Option E: Leisure, Tourism and Sport

Socio-economic factors

The level of economic development of an area will affect the amount and quality of infrastructure needed to support the growth of leisure activities: 1. Transport systems to allow access to the area (airport, trains lines, bus routes, ports) and movement within the area (subway, local buses, local road and train networks). More access = more tourists. However, some tourists seek out more inaccessible locations as those locations may be more authentic and less "touristic" 2. Services such as health and emergency care, sanitation systems, emergency services, banking facilities, communications may be factors affecting a persons decision to visit and area 3. Diversity of the local economy and relative importance of tourism to the economy

Adventure tourism

1. Adventure tourism is a form of niche tourism that involves travel to a remote area and some level of perceived (sometimes real) risk. Adventure tourism has increased in popularity in recent decades. 2. Adventure tourism attracts high-value customers. For example, to climb Mount Everest costs around $50,000 per person (see Option C, Extreme environments, pages 138-139 for a case study on tourism in Nepal). Not all adventure tourism is so expensive, but many people will pay around $3,000 for an eight-day holiday. Adventure tourism also supports local economies much more than mass tourism. The Adventure Tourism Trade Association (ATTA) suggests that about 66 per cent of revenue spent in the adventure tourism sector remains in the destination. Adventure tourism also encourages sustainable practices — it involves local communities, supports local businesses, and promotes environmental protection for future use (and ongoing economic benefits). 3. According to the UNWTO, in 2014 over half of all adventure tourists were women, over one-third had spent four or more years in higher education, and over 10 per cent had a professional qualification. Adventure tourism in Greenland Greenland has recently begun to develop its adventure tourism sector. Adventure tourism can be divided into three categories: soft, hard and other (Table E.8). 4. Greenland has targeted the North American market. This accounts for 25 per cent of visitors to the country. Between 2010 and 2014, adventure tourism grew by 195 per cent. Greenland offers a range of attractions for adventure tourists. These can broadly be put into three categories (Figure E.12). For example: • ethnophiles visit to gain a greater understanding of indigenous people and their culture • cultural tourists may be attracted by museums, Viking ruins, Economusee workshops • nature tourists are attracted by whale watching and bird watching in the Sermermiut Valley and Disko Bay • wilderness tourists are attracted by the opportunity to trek in wilderness areas (Photo E.15) • extreme adventure tourists are able to cross the Greenland icesheet, climb ice cliffs and go heli-skiing • sightseers may do so from the luxury of a cruise ship.

CASE STUDY: The Monteverde cloud forest, Costa Rica

1. Costa Rica attracts about 1 million visitors each year. Well-organized government promotions and a reputation as the safest country in Central America attract a large number of North American and European visitors. Costa Rica's tourism is unusual in that a large part of it relates to special-interest groups, such as bird-watchers, and its dispersed small-scale nature is a form of sustainable ecotourism. 2. Monteverde's cloud forest is situated at a height of around 1,700 m. The Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve was established in 1972. Initially, it covered 328 ha but now covers around 14,200 ha. There are over 100 species of mammals, 400 species of birds, 1,200 species of reptiles and amphibians, and several thousand species of insect. The Santa Elena Cloud Forest Reserve was established in 1989 and was one of the first reserves in the country to be directly controlled by the local community. It is 310 ha in size, and is home to spider monkeys. The observation tower offers spectacular views of the Arenal Volcano. 3. The Arenal Volcano and the Monteverde Cloud Forest are often part of a combined tour itinerary, and generally receive around 70,000 visitors a year. 4. Early tourists were mostly scientists and conservationists from the USA studying the area's rich biodiversity. In 1974 there were just 471 visitors. Since the early 1990s the numbers of tourists to Monteverde have stabilized at about 70,000 a year. The nature of the tourist has changed. At the beginning there were mainly specialists. Now most of the tourists have a more general interest in the forest, and seek a balance between entertainment, adventure and knowledge. Monteverde now accounts for about 18 per cent of Costa Rica's total tourist revenue. The growth and development of tourism came at a time when there was a long-term decline in agriculture in Costa Rica. At the same time, ecotourism was able to absorb some of the displaced agricultural workers in their own villages. Much of this development was small-scale. For example, 70 per cent of the hotels in Costa Rica have less than 20 rooms. 5. New businesses have been created in Monteverde, including hotels, bed and breakfasts, restaurants, craft stalls, supermarkets, bars, riding stables, private reserves, hiking trails, hummingbird galleries, frog ponds and a butterfly and botanical garden. The Butterfly Garden consists of a biodiversity centre, a medicinal garden, four climate-controlled butterfly gardens and a leafcutter-ant colony. Many of these are locally owned. Over 400 full-time and 140 part-time jobs have been created. In addition there are indirect employment and multiplier effects. There are also canopy walks and suspension bridges. Local farmers provide much of the food consumed by tourists to the area. Farmers' markets every Saturday also attract tourists. The Monteverde Coffee Tour provides a guided tour of the production of coffee from the field to the cup. All of the proceeds go towards supporting local farmers and families involved in the production of coffee. 6. Unlike many rural areas in developing countries, Monteverde is not experiencing out migration. Indeed, it has been quite the opposite. Because of the developments in tourism there have been increased employment opportunities and this has attracted many young people. However, the growth in the resident and tourist population has placed a great strain on the existing infrastructure such as water supplies, refuse collection, electricity and telecommunications. In addition, the price of land has soared. 7. There have been benefits other than employment and income generation. Controlled access to the cloud forest, and the use of locals employed as guides means that not only are jobs created, but there is a reduction of visitor impact on parts of the forest. Local arts and crafts have been rejuvenated, and jobs in accommodation, transport, food and communications have been created. The increase in small businesses means that income should be more evenly distributed. Formal and informal education programmes have been strengthened, and the local community are even more aware of the value of their natural resources than they were when they were farmers. But the education is two-way: the villagers learn from the tourists just as the tourists learn from the villagers.

