Nutrasweet) -Not recommended for baking -Blue -More for flavoring beverages 4. Stevia -Swap for equal parts of sugar -200-300x the sweetness of sugar

Checking for freshness of finfish

1. Tail firm 2. Gills: Deep red 3. Scales firm, moist, not slimy 4. Insides fresh smelling Its better that handling, packing, processing and freezing be avoided while fish are in the rigor state- this can last anywhere from several hours to several days depending on the species, temperature and conditions in which the fish were caught bacterial spoilage does not occur until after Rigor mortis has passed.

Factors affecting ripening:

1. Temperature -Each fruit and vegetable has optimal range -It is best to keep bananas, avocados, citrus fruits, tomatoes, cucumbers at 50 F 2. Carbon dioxide -Delays ripening process 3. Ethylene gas -Accelerates

Factors in determining cooking method

1. Tenderness of muscle -Low collagen: most tender cuts: Quick, dry cooking -High collagen: least tender cuts: Moist heat, slow cooking 2. Age/Exercise of animal 3. Amount of fat (marbling)

Cooking affects vegetables in four ways:

1. Texture 2. Flavor 3. Color 4. Nutrients

Storing Fresh Fish

1. To maintain temperature of 29° to 32°F (-2° to 0°C). 2. To keep the fish moist. 3. To prevent fish odors and flavors from transferring to other foods. 4. To protect the delicate flesh from being bruised or crushed. On crushed ice (preferred method): -Use drip pans to allow for drainage of melted ice. -Change ice daily. In refrigerated box at 29° to 32°F (-2° to 0°C): -Use if crushed ice storage is not available or practical. -Wrap all fish or leave in original moisture proof wrap Fresh fish may be stored for 1 or 2 days. If it must be kept longer, you may: 1. Wrap and freeze it immediately. 2. Cook and then refrigerate it for later use in recipes calling for cooked fish.

Game is used to refer to poultry and meat animals normally found in the wild.

1. Venison -Marinating widely used for flavor and tenderness -Low in fat 2. Boar 3. Buffalo or American bison 4. Rabbit 5. Hare

In place of 1 cup of chopped nuts, use:

1/2 cup nuts toasted to bring out flavor.

In place of 1 cup of oil in quick breads, use:

1/2 cup of pureed fruit plus 1/2 cup of oil.

In place of 1 cup of shredded coconut, use:

1/2 cup of toasted coconut or 1 1/2 tsp. of coconut extract.

In place of 1 cup white flour, use:

1/2 cup whole wheat flour and 1/2 cup white flour.

In place of 1 egg, use:

1/4 cup egg substitute or 2 large egg whites.

In place of buttermilk, use:

15 tbsp. skim milk plus 1 tbsp. lemon juice to make 1 cup.

Muffin

20 years ago: 210 calories, 1.5 ounces Today: 500 calories, 4 ounces -Vacuuming for 1 1/2 hour-- 130 pound person

Popcorn

20 years ago: 270 calories, 5 cups Today: 630 calories, 11 cups -Walking the dog for 1 hour and 20 minutes-- 160 pound person.

Chicken Caesar Salad

20 years ago: 390 calories, 1 1/2 cups Today: 790 calories, 3 1/2 cups -Walking the dog for 1 hour and 20 minutes-- 160 pound person.

Coffee

20 years ago: Coffee (with whole milk and sugar) = 45 calories, 8 ounces Today: Mocha Coffee (with steamed whole milk and mocha syrup) = 350 calories, 16 ounces -Walking for 1 hour and 20 minutes-- 130 pound person.

In place of 1 ounce baking chocolate, use:

3 tbsp. cocoa and 1 tbsp. vegetable oil.

In place of 1 cup shortening, use:

3/4 cup vegetable or canola oil.

Composition of Meat: Water

A high percentage of water in muscle tissues explains the challenge of shrinkage during cooking Excessive moisture loss during cooking: -Dry meat -Loss of product weight -Loss of product profit

Serving

A unit of measure used to describe the amount of food recommended from each food group. It is the amount of food listed on the Nutrition Facts panel on packaged food or the amount of food recommended in Choose My Plate and the Dietary Guidelines for Americans.

Grading of Poultry (Continued)

A, B and C grades available -A being the best -A is used in food service and retail and lower grades are used by canners and processors. Criteria: -Shape of carcass -Amount of flesh -Amount of fat -Pinfeathers (absent or present) -Skin tears, cuts or broken bones -Blemishes and bruises Most poultry used In food service is grade A Lower grades (B/C) are used by canners and processors. Fully fleshed, meaty, uniform fat covering well formed, good, clean appearance vs. the B is not as meaty and may have some cuts or tears on skin and overall appearance is not as attractive. C- may have cuts tears, or bruises , wings may be removed and moderate amounts of trimming of the breast and legs may have occurred.

Aside from sweetness, sugar

Absorbs liquid which keeps baked goods moist and also makes baked goods tender- they also help with browning and color, gives baked goods texture, preserves foods (like salt), fuels fermentation (bread rising- food for yeast) and balances the acidity of foods containing acids- Using the minimal amount needed but cut with natural fruit purees or fruit juice concentrate.

