OB Exam 2 (Final)
Confirmation bais
Leads us to seek out information that supports our existing instinct or point of view while avoiding information that contradicts
Decision Making
Making choices from among two or more viable and comparable alternaives
Two factor theory
Motivation-Hygiene theory certain hygiene factors need to be taken care of to remove dissatisfaction (extrinsic): quality of supervision, pay, company policies, physical working conditions, relations with others, job security certain motivation factors can increase job satisfaction (intrinsic): promotion opportunities, opportunities for personal growth, responsibility, recognition, achievement Example: if underpaid you are dissatisfied, but if you are overpaid you are not equally more satisfied as if something else was added (after 80-100K salary matters less) o Not well supports in literature, many detractors - Self-report, interpretation, not overall satisfaction, relationship between satisfaction and productivity is assumed
Influences of personality
Nature (biological heritage) and nurture (experiences, culture, etc.)
Production-Oriented Leader
• emphasized the technical or task aspects of the job — concern focused on accomplishing the group's tasks (similar to initiating)
Behavior theories Leadership
"train people to be leaders" most tied to selection and training after limitations of traits that for broad based competency model. Showed potential for training programs and not just section of talent What behaviors relate to performance? - 1950 ohio state: imitating structure, consideration - 1950s Michigan state: assume leaders are job or employee oriented and behaviors associated with leadership are task oriented, relationship oriented, participative leadership behaviors lead to leaders performance
- Fundamental attribution error and Self-serving bias
- Fundamental attribution error o Tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgment about the behaviors of others - Self-serving bias o Tendency for individual to attribute their own successes to internal factors and put the blame of failures on external factors
Carter racing lessons about how rational decisions can be affected by biases
- Wants and needs can bias decision (how you view a person can effect your view of their actions, internal or external factors) - get full data - confirmation trap - initial choices influence next decisions - framing a problem influences decision - group decision making tends to bias choice more than individual choices
Fiedler contingency Leadership Model
- effective leadership style depends on match between leader's style and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader - relationship or task orientation o Task oriented leaders perform best in situations of high and low control, while relationship oriented leaders perform best in moderate control situations
Responses to inequity
- employees can change their inputs or outcomes (work less, paid more for underpayment ) - change their referent's inputs or costumes (increase others' inputs or outcomes, underpayment: make others work harder so more fair) - Change perception of inputs and outcomes (their own or their referents' especially for overpayment) - Change their referent (change who they compare themselves to, who is there reference) - Leave job/organization or force referent to leave
Rational decision making assumptions
- problem clarity - know options - certainty of outcome probability - clear preferences with clear weights - constant preferences/constant weights - no time or cost constraints - maximum payoff as goal
Job characteristics model
1. Skill Variety - the degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities so the worker can use a number of diff skills and talent 2. Task Identity - the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. Ex: a cabinetmaker making his cabinet all the way through 3. Task Significance - the degree to which a job has an impact on the lives or work of other people. Ex: a nurse 4. Autonomy - the degree to which a job provides the worker freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling the work and determining the procedures in carrying it out. Sales person by themselves vs. Salesperson following a script 5. Feedback - the degree to which carrying out work activities generates direct and clear information about your own performance. leads to high internal motivation, quality, satisfaction, low absenteeism
Improve creativity in decision making (text)
Expertise o Foundation of all creative work Creative thinking skills o Personality characteristics associated with creativity, ability to use analogies, talent see familiar in different light Intrinsic task motivation o Interesting, involving, exciting, satisfying or personally challenging o Creates potential and actual creative ideas
In class simulation motivation (startup founder)
3 year old startup, drive after school program engagement in urban markets, new employee 1 year ago with sales experience and need them to do better in business dev/sales. Need to increase motivation or fire, live in different cities things to talk about: - pay (salary, benefits, ownership) - goal oriented management with feedback - Job characteristics: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, feedback - job rotation - job enrichment - relational enrichment - flex time - job sharing - telecommunity - employee involvement overall employee cares about mission and purpose but feels they have little say in strategy. They enjoy the flexibility because they have a family and are intrinsically motivated but font feel like their efforts are being recognized and wants a more personal connection and more emotions. Looking for affiliation and recognition