CASE STUDY: The Maldives — a Small Island Developing State: Vulnerability to internal limitations

1. Depletion of resources The average tourist consumes more water and energy than the average Maldivian, and both are expensive to produce. Almost all water is provided by desalination. Groundwater supplies are running short and are often contaminated by sewage or saltwater incursion. All energy is produced by generator except on Male and Hulhule Islands. The Maldives have no economic minerals and agricultural potential is very low. 2. Pollution Solid and liquid waste production by tourists is also high, and matches their consumption. Solid waste is either dumped in poorly managed landfill sites, incinerated or dumped at sea. All three processes are unsustainable.

Diaspora tourism

1. Diaspora tourism is an increasingly important form of niche tourism, and it is one that has distinctive features and potential value. Diaspora tourists often require different forms of accommodation and activities compared with other travellers, and they may well spend their money in different ways. Diaspora tourism is an important sub set of VFR tourism (visiting friends and relatives). Diaspora tourists are "back home" when they are visiting their country of origin, and so may not need the same facilities that make foreign tourists comfortable. 2. Diaspora tourists are more likely than most international tourists to have or make connections with the local economy. They are more likely to stay with relatives, or in locally owned businesses (for example, bed and breakfast accommodation), to eat in local restaurants, go to local pubs and so on. Although they might not spend as much money as international tourists, it is more likely to go directly to local businesses. Thus, diaspora tourism can have a positive development potential. Moreover, diaspora tourism is not as seasonal as international tourism, and may be spread more evenly throughout the year. 3. Diaspora tourism may lead to the development or expansion of tourist facilities within a country. The Africa Diaspora Heritage Trail conference encourages public and private investment in diaspora tourism, as well as educational, sustainable and ecotourism. 4. Diaspora holiday visits to see family may well combine visits to family and friends with visits to other tourist attractions or leisure activities. Some tourism campaigns have targeted diaspora populations. For example, the Philippines, India, Taiwan and Cuba all have important medical tourism campaigns that have reached out to diaspora populations. In addition, business tourism by a diaspora population also has development potential. 5. Some forms of tourism deliberately target dispora populations. Genealogy tourism (or "cemetery tourism"!) focuses upon researching an individual's family tree. Increasingly, information is being made available on the Internet allowing people to do research into their family history before making a trip. 6. Governments may attract diaspora investment into the tourist industry by providing loans and grants. The restoration of historic buildings, such as kasbahs in Morocco and paradors in Spain, has involved some diaspora investment. 7. Diaspora tourism has been shown to be less affected by economic recession, and there are less disadvantages (for example, leakage, environmental disturbances) than with other forms of tourism.

Factors affecting participation in sports and tourism - Human factors:

1. Human factors relate to economic, social and political issues. Most people who go on holiday travel a relatively large distance from their home, that is, they visit a place that they do not normally experience. Many sports take place in sporting venues such as tennis courts, football pitches and swimming pools. Thus, human factors might not be as important as physical factors. 2. There is a strong correlation between economic wealth and the origin of tourists (Table E.3) as well as the provision of sports facilities. For example, most golf courses are found in HICs and NICs. An obvious exception to this is the large number of golf courses that may be located in LICs for the benefit of tourists. The development of golf courses in Vietnam is a good example

Ecotourism

1. Ecotourism is a "green" or "alternative" form of sustainable tourism. It generally occurs in remote areas, with a low density of tourists. It operates at a fairly basic level. Ecotourism includes tourism that is related to ecology and ecosystems. These include game parks, nature reserves, coral reefs and forest parks. It aims to give people a firsthand experience of natural environments and to show them the importance of conservation. Its characteristics include: • planning and control of tourist developments, which must fit in with local conditions • increasing involvement and control by local or regional communities • being appropriate to the local area • a balance between conservation and development, between environment and economics. 2. However, in areas where ecotourism occurs there is often a conflict between allowing total access to visitors and providing them with all the facilities they desire, and with conserving the landscape, plants and animals of the area. Another conflict arises when local people wish to use the resource for their own benefit rather than for the benefit of animals or conservation. 3. Ecotourism has also been described as egotourism. Critics argue that ecotourists are trying to get closer to the environment and are perhaps causing much more damage than mass tourism. Backpackers, for example, are thought to be the greatest threat. They put little into the local economy but want to go to all the best places. As backpackers go off the beaten track they destroy more of the natural environment. By contrast, mass tourists use the prepared routes such as the ones bus tours follow.

Socio-economic factors continued.....

1. Favourable exchange rates 2. Attractive prices for tourists 3. Promotional packages/passes for tourists 4. Receptive local attitudes towards tourists

The categorization of tourist activities and sporting activities

1. For much of history, tourism and travel was difficult, expensive, uncomfortable and dangerous, so the desire to travel had to be very strong. Nowadays travel is considered a natural part of life for some people and many people expect to travel at least on an annual basis if not more often. As travel becomes less difficult and more affordable, more and more people travel and for a greater variety of reasons. 2. Tourism makes use of primary and secondary resources, ranging from the local scale (for example, a local attraction) to the global scale (for Table E.1 shows a categorization of sporting activities. Some sports are very popular — such as football, fishing and jogging. Some are very expensive such as horse-riding and yachting, whereas others are cheap, such as running or football. Some take place in a particular place such as a swimming pool or a golf course, whereas others can be played in almost any space available, such as jogging.