Fruit and vegetables have one major difference:

After harvest: most fruits ripen (there are some exceptions). This is a metabolic process of maturation. Vegetables degrade rather than mature after harvesting.

Cooking Vegetables: Dry-Heat Methods

Baking -Some vegetables (e.g., potatoes, onions) can be baked whole Roasting -Vegetables sprinkled w/ oil & roasted Stir-frying -Vegetables cooked w/ a little oil, using natural moisture; Cut into uniform quick-cooking pieces Deep-frying

Creamy dressings are traditionally made with mayonnaise, sour cream, and/or heavy cream; ingredients that add flavor such as fresh herbs or citrus juices; and cheeses.

Balanced creamy dressings: -tofu -puréed white beans -vegetables -nonfat yogurt or sour cream -nonfat milk with the addition of bold seasonings to add flavor depth

Adding fat to meat prior to cooking will increase tenderness.

Barding: Tying slices of fat over the surface of meat to protect them while roasting Larding: Inserting strips of fat with a larding needle into meats low in marbling

Fish Fillets

Boneless sides of fish, with skin on or off.

Butterflied Fish Fillets

Both sides of a fish still joined.

Cooking Methods: Moist-Heat

Braising -Simmering (not boiling) in covered pan in small amount of liquid -Breaks down collagen & tenderizes meat -Vegetables can be added during cooking -Flavor of braising liquid can be enhanced via adding ingredients Simmering / Stewing -Simmered (not boiled) while completely submerged in liquid Appropriate for less tender cuts that come from heavily exercised muscle & older beef Steaming -Most often used for large cuts (e.g., ham, turkey) -Cooked in pressure cooker, tightly covered pan, wrapped in aluminum or plastic bag -Doneness determined by timing -Long heat time and relatively low temperature Microwave -Not recommended except for thawing & reheating

Moist-Heat Preparation

Braising or fricasseeing -Good method for older, tougher bird -Slow, moist heating tenderizes meat -Cut into pieces; brown; add liquid and simmer in pan Stewing -Cover in cold salted water; bring to boil; reduce heat; simmer Poaching -Cook in 1 1/3 cup of water; bring to boil; reduce; simmer about 10-15 minutes.

Dry Heat Preparation: Deep-Fried

Bread or batter, dip in oil heated to 350°F for large fish and 180°F for small seafood -Avoid fatty fish to avoid unpleasant oily taste

Doneness: Dry Heat

By Appearance: 1. Rare: Brown surface, thin layer of gray, red interior 2. Medium: Thick layer of gray, pink interior 3. Well done: Gray throughout -White meat (veal and pork) -From pink to gray-pink to off-white -Color change happens at 140F By Touch: 1. Rare: Feels soft; gives to pressure 2. Medium: Feels moderately firm; springs back readily when pressed 3. Well done: Feels firm; does not give to pressure

Portion

Can be thought of as the amount of a specific food you CHOOSE to eat for dinner, snack, or other eating occasion. Portions, of course can be bigger or smaller than the recommended food servings.

Yellow and Orange Vegetables

Carotenoids are yellow and orange pigments: -These pigments are very stable. -Little affected by acids or alkalis. -Short cooking prevents dulling of the color and preserves vitamins and flavors -Are fat soluble and are most stable than water soluble chlorophyll.

Roots

Carrots, parsnips, radish, beets, and turnips

Freshwater fish

Catfish, perch, pike, trout. Be familiar with Fresh Water: Catfish, trout, perch

Cabbage Family

Cauliflower and broccoli

Stems/Stalks/Shoots

Celery and asparagus

Handling and Storage of Poultry

Chickens live short, crowded lives, slaughtering spreads their bacteria.

Weight of the Nation

Childhood obesity on the rise: ADULTS 30% (for children- 18%) -This is the first generation of children who may have a shorter life expectance than their parents

Beef Cattle

Classified by age & gender (15-24 months) -Hiefers: Unbred females -Steers: Male; castrated while young so they will gain weight quickly -Bulls: Male; uncastrated; Used for breeding and then their tough meat is later used for processed food Veal -Meat from young calves, male or female, 3 weeks to 3 months old -Fed a milk-based or formula diet -Greatly restricted movements -Meat has an exceptionally milky flavor, pale color, and tender texture -Some retailers have stopped selling because of consumer objections about inhumane treatment "Free-range" veal -Less tender

Ripening

Climacteric fruits -Continue to ripen after being picked, due to high metabolism (Oxygen consumption) -Examples are apples, peaches, pears, nectarines Non-climacteric fruits and all vegetables -Lower metabolism after being picked, must be harvested ripe -Examples all berries, citrus

Three factors contribute to tenderness:

Collagen -3% content (lower than other animals) Amino acid content -Less of the amino acid, hydroxyproline Muscle structure -Short fibers (<1 inch) -Contributes to the flakiness

Whole or round fish

Completely intact, as caught.