Individual biases - Hidden traps in decision making Article
Anchoring bias Status Quo bias Confirmation bais Framing bias (gains, losses, reference points) Sunk Cost Estimating/Forecasting bias (overconfidence/prudence/ responsibility) Hindsight bias - Build tests and disciplines into your decision making process that can uncover errors in thinking before they become errors in judgment
Need for achievement (each) wants at work
Individual responsibility, challenging but doable goals, performance feedback entrepreneur, sales person with challenging quote and opportunity to ear individual
Carter Racing Case
BJ Carter is under pressure to decide whether or not to race in the Poconos race which if it goes well would offer price money and national TV exposure, but a failure would lose sponsorship and cost a lot to fix the car - top 5 finish would further a much needed sponsor from Goldstone Tires - Firms racing engine failed 7 times in 24 outings for unknown reason - failure to finish he race is disaster for the company Expertise Paul Eduards: engine mechanic feels past failures related to air temperature Robin Burns: chief mechanic, dismisses not in based on data collected that shows no clear relationship between temperature and gasket failure Alternatives: 1) Race: Finish: finish top 5 get $2 million and sponsorship (80%), finish not in top 5 no change (20% if finish) Lose engine: lose $800,000 sponsorship and possible bankruptcy (30%) 2) Withdraw: get back $30,000 entry but lose $40,000 goldstone and no added 2 M, hard to get more sponsorship Temperature is 40 degrees and gets new data that no problems seen more when 65+ He should withdraw, worse circumstances but decides to race and fails
When does personality matter?
Behavior is a function of person and the situation Situational assessment: - Strong situations: clear and consistent cues about work duties, strong incentives, strong norms, rules) - Weak situation: low clarity and consistency in work duties, weak external incentives, weak norms, limited rules) Personality more linked to behavior when situation is weak Example: Zimbardo Stanford Prison Experiment
Value considerations
Content attribute intensity attribute (relative importance)
Leadership models
Determine who is an is not a leader when it comes to traits, behaviors and situation/contingency and how you can deal with attribution limitations and strategies for selection and development
Procedural vs Distributive Justice
Distributive justice: what outcomes are allocated Procedural justice: how outcomes are allocated perceived procedural justice is based on: - process control: opportunity to present argument/evidence - Neutrality: judgments of bias, honesty and factual decision making - Trustworthiness: pureness of decision makers motives - Standing: politness and respect for rights procedure and outcomes fair: satisfaction Procedure unfair and outcomes fair: disquiet (worry) Procedure fair outcomes unfair: displeasure
Motivation Management Implications
Environment - Job characteristics: autonomy, feedback - flex time, telecommuting incentives - Pay equity (Distributive and procedural) - Variable pay (equity, profit, performance) - Flexible benefits: individualized - intrinsic incentives: recognition programs task - job characteristics (meaningful): task/skill variety, task identity, task significance - job rotation - job enrichment - relational job: social and physical contest - job sharing - employee involvement Overall: - Recognize individual differences - Use goals and feedback - Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them - Link rewards to performance - Check the system for equity
Myers Briggs
Extraversion vs intraversion Sensing vs intuitive - details, practical, routine, order vs unconscious process, big picture Thinking vs feeling - reason and logic vs personal values and emotions Judging vs perceiving - control, order, structure vs flexibility, spontaneous not valid measure of personality, forces you into a type or another assuming mutual exclusivity
Alternative work arrangements (timing)
Flextime: more productivity, less overtime, less hostility, less tardiness, more reasonability and autonomy, increase satisfaction - not applicable to all jobs job sharing: allows two or more individuals to split a traditional 40 hour week job - difficult to implement with complimentary people , increase motivation and satisfaction Telecommuting: working at home at least 2 days a week on computer linked to employers office - larger labor pool, higher productive, more space saving, higher moral - less direct supervision
Situational leadership theory (SLT) (reading)
Focuses on followers' readiness, extent willing and read to accomplish a task ♣ Unable and unwilling • Give clear and specific direction ♣ Unable and willing • High task orientation to compensate for their lack of ability and high relationship orientation to get them to buy into the leaders desires ♣ Able and unwilling • Supportive and participative style ♣ Able and willing • Don't do much
Need for power (nPow) wants at work
Influence over others; attention, recognition opportunity for leadership position; committee head, administrator
Rational decision making