Other factors:

1. Government policies: A) Promotion of sport and leisure in connection with quality of life B) Promotion of tourism as a development strategy. C) Subsidies and incentives provided D) Training of professions in sport and tourism 2. Political Stability - leisure activities are greatly inhibited in areas were political instability may lead or lack of investment in leisure or possibly physical conflict 3. Existing level of development of "secondary attractions". Leisure activities are more likely to grow and expand if secondary tourist attractions are developed to add great diversity to attractions and to provide accommodation needs. Secondary attractions are often linked to different personal income levels (ie hostels vs budget hotels vs 5 star hotels) and this draw a greater range of visitors to an area). 4. Advertising, word of mouth, reputation

Leisure in BRICs

1. Growth of the leisure industry in the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India and China) has been accelerating due to economic and social changes. These include: • rising disposable income • a surging middle class • rapid urbanizaton • greater online connectivity • an aging population. 2. BRIC leisure and recreation services are expected to grow by 132 per cent between 2014 and 2030. In 2013 the average BRIC household spent $287 on leisure and recreation, anything from durables for recreation such as radios and TVs to recreational and cultural services to gardens and pets, newspapers, magazines, books, stationery and package holidays. 3. Across the BRIC countries, visiting the cinema is a favourite pastime. India, with its insatiable appetite for Bollywood, led the world with 2.9 billion cinema attendances in 2013. Although cinema attendances have been falling in India relative to TV, gaming and other online entertainment, Brazil, Russia and China have all seen rising cinema attendance. 4. The BRIC population is aging rapidly; 15 per cent of them were over 65 in 2013. They make up a substantial market for the leisure industry, particularly those services that cater for the elderly such as health resorts, spas, theatres, concert halls, exhibitions and cruises.

Tourism and sport at the local and national scale Rural and urban tourism hotspots

1. Hotspots are areas of intense sporting or leisure activity that attract above average numbers of visitors. 2. Tourists are attracted to these hotspots because they have primary and secondary resources and are accessible. They are also perceived to be free of tourist deterrents which may not be long-lasting but will put off visitors. Such deterrents would include: • natural hazards, such as the earthquake in Haiti 2010 • political unrest and terrorism, such as the events in Paris in 2015 • disease, such as the ebola outbreak in West Africa in 2015. 3. In order to become a "successful" hotspot, an area needs to have both the infrastructure for tourists and the attractions. Tourist attractions include scenic landscapes, coastal resorts, heritage and historic buildings, different cultures, performing arts, and festivals. To cater for tourists, infrastructural developments include accommodation, transport and public utilities. Transport developments include external linkages (ports, airports, rail termini) to allow tourists to gain access to the location, and local linkages (roads, car parks, services). Accommodation development will reflect the demand, whether it is low—cost accommodation or exclusive accommodation. The expectations of many tourists means that local or national governments will have to provide public utilities such as water supply, sanitation and electricity. Finally, investment, labour and promotion is important. National governments typically play an important role in the promotion of destinations, in infrastructural improvements and employment training. By contrast private initiative is more prominent in the development of tourist accommodation and attractions.

Plotting a sphere on influence?

1. Imagine you are standing at the front door of Pete's Bowlarama, as customers are passing you as they leave the building. You have a pencil and map with you. 2. In group devise a method for mapping the sphere of influence of a bowling alley

CASE STUDY: Changes in China's leisure activities

1. In 2015 the consulting firm Daxue Consulting reported that among China's adult and elderly population: • 22 per cent of people spent 1-2 hours a day on leisure activities • 16 per cent spent 3-4 hours on leisure activities • 12 per cent spent 4-5 hours, and the rest spent more than 5 hours. 2. About one-third of people spend their leisure time reading and one-sixth watching TV. As China has developed and people become richer, increasingly more people are spending time online. About one-third of Chinese adults spend time on the Internet through their mobile phone or laptop. Other popular leisure-time activities include shopping, especially by women, and table tennis and badminton. Numerous parks throughout China have free table-tennis tables set up, and there are also free badminton courts. Kite-flying, tai chi, chess, mahjong, playing cards, public dancing and jogging are all common in Chinese parks. 3. Increasingly, the Chinese middle classes are taking part in sports and leisure activities such as cycling, swimming, camping and rock climbing. 4. However, for many Chinese they do not have the time to engage in these activities. Many migrant workers work extremely long hours, and may be too tired — physically or mentally — to engage in leisure activities. Moreover, they do not have much disposable income, especially if they have to send some of it to their family. 5. Leisure activities for Chinese children are also changing. Surveys of students show that the most popular activities were doing homework, doing extra reading, taking part in academic training programmes, playing with friends and watching TV. The amount of leisure time that students have increased after 1995, when Saturday school ceased to operate. Leisure activities in the vacation tend to be highly organized. Most children, especially in the more developed eastern part of the country, go to summer camps organized by schools or community organizations. 6. There are signs that leisure activities in eastern China are converging with leisure activities in the Western world. In 2016, China's largest private property developer, the Wanda Group, opened Wanda City in Nanchang, an entertainment complex that it is a home-grown (that is, Chinese) rival to Disney, and a theme park in Shanghai. Wanda City includes a Chinese-themed park, an indoor shopping mall with cinemas, restaurants and hotels, and the world's largest ocean park. Also in 2016, Disney opened its own resort in Shanghai, the largest Disneyland in the world. The Shanghai Disney Resort ("Mickey Mao") is expected to become the world's most visited theme park, attracting up to 50 million guests a year. In contrast, Walt Disney World in Florida attracted 19.3 million visitors in 2014. Some 330 million people live less than three hours by car from the Shanghai Disney Resort.