Composition of Meat: Fat (Adipose Tissue)

Cover or Surface Fat: -Fat on the outside of meat -Retains moisture of meat -Usually removed before preparation Intramuscular Fat: -Fat is within the muscle tissue "marbling" -Amount varies by cut -More fat = more tender = higher price The animal's age, diet and species affect the color and texture of the fat: white in younger meat and turns yellow in older meat - from the carotenoid feed Feeding diet of higher saturated fat will make the fat more saturated and hard vs. a diet that is high in polyunsaturated fats will make the meat softer.

Fish Sticks or Tranches

Cross-section slices of fillets.

Fish Steaks

Cross-section slices, each containing a section of backbone. -Cut from dressed fish at 90 degree angle from top to bottom fins; Includes some bone.

The Gourd Family

Cucumber, winter and summer squashes, pumpkin.

Purchasing Meat

Cuts of Meat: 1. Wholesale (Primal ) cuts -Large cuts -Carcass is divided into about 5- 7 cuts -Wholesales cuts are divided into retail cuts 2. Retail cuts -Smaller cuts sold to consumer Primal cuts are always the starting point for smaller cuts- good to identify these.

Calcium

Dairy products are rich in calcium Other vegetarian sources: -Green leafy vegetables -Dried legumes -Calcium supplements -Calcium fortified beverages Calcium is a mineral - most abundant in the body- most calcium and phosphorus in the body is found in your bones and gives them strength -Used in conjunction with phosphorus for building strong teeth and bones Calcium circulates in the blood- helps to squeeze and relax muscles, send and receive nerve signals, clot blood and keep a normal heartbeat.

Certain fruits susceptible to browning when sliced; inhibiting browning can be done by:

Denaturing enzymes -Blanching destroys enzymes, but blanching damages texture & flavor Acid pH -Acid inhibits enzyme activity; optimal pH is 7.0 Cold temperatures -Slows enzyme activity, but not complete enzyme inhibition Coating with sugar or water -Prevents exposure to oxygen Antioxidant -Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) & sulfur compounds use up oxygen

Reduce/Change Type of Fat

Dietary Guidelines Americans: 30% or less of calories per day should be from fat Replace fatty foods with -beans, fish, poultry, low fat pork -fruits and vegetables -whole grains -monounsaturated fat (olive, peanut, canola) -nuts, fish oils and other sources of omega 3s

Semivegetarian

Does Eat: -A vegetarian diet that occasionally includes meat, fish, poultry, and eggs. Does not eat: -Meat, fish, and poultry on occasion

Lacto-Vegetarian

Does Eat: -Grains, vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, and dairy foods. Does not eat: -Meat, fish, poultry, and eggs

Vegan

Does Eat: -Grains, vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, and seeds. Does not eat: -Any animal foods, meat, fish, poultry, dairy foods, and eggs.

Lacto-Ovo-Vegetarian

Does Eat: -Grains, vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, dairy and eggs. Does not eat: -Meat, fish, poultry

Ovo-Vegetarian

Does Eat: -Grains, vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, seeds, and eggs Does not eat: -Meat, fish, poultry, and dairy foods

Doneness: Moist Heat

Doneness is indicated by tenderness, not by temperature. -Most of the time the meat is well done -Low temperatures, no higher than simmering, are essential to avoid toughening protein in moist-cooked meat.

Dried Legumes

Dried beans, peas, and lentils Inexpensive protein source Rich in -Complex carbohydrate -Dietary fiber -Protein Low in fat A Legume is a plant that bears seed pods that split along two opposite sides when ripe.

Classification: Other Domestic Poultry

Duck (2-6lb) and Goose (6-16 lb) -Have a thicker layer of fat under the skin -Not as widely consumed as chickens or turkeys and is considered a luxury food for many people Guinea (¾ -2 lb) -Domestically raised descendant of pheasant -They taste like flavorful chicken and are usually cooked and handled like young chickens. Pigeon (1-2 lb) -Squab (<1 lb) Very young domestically raised pigeon -Rich, dark meat which is usually cooked slightly rare to avoid dryness- slightly gamey flavor

Dry-Heat Preparation: Roasting or Baking

Ducks and geese -High fat content and requires pricking skin to release fat -Self-basting -Do not stuff cavity; product will become soaked in fat -Ducks/ geese because of their fat content should be placed breast down to release excess fat and flipped halfway through. Carving -Carved into breast, wing, leg, and thigh pieces -Wait to 20 minutes to carve to allow to rest; flesh firm and prevent cooling and drying

Judging Doneness

Due to the fact that the internal portion of the meat is not exposed to the environment, chances of exposure to cross contamination is reduced- This is not true for hamburger meat that is ground and exposed during the processing. Ground beef, pork, lamb, veal 155º F: 160 Beef, veal, lamb (roasts, steaks, chops) Rare 125° F Medium rare 135° F Medium 145° F Well done 165° F Fresh pork (roasts, steaks, chops) Medium 145° F Well done 165° F

Vegetable

Edible forms of plant tissues: root, bulb, stem, leaves used for foods. -By definition is any plant or those that are edible Vegetables grown underneath the ground: Beets, carrots, radishes -Examples of Bulbs- onion, garlic -Examples of Tubers- potatoes

Replace fat in baked goods with fruit purees

Fat can be replaced by purees: -prune, carrot, apple, -banana, pineapple, etc. Baked goods- high in fat and sugar- What does fat add to baking- flavor, tenderizer gluten, moisture, tender crumb Applesauce instead of sugar in cookies -This works by replacing moisture in baked goods provided by fat without making gluten (flours) tough.