High degree of deliberation and non-moral making choices from 2+ viable options, this is best way but often firms are not choosing from multiple viable alternatives (most don't consider more than one alternative, but research shows much better choices with at least two alternatives) rational decision making process (6 steps) - define the problem - identify decision criteria - weight the criteria - generate alternatives - Rate each alternative on each criteria - compute the optimal decision
Ethical decision making
Higher degree of deliberation and moral Moral reasoning: - utilitarianism: decision based on only outcomes, efficient, productive - Fundamental rights - justice: fair rules and enforcement, impartial
Trust and leadership (book)
How is trust developed? - Leader trustworthiness o Integrity, Benevolence, Ability - Propensity to trust - Time What are the outcomes of trust? • Trust encourages taking risks • Trust facilities information sharing • Trusting groups are more effective • Trust enhances productivity
Limitations of hustle and Me too
Hustle: work really hard Me to: follow best practices Hustle drives down cost, maybe not most productive Me too: moves to products frontier, most productive for cost alternatives: value driven approach, priority driven
Anchoring bias
Initial impression, estimates or data anchors subsequent thoughts and judgments Do you think something is bigger or smaller than X. What is your best guess? Write SSN, when do you think this battle happened?
Contingencies on leadership
Leaders have traits and behaviors but the situation makes them vary based on context Performance based on traits and behaviors is effected by the context which shapes a leaders behavior and demonstrates power dynamic and task structure Three contingency decisions Task oriented: good relations, high structure or bad relations and low structure relationship oriented: good relations, low structure, poor relation high structure
McClellan's three needs theory
Need for achievement (nAch): the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed Need for power (nPow): need to make others behave in a way they would not have behaved otherwise Need for Affiliation (nAff): desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships can be high or low but categorize into one Use Thematic apperception test (TAT) to measure three types of human needs, can run experiments where you increase someones need for achievement and creates results where the entrepreneurs created jobs assumes motivations is a kind of personality characteristic that can be uncovered using psychological test overall you can train people to change their motivation and that shapes preferences and roles people enter o Best research support, but less practical effect ♣ Subconscious needs, may not know which we have ♣ Present pictures and asked to tell story about them and their scores on stories demonstrate which need stands out the most • Time consuming and expensive
Big Five Model
OCEAN - best option (agreement of each item) Openness to experiences Conscientiousness (reliability, responsible, dependable) Extraversion (relationships) Agreeableness Neuroticism (opposite emotional stability, deal with stress)
How Big 5 ties into work elements
Openness to experience: creativity, adaptability to change *Conscientiousness: learning more, higher level of job knowledge, best predictor of job performance, low adaptability to changing contexts, less creative Extraversion: higher job satisfaction, higher performance on jobs with frequent interpersonal interaction Agreeableness: creativity, adaptability to stress Neuroticism: lower job satisfaction, higher stress
Why humans can't always make rational decisions
People take shortcuts - Huristics: simple decision rule used to make quick decisions about complex problems People aren't impartial - Biases: systematic distortions or patterns of error in judgment
Sample of where there are biases in organizations
Performance evaluation o Criteria on which evaluated Reward systems o Which choices have the best payoffs Formal regulations System-Imposed time constraints o Explicit deadlines, difficult to gather all information Historical precedents Context to choices, not vacuum
Influences on Decision Making: individual differences and organizational constraints
Personality o Conscientiousness and self esteem Gender o Women analyze the past, present and future more - rumination Mental ability o Avoid logical errors or incorrect interpretation of data Cultural differences o Different cultures make decisions differently
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Physiological: hunger sex thirst Safety: security/protection from physical & emotional harm Social: accettante, affection Esteem: internal: self respect, autonomy, master external: status, recognition, attention Self actualization: drive to fulfill ones optimal being Problems: bottom to top order doesn't always hold up, different cultures emphasize different needs (west based) o Lower order needs: needs that are satisfied externally, such as physiological and safety needs o Higher order needs: satisfied internally, social, esteem, self-actualization o Issue - only aligns with US culture, other cultures security concerns would be top, Scandinavian countries social needs on top o Good because intuitively logical and easy to understand, not validated by research
Variable pay