The role of transnational corporations (TNCs) in expanding international tourism destinations

1. In many LICs tourism has the potential to stimulate economic growth and development. It generates over 6 per cent of global GNP and 13 per cent of consumer spending. Many LICs possess primary resources (such as beaches, warm climates, forests, mountains, wildlife, heritage features, indigenous people) and secondary resources such as hotels which tourists wish to access. It would be difficult for the individual tourist to arrange their transport and accommodation independently. Moreover, LICs may not have all of the infrastructure in place to develop their own tourist industry. So they have been forced to rely upon the transnational corporations (TNCs) concerned with tourism to organize and market these resources and products. The TNCs are usually based in HICs. For example, the eight largest hotel chains in the world are all US-based companies. Although the LICs have become politically independent, the exploitation of their resources by the tourists of HICs has been unsustainable. 2. Hilton Worldwide is an example of a TNC involved in tourism. It was founded in 1919 by Conrad Hilton in the USA and now has over 4,600 hotels in 100 countries. It is the largest hotel chain in the world, by rooms and international presence, with over 750,000 rooms. Since 2005, the company has been a sponsor of the US Olympic Team. 3. Hilton is credited with the development of the first airport hotel, in San Francisco in 1949. Hilton has concentrated on hotels. It has a number of brands including luxury hotels, such as the Conrad Hotels and Resorts and the Waldorf Astoria Hotels and Resorts, and full service hotels, such as the Hilton Hotels and Resorts. It employs over 160,000 people worldwide. 4. In contrast, the Thomas Cook Group is a tourism TNC that has diversified. Thomas Cook was originally founded in 1841 to take passengers between the cities of Leicester, Derby, Birmingham and Nottingham, in the UK. Its first tours to Europe took place in 1855 and to the USA in 1865. In 1974, Thomas Cook introduced "circular notes" which were later to become traveller's cheques. The company was also involved in military transport and the postal service. In fact, it was a late arrival into the package holiday market. 5. In the UK, Thomas Cook became a "vertically integrated" company providing air transport, hotels, resorts, cruise lines and a tour operator. 6. Thomas Cook Group employs over 20,000 people, has nearly 3,000 stores, 97 aircraft and around 20 million customers per year. Thomas Cook was a sponsor of the London 2012 Olympic Games, and was appointed to provide "affordable and accessible accommodation" throughout the Games. 7. Stakeholders in tourism can include individuals, groups and organizations with a business interest. Examples include agencies, private consultants, planners, leaders and local residents who are impacted by decision-making. 8. There are five main areas of TNC involvement in the tourism industry —airlines, hotels, cruise lines, tour operators and travel agents. All have been increasingly integrating their terms of business. For example, in the 1960s American Express moved beyond travellers cheques, buying shares, financing companies and computerizing ticketing. American Express is the largest travel agency in the USA and has offices in every important city around the globe. American Express now handles many other travel-related services including hotel, airline and cruise reservations, travellers cheques and credit cards, computer services, guidebooks and passports.

Political and cultural influences on international sport participation

1. Increasingly, sport has been used by nations for a variety of reasons. Some governments may wish to increase participation in sport for the health benefits that it could bring. Others may wish to host a mega event in order to help develop part of their economy, in particular tourism, or to regenerate urban areas and create a "feel good" factor among their citizens, as the country has the world's attention during the event. 2. The evidence is far from conclusive. The economic benefits from mega events are hard to quantify, and the link between government involvement in sport, and success or participation in sport, is unclear. The increase in sports participation for many sporting events is short term. In the UK, there is a seasonal rise in tennis following the Wimbledon All England Lawn Tennis championship. The fact that this occurs during the summer is likely to correlate with a time when more people are playing tennis anyway. 3. Qatar has been actively improving its position in the international sports scene. In 2010 Qatar was awarded the 2022 World Cup, and in 2011 it signed a deal to sponsor FC Barcelona, worth E150 million over five years. In addition, the Qatar Investment Authority became the majority shareholder in the French football club, Paris St Germain. Qatar Airways became the official sponsor of the Tour de France cycling event, and the Qatar-owned newspaper and television company Al Jazeera bought the rights to broadcast the Football World Cups in 2018 and 2022 to the Middle East and North Africa. 4. National pride might also affect success in sport. Match analysis has shown that Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Sudan and Tunisia all had greater success rates in football matches after the Arab Spring. One explanation that has been put forward is that players feel they are playing for their own nation rather than for a dictator. 5. Sport continues to be tainted by match fixing and the use of drugs. Match fixing has been identified in football, cricket and tennis in over 20 European countries, and has been linked to gambling syndicates in Asia.

Forecasts

1. International tourist arrivals in the emerging economy destinations of Asia, Latin America, Central and Eastern Europe, Eastern Mediterranean Europe, the Middle East and Africa will grow at double the rate of growth in advanced economy destinations. Consequently, arrivals in emerging economies are expected to exceed those in advanced economies before 2020. 2. The strongest growth by region will be seen in Asia and the Pacific. The global market shares of Asia and the Pacific will increase from 22 per cent in 2010 to 30 per cent in 2030, whereas Europe's share will decline from 51 per cent to 41 per cent.