Are we overeating fat, carbs, or both?

Fat has been the first and most obvious target. -It is the national interest to reduce the caloric value of the food supply, but powerful business forces are against this.

Composition of Muscle:

Fine texture: small -muscle fibers in small bundles Coarse texture: -large muscle fibers

Dry Heat Preparation: Sauteing

Fish < ½ inch thick, shrimp, and scallops in a small amount of butter and/or oil; high heat/ short time.

Shellfish

Fish with external shells but no internal bone structure. (ex. Crabs, lobsters, shrimp, etc.)

Fin Fish

Fish with fins and internal skeletons. Found in fresh water of rivers, lakes and streams and the salt water of oceans and seas- Most popular fin fish are tuna, cod, Alaska Pollack, salmon, catfish, flounder and sole.

Composition and Structure of Poultry

Flesh of poultry is muscle tissue Muscle tissue composed of: -Water (about 75%) -Protein (about 20%) -Fat (up to 5%) -Other elements: minerals, carbohydrates (in small quantities) Muscles consists of bundles of muscle fibers held together by connective tissue. -Each muscle fiber is also covered in a sheath of connective tissue. Lean meat is composed of long, thin muscles bound together in bundles. -These determine the texture or grain of a piece of meat. Fine grained meat is composed of small fibers bound in small bundles and Coarse textured meat has large fibers. Nutritionally-Poultry is high quality protein and has cholesterol content similar to red meat, light meat has less iron than dark meat and dark meat is higher in fat than white meat. Goose and duck are higher in fat than turkey or chicken.

How do you tell if fish is done?

Flesh turns translucent to opaque Flesh flakes Internal temperature is 145°F (should not be dry) Avoid: Cooking at too high of temperature and cooking too long

Reducing Total Fat Intake

Focus on reducing saturated and trans fats -Red meats -Butter -Cheese -Tropical oils -Trans fats (hydrogenated oils)

Nutritionists & Chefs Agree:

Food can be redesigned to be more health promoting. -Change ingredients -Rethink and alter standard recipes. -The Food and Drug Administration now requires calorie information for 20 restaurants or more.

What is Blanching?

Food is immersed in rapidly boiling water for a minute or two, just enough time to inactive the enzymes, and then are rapidly immersed in cold water, to stop further cooking and weakening of the cell walls.

Dairy and Eggs

For lacto-ovo vegetarians, milk products and eggs are valuable sources of protein, vitamin D, calcium and other nutrients.

Vitamin D

Found in vitamin D- fortified milk It is created in the skin on exposure to sunlight Other vegetarian sources -Vitamin fortified cereals -Some soy beverages Major function is to maintain blood levels of calcium and phosphorus by promoting calcium and phosphorus absorption Strong bones - works with other vitamins and minerals and hormones to promote bone mineralization.

Vitamin B12

Found only in animal foods -Including milk and eggs Vegans must obtain it from: -Grain foods, such as breakfast cereals that have been fortified with this vitamin -Vitamin supplements Cobalamin- contains the metal cobalt -Functions as part of a coenzyme to make new cells and DNA -Activates folate coenzyme so folate can make new cells and DNA -Needed to maintain the protective cover around nerve fibers and ensures the normal functioning of the nervous system.

Ready to cook poultry is eviscerated:

Free of blood, feathers, head, and feet and is the style in the supermarket and in most food service establishments: heart, liver, neck and gizzard have been cleaned and removed put back inside cavity- giblet bag.

Vegetable Selection

From living plants grown in cycles with the passing seasons -Consider the season of the year when selecting vegetables -An inferior product is bought when buying out of season Amount to buy depends upon type -United States Department of Agriculture: Seasonal Produce Guides After vegetables are harvested still viable and continue to respire by taking oxygen and releasing Carbon Dioxide -This natural respiration contributes to deterioration of appearance and texture flavor and vitamin content Some have a naturally high metabolism: berries, avocados, mushrooms, and deteriorate faster than slower apples, pears, cabbages, etc.

Cornish Game Hen

Gender/Age: Either gender, 5-6 weeks. Weight: 3/4 - 2 pounds Description: Tender meat

Young Turkey (hen or tom)

Gender/Age: Either gender, 5-7 months Weight: 8-22 pounds Description: Tender meat, firmer cartilage

Broilers

Gender/Age: Either gender, 6-12 weeks Weight: 1 1/2 - 2 1/2 pounds Description: Tender skin & meat, flexible breastbone

Fryers

Gender/Age: Either gender, 6-12 weeks Weight: 2 1/2 - 3 1/2 pounds Description: Tender skin & meat, flexible breastbone

Yearling Turkey

Gender/Age: Either gender, <15 months Weight: 10-30 pounds Description: Fully mature, reasonably tender