Piece rate pay plan: fixed sum for each production unite completed merit based pay plan: based on ratings bonuses Skill based pay: how many jobs they can do, does not address level of performance Profit sharing plans: distribute compensation across organization based on company profitability and established formula Gainsharing: improvement in group productivity to determine money allocated Employee stock ownership plan
Hofstede's cultural value framework
Power Distance the degree to which people in the country accept that power in institutions is distributed unequally Individualism v collectivism o Individualism people prefer to act as individuals over all else o Collectivism emphasized tight social framework expect groups and look after other members Masculinity v femininity o Country values traditional masculine roles like achievement, power and control vs feminine roles like emotional intelligence, also equality Uncertainty avoidance o Prefer structured or unstructured situations, anxiety that comes from ambiguity Long-term v short term orientation o Devotion to traditional values o Look to future and don't value change vs here and now and accept change Leads to cultural differences in communicating, evaluating, persuading, leading, deciding, trusting, disagreeing, scheduling
Personality
Relatively stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine those differneces and commonalities in the thoughts, feelings and actions of people
Trait theory leadership: Emotional intelligence
Self management - self awareness: know weaknesses, open, vulnerable - self-regulation: control impulses, channel them - motivation: internal, no need for organizational incentives relate to others (group feedback) - empathy: take others feelings int account for decisions, sense others needs - social skills: build rapport, cooperate, move others with you
What effects individual behavior
Social context ability personality values that drive attitudes
Karen Leary???
Ted Chung: taiwan, develop Taiwan clients - not as collaborative with colleagues, insecurity (something in personal life?) What is his big five personality? - born tawian, westernized, independently wealth, large network, successful salesman at real estate - Low openness, high contentiousness, high extraversion (developing clients), low agreeableness internally but high externally Core problems and factors? - terminal vs instrumental values - wants office now, thinks did enough, thinks important - won't take orders from people at his level, others can't use his desk ( high power distance) - doesn't offer to help people - has ego and temper values across cultures (differences Hofstede framework) - short vs long term: not enough accounts now , thinks did enough - feminist culture with clients taiwan higher power distance, more collectivist, higher uncertainty avoidance, higher long term orientation How Leary handle Chung in past? How handle now? - uses high touch management(micro manage and monitor his accounts), same management style as other workers (contingency), needs to protect clients - Into coaching and counseling informally , motivate sales - needs higher screen for culture, alignment with values - better on boarding - different negotiation style: strong front in demand, long negotiate but she fired him and he was surprised
Types of values
Terminal: desirable end states of existence that someone would want to ache in lifetime - Mature love, self-respect, happiness, social recognition, wisdom, world of beauty, comfortable life Instrumental: preferred mode of conduct when working to achieve certain terminal values - ambition, love, self-control, imagination, intellect, broad-mindedness, independence
Brother in law syndrome
lower outcome, salary and higher inputs with education, forgone money, sacrifice. satisfaction decreased and motivation to reduce inequality increased. requested more outcomes, decided more meaningful job and more positive/less extranalities, withdrew from comparison
Charismatic leadership theory: mixed model
Traits - extraverted - self confident - achievement oriented Behaviors - articulate vision - take personal risk - sensitive to follower needs - unconventional behavior Contingency - stress (more sensitive to charismatic leadership power) - leadership level - follower traits can be born or trained. Influence through vision and vision statement, emotion, strong values, under crisis more effective
Types of leaders (t vs t)
Transactional leader: guide follower toward established goals by clarifying role and task requirements (become less ineffective and passive) - laissez faire: abdicates responsibility, avoids decisions - management by exception: watches and looks for deviations from rules to correct or intervenes only if standards are not met - contingent reward: contracts exchange of reward for effort, promise rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishments transformational leader: inspire and transcend self interest for good or organization (become more active and effective) - individualize consideration: personal attention, treats employees individually, coaches, advises - intellectual stimulation: promoties intelligence, rationality problem solving - inspirational motivation: communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses important purposes in simple way - idealized influence: vision and mission, pride, respect trust o Transformational leadership builds on transactional leadership and produces levels of follower effort and performance beyond what transactional leadership alone can do.