Managing tourism in Killarney National Park, Ireland

1. Killarney National Park is an excellent example of land-use management in an area renowned for its scenic beauty. However, the region relies heavily on tourism as a source of employment and revenue and as the amount of paid holidays, disposable income and transport infrastructure has increased, the number of tourists visiting Killarney has risen dramatically. Conflicts between environment and economy have intensified although management policy in Killarney National Park illustrates clearly the way in which tourism and conservation can be successfully managed: by placing the emphasis firmly on conservation. 2. The scenery of the Killarney area, including the National Park, is world renowned. It is a major attraction and the area is one of the most visited tourist venues in Ireland. Over a million visitors travel to Kerry each year bringing an estimated £160 million to the area. Of these the majority visit Killarney, a town with a resident population of 14,000 and over 4,000 tourist rooms! Under legislation in Ireland, where conflict arises between the need for tourism and the need for conservation, the protection of the natural heritage takes precedence over other considerations. 3. The scenic quality of Killarney is made up of a variety of physical and human landscapes. It includes the three lakes of Killarney; secluded lake shores, sometimes with low limestone cliffs; rocks and islands; waterfalls, tarns and rapidly flowing rivers; rugged sandstone mountains with moorland and some bare rock surfaces; glacially eroded valleys; native oak woodlands; the last herd of native red deer in Ireland; landscaped grasslands; historic buildings and bridges, cottages, and monastic and religious ruins.

The National Park

1. Killarney National Park is managed by the Office of Public Works (OPW) and has been designated a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO. National Parks in Ireland are areas that "exist to conserve natural plant and animal communities and scenic landscapes which are both extensive and of national importance and, under conditions compatible with that purpose, to enable the public to visit and appreciate them". The basic five objectives for the National Park are to: • conserve nature • conserve other significant features and qualities • encourage public appreciation of the heritage and the need for conservation • develop a harmonious relationship between the park and the community • enable the park to contribute to science through environmental monitoring and research. 2. Of these, nature conservation takes precedence over the others should any conflict arise.

Costs and Benefits of a Festival Events in Rural areas

1. Large-scale sporting, musical, cultural and religious festivals are temporary sites of leisure. 2. Festivals may have a range of environmental, economic and social costs and benefits. 3. Many festival required large open areas and are often hosted in rural areas. The festival may be key contributors to local rural economies...but at what cost??

Changing leisure patterns: The growth and changing purpose of leisure time for societies in different geographic and developmental contexts

1. Leisure may be defined in terms of time, activities, or states of mind. In terms of time, leisure can be seen as free time. Leisure can also be defined as specific activities conventionally thought of as "leisurely". A more thorough definition may be based on what the majority of people would list as leisure activities, such as watching TV, participating in sports or exercise, reading, watching movies, and so on. Finally, leisure can be defined as a state of mind, meaning engaging in enjoyable or pleasurable activities. 2. Leisure activities are undertaken outside work for the purpose of pleasure, entertainment, improvement of knowledge, and relaxation. Leisure is associated with the time that is free from work and other personal care activities (eating, washing, sleeping and so on). However, some groups, such as the unemployed and the retired, have more free time than they would perhaps like. 3. Although eating is a biological necessity, it can also be a leisure activity, for example going out for a meal or cooking as a form of entertaining. Leisure pursuits range from informal and short-lasting to formal and long-lasting. A subset of leisure is hobbies which are undertaken for personal interest. They generate satisfaction and often result in the acquisition of new skills. They may be indoor or outdoor activities and may involve collection, competition and observation. The range of leisure activities is expanding rapidly with the development of societies to support enthusiasts. Substantial and fulfilling hobbies, particularly those that lead to personal development, may be considered as serious leisure activities. 4. For some people their leisure activities are passive, informal and time-filling, such as watching television. Others choose to participate in health-enhancing pursuits, such as going to the gym. There are also leisure activities that help people to find a life partner. 5. Figure E.1 shows that across 18 OECD countries people spend the largest proportion of their time in personal care activities. "Personal care" includes sleep, eating and drinking, and other household, medical and personal services (hygiene, visits to the doctor, hairdresser etc.). Variation in the share of time spent in personal care across these countries is comparatively small, ranging from a low of 43 per cent of total time in Canada, Sweden, Mexico and Norway to a high of 49 per cent in France. 6. Following personal care, leisure is typically the next largest time category, accounting for 22 per cent of time on average across the 18 regions. "Leisure" includes hobbies, games, television viewing, computer use, recreational gardening, sports, socializing with friends and family, attending events, and so on. Leisure time is greatest in Norway leisure activities. However, in poorer countries, and in countries where there is political turmoil, there is less opportunity for leisure activities, and not the "state of mind" of being "at leisure". For some indigenous populations, leisure activities may include story-telling and music. For others, their quality of life and standard of living is so low that it limits the amount of leisure time and leisure activities. 7. Gender differences can also be observed. Men generally have more leisure time than women (in Europe and the USA adult men normally have between one and nine hours more leisure time than women each week). This difference is usually due to their household and parenting responsibilities, although this is changing. In some more progressive households responsibilities are shared. Women's status in society is closely linked to the amount of leisure time they have. 8. Undoubtedly, there is a link between income and leisure activities. Societies in LICs have less disposable income and therefore less chance of engaging in leisure pursuits, particularly if this involves purchasing expensive equipment. However, there are differences in culture and the various perceptions of leisure that make comparisons difficult. 9. As life expectancy increases universally, pursuing leisure activities in retirement becomes more important. Older adults can benefit from the physical, social, emotional, cultural and spiritual aspects of leisure. The leisure industry has had to accommodate the needs of the over-65 age group who comprise 25 per cent of the population in many HICs.