Mature Turkey (hen or tom)

Gender/Age: Either gender, <15 months Weight: 10-30 pounds Description: Old turkey with tough meat and skin

Fryer-Roaster

Gender/Age: Either gender, <16 weeks Weight: 4 - 9 pounds Description: Young bird, tender skin & meat, flexible cartilage

Hen or Fowl

Gender/Age: Mature Female, 10+ months Weight: 3 1/2 - 6 pounds Description: Tough skin and meat, hardened breastbone

Rooster or Cock

Gender/Age: Mature Male, 10+ months Weight: 4 - 6 pounds Description: Tough skin and dark meat

Capon

Gender/Age: Neutered Male, under 8 months Weight: 5 - 8 pounds Description: Very tender meat, large breast, expensive

Soy Products

Good source of complete protein (high amount 34% dry weight) Soy products -Soybeans -Soy milk -Tofu -Fermented soy products -Texturized soy proteins

Grading is a quality designation indicated by stamp shield

Grading is not required by US law or government mandate -Grading is voluntary -May be done when meat processors contract with USDA -Uses a cut between 12th & 13th rib that exposes the muscle -Based on color, grain, surface, texture, & fat distribution

All meat produced for public consumption must be inspected by the USDA -Ensure sanitary processing procedures are followed so meat is fit for human consumption

Grading is not required by law; it is based on: -Texture -Firmness -Color of lean meat -Age or maturity -Marbling

The base of the vegetarian diet

Grains, vegetables, fruits, legumes (beans), nuts and seeds. (non-animal foods)

Chlorophyll

Green pigment goes from bright green to more of an olive green when over cooked

Crustaceans

Have segmented body covered by an exoskeleton consisting of a hard upper shell and soft under shell -Crab, crayfish, lobster, shrimp.

In place of ice cream, use:

Ice milk/pureed fruits with egg whites/frozen yogurt.

Lean fish <2.5% fat: delicate flavor, white flesh, add fat during cooking

If a fish has <5% of its calories from fat (~2.5 grams of fat) it is considered "Lean" -Cod, flounder, bass, halibut, haddock, pollock, sole, whiting, catfish. Be familiar with some lean fish- cod, flounder, pollock, etc.

Fatty fish > 5% fat: more distinctly fishy flavor

If a fish has >5% of its calories from fat (~5-10+ grams of fat) it is considered "Fatty" -Bluefish, sardines, tuna, coho salmon, herring, mackerel, trout, anchovies, sablefish. Be familiar with some Fatty fish- salmon, tuna

Carryover Cooking

Internal temperature continues rising after meat is removed from oven Internal temperature can raise by: -Small cuts: 5°F (3°C) -Large roasts: 25°F (14°C) -Average roasts: 10° to 15°F (6° to 8°C) -An average temperature increase of 10-15 degrees for average sized roasts -Very large roasts can have 25 degree increase in temp while small roast, about 5 degrees -Most roasts must be removed from the oven when the internal temp is 10-15 below the final desired temp -Allow meat to rest , loosely covered with foil before slicing.

Why is carryover cooking important?

It keeps the juices inside After No Resting: The meat around the exterior of the steak (the parts that were closest to the pan) are well over 200°F (93.3°C). At this temperature range, they are pinched tightly shut, preventing them from holding on to any moisture. The center of the steak is at 125°F. While it can hold on to some of its juices at this temperature, cutting the meat fibers open is like slitting the side of a soda bottle: some juice might stay in there (mostly through surface tension), but liquid is going to spill. After 5 Minutes of Resting: The outermost layers of meat are down to around 145°F (62.8°C) and the center of the steak is still at 125°F. At this stage, the muscle fibers have relaxed a bit, stretching open a little wider. This stretching motion creates a pressure differential between the center of the muscle fiber and the ends, pulling some of the liquid out from the middle towards the edges. As a result, there is less liquid in the center of the steak. Cut it open now, and some of the liquid will still spill out, but far less than before. After 10 Minutes of Resting: The edges of the steak have cooled all the way down to around 125°F, allowing them to suck up even more liquid from the center of the steak. What's more, the center of the steak has by this time cooled down to around 120°F, causing it to widen slightly. Cut the meat open at this stage, and the liquid will be so evenly and thinly distributed throughout the steak that surface tension is enough to keep it from spilling out on the plate.

Fresh poultry is extremely perishable.

It should arrive well chilled, ideally at 32ºF (0ºC) and kept well chilled until used Ideally, use poultry within 24 hours of receiving -Never hold it for more than 4 days Poultry often carries salmonella bacteria -Wash all equipment and cutting surfaces after handling poultry to avoid contamination of other foods. Stored up to 3 days- keep in original packaging for whole birds.

Composition and Structure: Light Meat vs. Dark Meat

Light Meat: -Breast and wings -Less fat -Less connective tissue -Cooks faster Dark Meat: -Drumsticks and thighs -More fat -More connective tissue -Takes longer to cook

In place of cream cheese, use:

Light cream cheese or Neufchatel.

In place of mayonnaise, use:

Light or nonfat mayonnaise or nonfat plain yogurt or Greek yogurt.