Peter Drucker's framework for personal leadership
What are my strengths? How do I perform? (read, listen, learn) What are my values? (value sort) Where Do I belong? (instrumental/terminal) What should I contribute? - who do I want to serve, what does situation require, what are strengths, what outcomes makes a difference
Questions for personal leadership
What do i do that is unique, hard to copy and adds value over time? Where is there a need that I genuinely care about What are the implications of the focus for the priority of my values over the short and long term (strategy and tactics)
perfomance
a function of ability and motivation
Leadership
ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision or a set of goals (to do what they otherwise would not do)
Satisfice decision making
accept first acceptable alternative
Trucker's suggestions for personal leadership development
am i getting feedback? what are my strengths? How do I learn? How do i best perform? Where am I most blind? What is my intellectual arrogance? What are my bad habits and manners? Who can help shore up my weaknesses? How can I get out of what i don't do well at?
Job enrichment
combine tasks, form natural work units, establish client relationship, expand jobs vertically, open feedback o expands jobs by increasing the degree to which the worker controls the planning, execution, and evaluation of the work o An enriched job organizes tasks to allow worker to do a complete activity, increases the employee's freedom and independence, increases responsibility, and provides feedback so individuals can assess and correct their own performance o Improving meaningfulness of work o Job enrichment shows it reduces absenteeism and turnover costs and increases satisfaction, but not all enrichment programs are equally effective
Values
convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end state of existence
Expectancy theory (process theory)
drive/search behavior The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual effort to performance is dependent on whether one believes performance is shaped by their ability and their expectancy about if effort will lead to performance (efficacy+resources). Also instrumentality on whether performance will lead to reward and if the extrinsic or intrinsic reward is desirable determine if worth it if your skills will help, and your effort will lead to good results that will be rewarded in a way you like Individual effort -(ability & expectancy)-> performance - (Instrumentality)-> reward - (desirability of extrinsic or intrinsic reward) -> satisfaction/personal goals
Employee-Oriented Leader
emphasize interpersonal relationships by taking a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual differences among them;
Moral intuition
lower degree of deliberation and moral Harm/care: evolutions as mammals attached to system and empathic fairness/reciprocity: evolutionary process of developed reciprocal altruism in-group/loyalty: evolutionary tribal history of shifting coalitions authority/respect: history of hierarchical social relationships purity/sanctity: related to the psychological of disgust first two more liberal, last three more conservative brother and sister sleep together, makes them closer, no baby, only one time. Rationally fine but due to purity and sanctity people are appalled rider is rational choice and elephant is emotions and moral foundations in a decision
Big Five and interview Handshake
how an applicant's handshake influences hiring recommendations formed during the employment interview. Quality of handshake was related to interviewer hiring recommendations. Path analysis supported the handshake as mediating the effect of applicant extraversion on interviewer hiring recommendations, even after controlling for differences in candidate physical appearance and dress. Lower ratings for females, more correlation between firmness of handshake and rating for women. big 5 personality traits effect how you interview - gender factors into how confident your handshake is and how you dress - Handshake effects how interviewer critiques you and extroversion is a factor in how good your handshake is and how well you conduct yourself in the interview
Hindsight bias
inclination, after an event has occurred, to see the event as having been predictable, despite there having been little or no objective basis for predicting it
Status Quo bias
keep it the same seems like less risk than taking action
Big 5 and income research
low agreeableness leads to higher compensation agreeableness: life satisfaction, lower stress, community involvement and friendship networks
Intuition and biases decision making (when to use)
low degree of deliberation and non-moral seems like guessing, but based on environmental cues and past experience high level of uncertainty little precedent to draw on less scientifically predictable facts and data are limited time limits and pressure There are several plausible alternatives solution to choose when choice reversal is possible example: chess championship, not enough time to use rational decision making for every move so use intuition and feelings to make decision
Bounded rationality
medium degree of deliberation and non-moral (less efficient than pure rationality but more realistic) due to limited capacity of the mind to be fully rational; decision makers construct simplified models to extract the essential feature from complex problems limit options or criterial to a manageable set that are most conspicuous choice Final outcome is satisfying choice, not optimum, good enough
limitations and requirements of personal leaderships
move from too many basic convictions to making decisions about specific behaviors and results need to say no to real alternatives, choice is difficult insure value focus and purpose for work (integrity) and self discipline (self regulation) video???