Factors affecting the geography of a national sports league

1. Most teams in the top league of their national sports derive support from a wide area. This is true for football teams such as Manchester United and Barcelona and baseball teams such as the New York Yankees and the Boston Red Sox. Some clubs have a global following, although many of the fans can only follow their "team" on television or the Internet. In contrast, lower league teams tend to have a much narrower sphere of influence. They do not have the success to generate international (or even national) interest. Hence, their support is more localized. In some towns and cities there are a number of clubs, such as Chelsea, Arsenal, Tottenham Hotspur and West Ham United in London, all of whom play in the English Premier League. Some of their fan base is very localized. However, many fans move to go to university or for a job, and so the fan base may become broader. 2. Going down the hierarchy, many of the lower leagues are divided into regions and counties. This is partly for practical reasons — fans will not want to travel far to see two teams play in a lower league, whereas fans are prepared to travel a large distance to support a club that is in the top national league.

Management strategy

1. Nevertheless, Killarney National Park is not without its problems. It does not comprise a self-contained ecological unit, consequently it is influenced by changes and developments that take place in the surrounding area. To successfully manage the interests of conservation and tourism Killarney National Park has developed a management plan, in which land use is controlled and potential conflicts reduced. 2. The Killarney National Park Management Plan identifies four main zones (Figure E.8): • Natural zone: where nature conservation is the primary objective. • Cultural zone: where the primary objective is the conservation of noteworthy features resulting from human activities including demesne landscapes, archaeological and historic sites, buildings and structures. • Intensive management zone: where basic park objectives other than conservation are emphasized, provided park resources are not adversely affected. • Resource restoration zone: comprising conifer plantations mainly in the Muckross area. 3. In addition, the Management Plan identifies a potential buffer zone around the park within which development and change will be influenced in a positive manner. This has been developed in consultation with Kerry County Council, Killarney Urban District Council and other relevant bodies. 4. Within the National Park, there are a number of priorities which the park authorities have been tackling. Conservation and development plans have been drawn up. Control and eradication of the Rhododendron population is perhaps the biggest conservation challenge facing the National Park. Up to 900 ha of the park's 11,200 ha of native woodland are infested. Approximately 240 hectares have been cleared and the aim is to achieve the clearance of 75 per cent of the infested woodland and to maintain the cleared areas. Another priority is the removal of forestry plantations situated in the resource restoration zone. Here the aim is to replace most of these plantations with natural vegetation, and ultimately to integrate these areas into the other zones of the park, principally the natural zone. 5. Development plans have been established for much of the built fabric of the park. Muckross House is a late 19th-century mansion. It contains displays, folk-life exhibits and craft workshops. A folk farm has also been developed. The park entrance has been redesigned in conjunction with Kerry County Council's plans to widen the main access road (the N71) in this area. The former Kenmare Demesne, situated close to the town of Killarney, has plans which include a major tree planting programme, restoration of internal pathways, development of car parking areas, landscaping of the area and restoration of many formal features adjacent to the house and farmyard complex. Ross Castle has had restoration work. A development programme has also been undertaken, improving car parking, toilet and boating facilities, landscaping and an information service for visitors. There are also plans to develop the long-distance footpaths in the area, such as the Kerry Way. In 2016, €250,000 was allocated to repair and improve roads within the National Park. 6. Killarney National Park illustrates the way in which tourists can be managed in an ecologically sensitive area. On the one hand they bring in much-needed money and generate employment in the area, whereas on the other hand they can cause serious problems such as traffic congestion, erosion of footpaths, destruction of vegetation and ruining of scenic views through the provision of tourist amenities. The Killarney National Park has developed a plan that reconciles these yet at the same time gives priority to the conservation of nature.