In place of cheddar cheese, use:

Low-fat cheddar cheese (nonfat cheese does not melt).

In place of cottage cheese, use:

Low-fat cottage cheese or pot cheese.

Vegetable Storage

Maintaining Moisture -Store in refrigerator crisper -If crisper is not available, use plastic bags with tiny holes -Wrap vegetables with damp paper towels to reduce spoilage via dehydration Freezing -Fresh vegetable should not be frozen unless first blanched Higher water content indicates shorter storage times.

Crab

Majority of meat is in claws & legs 4 top commercially harvested crabs -Blue crabs - East Coast -Stone crabs - South East -Dungeness crabs - Pacific Coast -King crabs - Northern Pacific waters Soft shell crab is considered a delicacy- these crabs are caught while molting a process during which they shed their shell and have a soft exterior until the new surface is completely hardened (this may take several days).

Enzymatic Browning

Many fruits and vegetables for exp. Banana, apples, mushrooms and potatoes quickly develop a brown/ red or gray discoloration when cut or bruised -This is due to phenolic compounds, certain plant enzymes and oxidation When the cell structure is damaged and phenolics are mixed with enzymes and oxygen; the enzymes oxidize the phenolic compounds forming molecules that eventually will react with each other and bond together into light absorbing clusters

Pork

Meat comes from young swine -Slaughtered between 7-12 months old Pigs -Less than 4 months old Hogs -Greater than 4 months old In recent times, pork has been bred to be leaner and more tender- 50% more yield of lean meat per animal 1/3 of pork is sold fresh while the rest is cured and provided as ham or sausage , lunch meats and bacon.

Moist Heat Preparations

Mollusks: -Boil or steam 4-9 minutes after shell opens Shrimp: -Poach until red, 3-4 minutes, cook in the shell Scallops -1 ½ minutes Lobster: -Boil 5-6 minutes/lb Cephalopods: -Simmer under boiling temperature to avoid toughening

Tenderness of Cuts

Most Tender: -Rib -Short loin -Sirloin Medium Tender: -Chuck -Rump -Round Least Tender: -Flank -Plate -Brisket

Mushrooms (Fungi)

Mushrooms and truffles

Preparation of Legumes

Must be cooked before eating Soaking of Beans -Soft water is preferable Use of alkali not recommended -May make beans too soft -Destructive to thiamin Canned beans offer convenience -Maybe high in Sodium (rinse well prior to preparation) Do not use hard water or add salt or acid in the form of tomato juice or lemon juice because these substances inhibit softening of pectic compounds.

Classification of vegetables by pigments:

Naturally occurring pigments are compounds that give vegetables their color. Vegetables and fruits brighten meals that may otherwise look bland with only meat and starch. Being creative with combining different colors on the plate. Different pigments react in different ways to heat and acids and other elements that may be present in cooking 3 major groups: 1. Carotenoids (yellow/orange/red), 2. Chlorphyll (Green) , 3. Flavonoids (whites and purples) Heat impacts and oxygen impacts by modifying the pigments chemical structure- caution with overheating. Also adding acid or alkali (acid or base impacts the color changes) Acids for the most part brightens vegetables but dulls green vegetables.

In place of whole milk, use:

Nonfat or low-fat milk.

Onion Family

Onions, garlic, and leek

In place of whole-milk mozzarella, use:

Part-skim mozzarella, low moisture.

In place of whole-milk ricotta, use:

Part-skim ricotta.

6-11 Ounces/servings of whole grains are recommended daily based on your age/gender. A recommended serving of whole grains would be 1 slice of bread or 1/2 cup of rice or pasta

People often confuse the recommendation to mean 6 to 11 portions with no regard to size. It is not 6 to 11 portions where one portion could mean a large bowl of pasta rather than ½ cup.

Tubers

Potatoes, yams, and sunchoke.

Inspection and Grading of Meat

Prime -Most marbling, highest price and quality; limited supply -Restaurants Choice -Intermediate fat content -Widely used in food service and retail Select -Low fat, lean, not as tender -Institutional food service operations and retail Standard, Commercial, Utility, Cutter or Canner -Lower quality, aged or culled from the herd -Food processing

Traditional dressing or Vinaigrette is 75% fat (3 parts oil to 1 part vinegar)

Revised dressing: -Use 1/3-1/4 part oil, 1/3 part vinegar or lemon juice, 1/3 part other non-acid ingredients Add flavor ingredients, but don't eliminate fat completely -Use a slightly thickened stock or reduced juice (to replicate the viscosity of oil) -Oils with intense flavors (extra virgin olive, sesame seed, pecan, pistachio oils) -Strong vinegars (balsamic, sherry, raspberry) -Exchange water for fat with extra garlic, fresh herbs, mustard -Sauces (tahini, soy) Intense flavor of oils allows you to use less.