Stacy Jackson Value Sort Exercise
must have, high wants, wants, indifferent, don't want, rank each option on these factors
Personal leadership: value priority
need to find authentic ordering of value convictions and then a setting where these convictions are aligned and create value
morality of business students
normally WEIRD Western, industrialized, educated, rich, democratic Biz students low on every foundation (low sanctity, loyalty, authority), pragmatists, give variables and paraders and solve, efficiency (don't break law but short of that no morality) driven by image/reputation vs moral reasoning - harder to teach, hard to run ethics class (teach to make moral nudges and culture) typical business student indian/Chinese that wants to start a company and make money quickly
- Selective perception (book)
o Any characteristic that makes a person, object or event stand out will increase the probability we will perceive it o Tendency to selectively interpret what one sees on the basis of one's interests, background, experience and attitudes
Framing bias (gains, losses, reference points)
o Framing as gains versus losses, gains less risky, losses risk seeking. Framing with different reference points example: MRI, don't see gorilla, trained to see certain info and fail to see other. Gorilla ball passing test (selective attention) Gains to small number more salient than same gain to larger number. Save 25 dollars off 50 purchase or off 2000 purchase much less spend extra time for larger purchase Frame as gain: become risk adverse Frame as loss: become risk seeking loss aversion: value of loss is much stronger than value of gains. Once given something worth more to give it away then gaining another of the same. More important to not lose value of GPA than to increase it
- Escalation of commitment
o Increased commitment to a previous decision in spite of negative information
• Type B Personality
o Never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience, can relax without guilt and so on
Sunk Cost
o Old investments of time or money are not irrevocable and should be irrelevant to the present decision
Estimating/Forecasting bias (overconfidence/prudence/ responsibility)
o Overconfidence trap o Prudence trap ♣ Just be on the safe side
Employee involvement
o Participative Management ♣ Distinct characteristic common to all programs is joint decision making, in which subordinates share a significant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors o Representative Participation ♣ Goal to redistribute power within an org, putting labor on a more equal footing with interest of management and stockholder by letting workers be represented by a small group of employees (work council, board of representatives)
• Machiavellianism
o Pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes ends can justify means o If it works, use it - manipulate, persuade, more deviant o Bankers and aggressive tactics and behavior
- Availability bias
o Tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is readily available to them
- Randomness Error
o Tendency of individuals to believe that they can predict the outcome of random events
- Halo effect
o Tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic
• Other orientation
o Think about other people and concerned about their feelings and well being
• Proactive Personality
o identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs, compared to others who passively react to situations
Least Preferred Co-Worker Questionnaire
o identify that style by measuring whether a person is task or relationship oriented ♣ If you describe the person you are least able to work with in favorable terms (high LPC score) then you are relationship oriented ♣ Low LPC is task oriented Assumes your leadership style is fixed and not reflective of the current situation
• Type A Personality
o is aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and if required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or other persons
• Core Self Evaluations
o people who have positive core self evals like themselves and see themselves as effective, capable, and in control of their environment
• Self-monitoring
o refers to an individual's ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors o High self monitoring are highly sensitive to external cues and can behave differently in different situations
job rotation