Tourism in an urban hotspot: Oxford

1. Oxford is world famous as a historic university city. Although Oxford is not heavily promoted as a tourist destination, it attracts a large number of tourists both from within the UK and from abroad. Outside London Oxford is one of the most important visitor destinations in the UK, attracting over 5 million visitors each year. Tourism is a large source of employment in Oxford, providing over 5,000 full-time jobs. 2. Most of the people surveyed intended to visit one or more of Oxford's attractions during their visit. The most popular attractions included the Botanic Gardens, the Ashmolean Museum and a number of Oxford colleges. A number of other attractions included Blackwell's Bookshop, the Old Bodleian Library, the Sheldonian Theatre and the Carfax Tower. Nearly half of the visitors visited one or more of the university colleges, and the three most popular choices were Chrisi Church, Magdalene and New College. 2. Tourism generates around £200 million, spent directly into the tourist sector, and with linkages and the multiplier effects the value to the city's economy is nearly £300 million. The number of jobs sustained directly and indirectly by tourism is estimated at about 7,300 or 3-4 per cent of the economically active population in the Oxford travel-to-work area. 3. Most of the groups visiting Oxford were adult only (85 per cent), and a very high proportion were from the highest social groups. Eighty per cent of visitors were in social groups ABC! (managerial and professional) compared to a national average of about 45 per cent for that group. A survey of visitors revealed that the architecture (30 per cent), the history of the city (17 per cent), the colleges (14 per cent), as well as the nightlife and general atmosphere were the biggest attractions for tourists. However, traffic levels in the city, in particular the number of coaches and buses, the availability and cleanliness of toilets, pedestrian signposting, and the range, standard and value for money of accommodation were not viewed as favourably. In terms of improvements, most visitors said that there was too much traffic (22 per cent), that the city was overcrowded (9 per cent), and too expensive (5 per cent). 4. The Oxford Tourism Strategy - The Oxford Tourism Strategy aims to ensure visitor satisfaction, encourage an increase in tourist spending within the city, and minimize the environmental problems which result from tourism. In particular, the strategy intends to: • provide a larger coach park and enforce on-street parking regulations • increase the use of public transport and park and ride as a means of getting into the city; as part of the publicity material that Oxford City Council sends out there are maps which show the locations of the park and rides, the major coach routes and the main bus routes • encourage walking tours, registered sightseeing buses and cycles • provide comprehensive on-street information to encourage visits to lesser-known attractions and places of interest • liaise with foreign language schools about the congestion and conflict their students cause • increase the number of visitors off-season in order to spread the tourist load • reinvest money generated by tourism into the labric, infrastructure and facilities of the city, to support long-term sustainability. 5. There are also a number of economic benefits that could be increased. For example, Oxford City Council is targeting high-spending visitors who stay overnight. These bring more money to the city and create more jobs, for example in accommodation and catering, compared with coach visitors on route to Woodstock or Stratford upon Avon, who spend little time or money in the city. Nevertheless, the Council is also trying to attract independent day visitors, that is, not on coach journeys, and business visitors. The Oxford colleges are free of university students during the university vacation and this provides an ideal opportunity to use the accommodation for conference delegates. 6. Planning must also include the visitors. If the aim is just to take their money, tourism will soon fall off. Thus, the Oxford Tourist Strategy attempts to enhance the visitor experience. For example, the Oxford Information Centre attracts up to 500,000 people annually, making it one of the most visited attractions in Oxford! It is vital for visitor satisfaction that the Information Centre is able to meet demand and provide the information required. 7. Information is also provided on the on-street information boards and there has been improvement in the signposting of attractions. 8. In addition, attractions need to be more varied. At present Oxford is famous for its university buildings, churches and colleges. Many visitors have been attracted through TV and films made in Oxford, include Inspector Morse/Lewis and the use of Oxford in filming scenes from the Harry Potter films. 9. Particular groups of people, notably the disabled, are increasingly cared for. This includes interpretive facilities, loop systems for the hard of hearing, and ramps for people in wheelchairs.

Other festival:

1. Pinkpop 2. The Hornbill Festival, Nagaland, India. A yearly event celebrating local culture. 3. The Elvis Revival Festival (Australia) (https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2017-01-10/wheat-sheep-or-elvis-presley/8172580) - Once it lasted barely a weekend. Now it lasts five days. Two hundred people came to the first festival — now there are 20,000, almost twice the town's population. Accommodation is booked five years in advance, home hosting extends to nearby towns like Forbes and even Orange, and tents overflow on Graceland on the Green. The festival brings in more than $10 million, employs many people, and has enabled even improbable local businesses to prosper. The local vet offers "Elvis costumes for the smaller dog". The two tattoo parlours bring in new seasonal Elvis designs. 4. Frozen Dead Guys Days 5. Kumbh Mela (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3a3F_XcBJQg) - is religious festival that is celebrated four times over the course of 12 years, the site of the observance rotating between four pilgrimage places on four sacred rivers—at Haridwar on the Ganges River, at Ujjain on the Shipra, at Nashik on the Godavari, and at Prayag (modern Prayagraj) at the confluence of the Ganges, the Jamuna, and the mythical Sarasvati. Each site's celebration is based on a distinct set of astrological positions of the Sun, the Moon, and Jupiter, the holiest time occurring at the exact moment when these positions are fully occupied. The Kumbh Mela at Prayag, in particular, attracts millions of pilgrims. In addition, a Great Kumbh Mela festival is held every 144 years at Prayag, most recently in 2001. The Kumbh Mela lasts several weeks and is one of the largest festivals in the world, attracting more than 200 million people in 2019, including 50 million on the festival's most auspicious day. 6. The Glastonbury Festival

Case study National sports league Rugby in South Africa

1. Rugby is one of South Africa's big three sports, alongside soccer and cricket. The country has traditionally fared extremely well on the world stage. 2. For the disadvantaged people of the old apartheid South Africa, rugby was the white person's game, and even more so the game of the Afrikaner. Traditionally, most black and coloured communities played soccer while, for white communities, rugby was the winter sport of choice. 3. Currie Cup - The Currie Cup is the premier provincial rugby competition in South Africa, and was first contested in 1892. The format of the Currie Cup varied from year to year, and finals were held intermittently until 1968, after which the final became an annual event. 4. Up to and including 2015, the most successful province in the history of the Currie Cup was Western Province (Western Cape) with 33 titles (four shared), followed by the Northern Transvaal/ Blue Bulls with 23 titles (four shared). Since rugby became a professional sport in the early 1990s, no single team has dominated the Currie Cup. 5. For many years the biggest rivalry in South African rugby was between Western Province and the Blue Bulls. During the early to mid-1990s this was superseded by a three-way rivalry between Natal, the Lions and Western Province. The Currie Cup takes place roughly between July and October. The format divides 14 teams into eight Premier Division and six First Division teams. 6. Vodacom Cup - The Vodacom Cup has become an important competition on the South African rugby calendar. It takes place at the same time as the Super 14 competition — starting in late February and finishing in mid-May — and thus creates a platform for talented young players who might otherwise not get a chance to make their mark. 7. It has also been a fertile breeding ground for strong players from previously disadvantaged backgrounds, thanks to the enforcement of quotas. Quotas, successfully implemented lower down, now extend through the higher levels of South African rugby, including the Super 14. 8. The Vodacom Cup is divided into two sections — North and South — with the top two teams advancing to the semi-finals and playing cross-section matches of one-versus-two for a place in the final. 9. The North is made up of the Golden Lions, Griffons, Leopards, Pumas, Falcons, Blue Bulls and Griquas. The South's teams are the Mighty Elephants, Boland Cavaliers, Border Bulldogs, Free State Cheetahs, Eagles, Western Province, and KZN Wildebeests (KwaZulu Natal). 10. Supporters are largely drawn from within the province, although some of the fan base may have moved away from their home for university, work or for marriage.