Nuts and Seeds

Rich in protein; high in fat Examples: -Nuts: almonds, cashews, hazelnuts, pecans, walnuts, pistachios -Seeds: pumpkin, sunflower, sesame Nut or Seed Butters: -Nuts or seeds that have been roasted and ground to a paste -Cashew or almond butter -Sesame Butter: Tahini

Cooking Methods: Dry-Heat

Roasting -Heating of moderate-to-large, tender cuts in dry, hot heat oven air -Placed fat side up on rack (so meat doesn't simmer in own juices) Broiling & grilling -Smaller cuts of tender meat (1 to 3 inches thick) -High temperatures & short cooking time -Cooking times based on cut thickness -Level of doneness achieved by adjusting distance from heat. Best for tender cuts of meat. Pan-broiling -Very thin (1/2" thick) cuts heated in a pan with no oil Frying -Best for tender, small cuts low in fat or breaded -Sautéing -Pan-frying -Deep-frying

Dry-Heat Preparation: Frying

Sauté -Cook small pieces for quick preparation Pan-Fry -Usually breaded or floured before cooking -Breading keeps moisture from being lost and adds flavor -Fry over high heat in ¼ inch of fat -Fry skin side down first -Lower heat and cook for 30 to 45 minutes Deep-Fry -Breaded and submerged in fat Stir-Fry -Lightly frying bite-sized boned pieces -Can add vegetables, soy sauce, and other seasonings

Heat exposure causes muscle fibers to shrink

Shrinking: -Collagen molecules denature, then collapse -Water loss as other muscle proteins denature At 102° F -Collagen molecules begin to denature At 149° F -Collagen molecules collapse Connective tissue softens because the hydrogen bonds in collagen (in the connective tissue) break down and begin to convert to gelatin. Even with limited cooking meat shrinks somewhat < 100 F: diameter shrinks, small water loss > 100 F: diameter and length shrink, bigger water loss

Cooking Vegetables: Moist-Heat Methods

Simmering -Should simmer, not boil, vegetables; avoids nutrient loss & adverse effects on color, texture, & flavor Steaming -Takes longer than simmering, but better retention of flavor, texture, & color -Brown first & then simmer in own juices Microwaving -One of the best ways to retain texture, color, & nutrient content

Mollusks

Soft un-segmented body usually enclosed in shell: -Bivalve (two hard shells) (clams, oysters, mussels, scallops) -Univalve (one hard shell) (snails or conch) -Cephalopods (rubbery soft inner shell- cuttlebone)- squid

The major nutritional concern of a vegetarian diet is getting enough protein.

Some plant products, such as grains, nuts, and dried beans contain proteins Proteins are long chains of smaller compounds called amino acids -20 total amino acids -Make up over 100,000 proteins in the human body

Vegetable Storage: Dry Storage

Some vegetables should not be stored in refrigerator -Examples - Tomatoes, eggplant, winter squash, tubers, dried legumes, onions Storing Potatoes -Not in refrigerator; not exposed to sunlight -Can store at room temperature a couple of weeks in basket or bag with holes AS THEY MATURE OR AS THEY SIT IN STORAGE, THE SUGAR GRADUALLY CHANGES TO STARCH.

Grains

Source of complementary protein when eaten with legumes or dairy products Rice, wheat, corn Other grains: -Farro, barley, millet and triticale add variety to vegetarian menus -Quinoa and amaranth- offer complete protein (especially valuable for vegan diets)

Soy Milk

Soy Milk is a stable emulsion of oil, water, and protein. -Made by soaking dried soybeans, draining them, grinding them, combining them with water, boiling, and then straining the resulting milky liquid -Adult milk protein allergy, vegan diets -Fortified with Vitamin B12

Leafy Greens

Spinach, lettuce, endive, collard, kale, and greens.

Model Lean Angus Steer

Steer= Males Heifer = Females Most steer are castrated when they are young so they will gain weight quickly Red and Black Angus cattle are the most common breed of cattle in the US

Handling and Storing Fresh Shellfish

Store in fresh, cool, salty, wet environment Consume the day purchased -Storage requirements vary Depends on type of shellfish -Live oysters, clams, and mussels should be well aerated -Store precooked crabs coldest part of refrigerator -Store cooked crustaceans below 40°F 4°C and consumed within 2 days

Do you know how food portions have changed in 20 years?

Studies show that the more food put in front of people, the more they eat. And since the 1960s, the serving sizes of foods sold in stores and restaurants — from candy bars to burgers and sodas — have become much bigger.

Purchasing Poultry

Styles: -Ready-to Cook: internal organs have been removed -Convenience: halves, breasts, drumsticks, wings, ground, etc. -Processed: mechanically deboned and processed How Much to Buy 1. Ready-to-Cook Poultry -Factor in inedible bone & unwanted fat when buying -Rule of thumb: 1⁄2 lb + per serving -Exception to the rule: Ducks or geese: More fat to melt off = less yield 2. Most economical: Whole state-- Common broiler fryer chickens average 3 ½ - yield four servings: two breasts, two legs, and two thighs.

Composition and Structure of Poultry: Connective Tissue

Tenderness is related to the connective tissue and this increases with: -Use or exercise of the muscle -Maturity or age of the animal or bird Connective tissue is a network of proteins which include collagen which we spoke about in fish and elastin. Young birds are often cooked by dry heat methods: broiling, frying and roasting and moist heat methods and Older tougher birds need slow, moist heat to be made palatable (braising).