o the periodic shifting of an employee from one task to another with similar skill requirements at the same org level (also called cross-training) o Strengths: ♣ reduces boredom, increases motivation, and helps employees better understand how their work contributes to the org ♣ Indirect benefit: employees with wider range of skills give management more flexibility in schedule work, adapting to changes, and filling vacancies o Weaknesses: ♣ Training cost increase, productivity is reduced by moving a worker into a new position just when efficient at the prior job is creating organizational economies Creates disruptions when members of work group have to adjust to new employee supervisors have to spend more
McClellan's three needs pros and cons
pros: allows for people to differ in strength of their needs, recognizes that needs are sometimes culturally learned not just hardwired cons: somewhat simple association between certain types and job successes
Equity theory (process theory)
reduction of tension between reward and satisfaction whether outcome of reward system is perceived as equitable or fair equity (fair based on inputs) is not equality (all rewarded same for role) equity: outcome/inputs =outcome/inputs overpayment inequity: outcome/inputs > outcome/inputs - causes people to pull away, put in same effort and get more erupt in less effort and get same underpayment inequity: outcome/inputs < outcome/inputs - contribute more but receive same outcome example: finance professor paid more than other professors because he could make the most externally (external equity)
Contemporary motivation theories
self-determination: feel in cool of actions and outcomes job engagement goal setting: difficult goals, feedback Self-efficacy theory: belief that individual is capable of task reinforcement theory
McGregor's theory x and theory y
theory x: employees dislike work and responsibility, are inherently lazy and must be coerced to perform theory y: employees like work are creative, seek responsibly and can exercise self direction research fails to confirms that either set of assumptions valid worth understanding in that they guide managerial behavior and job/incentive design. Beliefs predictive of managerial behavior a lot of people are not x or y but a combo
Trait theories of leadership
traits which differentiate leaders from followers with some relationship to effectiveness: (some conflicting) - physical energy - task relevant knowledge - intelligence (greater than follower) - Pro-social influence motivation - Self-confidence - Achievement orientation - power orientation Big five personality research brought more consistent prediction and strongest link to extraversion, but more tied to leader emergence, early trait, look like a leader - more abut leader emergence not performance Emotional intelligence theory
Chain of motivation
unsatisfied need -> tension -> drive -> search behavior -> satisfied need -> reduction of tension
Motivation
willingness to do something as conditioned by its ability to satisfy some need for the individual Key considerations: intensity, persistence, direction
Need for Affiliation (nAff) wants at work
work with others, frequent opportunities to communicate customer service
Leader-Member Exchange Theory (reading)
• LMX Theory - because of time pressures, leaders establish a special relationship with a small group of their followers. The individuals make up the in-group, are trusted, get disproportionate amount of leader's attention, and are more likely to receive special privileges • "Exchanges" with these "In" followers will be higher quality than with those who are "Out" • RESULT: "In" subordinates will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction
o personality job-fit theory
♣ 6 personality types and proposes that satisfaction and desire to leave a position depend on how well individuals match their personalities to a job ♣ Satisfaction highest and turn over the lowest when personality and occupation are in agreement
Fielder 3 Contingency or Situational Dimensions
♣ Leader-Member Relations - the degree of confidence, trust, and respect members have in their leader ♣ Task Structure is the degree to which the job assignments are procedurized (that is, structured or unstructured) ♣ Position Power is the degree of influence a leader has over power variables such as hiring, firing, promotions, salary increase Fielder states that the better the leader member relations, more highly structured the job, and stronger position power —> more control the leader has "favorable"
o Holland's typology of personality and congruent occupations
♣ Realistic: physical activities with skill, strength and coordination ♣ Investigative: thinking, organizing and understanding ♣ Social: helping and developing others ♣ Conventional: rule regulated, orderly, unambiguous ♣ Enterprising: verbal with opportunities to influence others and attain power ♣ Artistic: ambiguous and unsystematic activities allowing creative expression