Store frozen poultry at 0ºF (-18ºC) or lower until it is ready to thaw

Thaw in original wrapper in refrigerator -Allow 1 to 2 days for chickens. -2 to 4 days for larger birds. -If pressed for time, thaw in cold, running water in original wrapper. Do not refreeze thawed poultry Average chicken could take up to a day to defrost and a turkey estimated one day per five pounds of turkey (15 pound turkey- 3 days!).

Fiber

The amount of fiber varies: -In different vegetables -In mature vs. younger vegetables -In different parts of the same vegetable Fiber is made firmer by acids and sugars Fiber is softened by heat and alkalis Sugars strengthen the cell structure-- important for fruit cookery. -Spinach and tomatoes have less fiber than carrots or turnips -OLD Tough carrots have more fiber than young fresh carrots -Asparagus tips have less fiber than tougher stalks as well as Broccoli flowers vs. stems

Cooking meat is an art

The challenge: cooking the cut so it is tender and juicy AND at a temperature that will destroy harmful bacteria.

Fruit

The matured ovary of a flower, including its seeds and adjacent parts.

Lamb & Mutton

The meat of sheep Lamb -Comes from sheep < 14 months old Mutton -Comes from sheep > 14 months old -Darker tougher meat -Stronger flavor Further confirmation of whether you are dealing with lamb or mutton may be found where the lower leg of a carcass will snap- lamb breaks off above the joint and mutton will break at the joint.

Fish has very little connective tissue

This means that: -Fish cooks very quickly -Fish is naturally tender -Moist-heat cooking methods are used not to create tenderness but to preserve moistness -Cooked fish must be handled very carefully or it will fall apart.

Trussing

Tie legs & wings against body of bird to make a compact solid unit it allows for even cooking since extended legs and wings cook too quickly and a more attractive appearance. -Prevents overcooking before breast is done and creates a more attractive appearance. -This is usually done with turkeys because of their long preparation time. Wings are tucked under the back to avoid overcooking, Butcher string is looped through drumsticks and the fat pad ends of the string is run under the breastbone and the poultry is turned over string is tucked under wings and tied over the neck flap.

Wholesale (Primal) Cuts

Top of animal: -Blade (chuck, shoulder) -Ribs -Short loin -Sirloin Bottom of animal: -Fore shank (brisket) -Short plate -Flank -Round

Switch from solid fats to oils when preparing food

Trans fat: are formed when unsaturated fatty acids in vegetable oils are hardened by the process of hydrogenation). Hydrogen atoms are added to make oils more solid at room temperature.

Canned Fish

Tuna -"White" from albacore -"Light meat tuna" = all other tuna Three styles -Solid - best appearance; fillet or whole piece -Chunk - large pieces -Flake - fine pieces or grated Salmon -Often packed with bones -Chinook (king), sockeye (red salmon), Coho (medium red), pink, and chum Sardines -Always packed with bones -Packed in tomato or mustard sauce or oil -Excellent source of Calcium because the bones but must be consumed with bones.

Cooking in a little liquid vs. a lot of liquid:

Using a lot of liquid increases vitamin loss by leaching. Using a little liquid increases cooking time. -Tests have shown that, for these reasons, no more nutrients are lost when vegetables are cooked in a lot of water than when vegetables are cooked in just enough water to cover. -For green vegetables, a lot of water is desirable.

Summary of Vegetable Classification

Vegetables can be derived from any part of the plant: roots, bulbs, stems, leaves, seeds and flowers Foods routinely called vegetables and used as vegetables but which are actually fruits? -Botanically, fruits are the part of the plant the comes from the flower and contains seeds Don't be misled that some fruits are sweet: many if not all fruits in nature are not sweet at all: Fruits used in vegetable kitchen

Plant Organs

Vegetables: Roots, stems, leaves of the plant Fruits: Flower (matured ovary of the flower), Fruit and Seeds of the plant

Drawn fish

Viscera removed -Viscera=internal organs

Dressed fish

Viscera, scales, head, tail and fins removed.

Preparation of Poultry

Visually butchering a whole chicken can yield two drumsticks, two wings, two breasts and two thighs. -May be prepared either dry heat or moist heat methods -Regardless of preparation method, safe internal temperature must be reached of 165ºF -For whole roasts, the more usual practice is to aim for a final temperature of 180ºF -The best way to determine is with a thermometer: The thigh is tested rather that breast because the thigh is the last part of the bird to become fully cooked.

Vegetable Handling

Washing and soaking -Wash all vegetables; wash quickly to avoid water absorption -Do not soak vegetables for long periods of time as flavor and nutrients leach out Peeling and cutting -Peel as thinly as possible and cut uniformly for even cooking

Egg Yolk (source of fat)

When eggs used as binders you can use egg whites instead of the whole egg. -1 whole egg = 2 egg whites

At the time connective tissue is beginning to soften and becomes more tender, muscle protein has begun the "toughening process".

You can see that at the higher temps, collagen begins forming into gelatin but muscle fiber protein becomes more tough.