Changes in leisure in the USA

1. Since the 1960s there has been a large increase in the amount of leisure time that most American adults have, for some an extra 4-9 hours per week. This has been largely due to shorter working weeks. This has been especially the case among low wage earners. Research has shown that many Americans are spending much of their time away from work alone. More time is spent commuting, and up to 25 per cent of households consist of a single person. 2. A distinction can be made between the low wage/more free time population and the high wage/less free time workers. The high wage workers may spend a higher proportion of their income on eating out or buying takeaway meals. The low-wage group is less likely to eat out. Inequality is rising in the USA — in 1960, the wealthiest 1 per cent of households accounted for 10 per cent of wealth, but in the 2010s that has grown to over 20 per cent of wealth. 3. There has been a decline in the number of people playing in team games, but an increase in the number jogging and going to health clubs. Leisure is becoming more individualized. For example, many people use headphones and MP3 players and are essentially alone while they exercise. Students, on average, spent 15 hours a week watching TV, and about 5 hours per week in organized activities. 4. There is some variation in leisure activities with ethnicity. Going online (for example, to use social media or play games) was reported by 71 per cent of whites, 60 per cent of African-Americans and 56 per cent of Hispanics. This is likely to be related to education and wealth. 5. The size of facilities is also changing. Cinemas and theatres are increasingly being replaced by multiplex cinemas and theatres. Even in the home, the size of televisions has increased dramatically. In 1968 the Sony Trinitron colour TV screen was 13.7 inches — now there are TV screens that are over 100 inches. The increased prevalence of DVD players has allowed the development of the "home theatre". 6. Overall, while much leisure was provided in the home in the 19th century, during the 20th century more Americans sought leisure in cinemas, theatres, at restaurants and at sports matches. In the early part of the 21st century, there is a trend towards more leisure being provided within the home environment.

The impact of social media

1. Social media has made a huge impact on tourism and travel. It has changed how people research trips, make decisions and share their experiences. Tourism relies on favourable opinions and recommendations. Social media sites such as TripAdvisor (50 million) and Facebook (800 million) allow customers to easily share tips and suggestions. In one survey 92 per cent of consumers said that they trusted social media more than any other form of advertising. 2. TripAdvisor, for example, was founded in 2000, and by 2015 it listed 890,000 hotels in 45 countries. It was claimed that if a hotel did not make the top five in its location, it would be losing business to competitors. Similarly, poor reviews have the ability to damage small businesses with limited resources. Many travellers trust the comments that are posted since they are generally written by fellow travellers. 3. Another study showed that over half of respondents changed their travel plans after using social media to research their trip. Some 85 per cent of travellers use their smartphones abroad, and over half of Facebook users said that their vacation choice was influenced by friends' holiday photos.

The term sphere of influence is often applied to a town but but it could apply to any type of facility.

1. Sphere of influence - refers to the area served by the provision of a good or service. 2. Range - the maximum distance an individual is willing to travel to obtain a good or service. 3. Threshold population - the minimum population required to sustain the provision of a good or service 4. High order and lower services - this is a concept we looked at for retail land uses but the same concept applies to leisure activities and facilities

Sustainable tourism

1. Sustainable development has been defined as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable tourism therefore needs to: • ensure that renewable sources are not consumed at a rate that is faster than the rate of natural replacement • maintain biological diversity (biodiversity) • recognize and value the aesthetic appeal of environments • respect local cultures, livelihoods and customs • involve local people in development processes • promote equity in the distribution of the costs and benefits of tourism.

Tourism in a rural area — the Brecon Beacons, Wales

1. The Brecon Beacons National Park is located in the south of Wales and is one of the closest national parks to people living in cities such as London, Birmingham and Bristol. 2. The Llanthony Valley is a microcosm of all that is bad about tourists. They bring little or no benefit to an area but they cause disruption, irritation and problems. Farmers find it difficult at times to move animals and large machinery, they find their gates blocked, and are disrupted by pony-trekkers and sightseers driving slowly. For the tourist, the trip is merely a pleasurable drive and they gain little or no understanding about the community, the landscape or the heritage that they have passed through. 3. Nevertheless, it is possible to integrate local communities into tourism. One attempt to involve the local community in tourism is the South Pembrokeshire Partnership for Action with Rural Communities (SPARC). 4. One SPARC action plan improved infrastructure, footpaths and routes that linked tourist sites. Residents become involved in tourism developments in many ways: • local produce is used wherever possible • the majority of visitors stay in locally owned and managed accommodation • the service sector is locally owned • local manufacturers are encouraged to tap the tourist market for gifts, souvenirs, crafts and other projects.

CASE STUDY: The Glastonbury Festival

1. The Glastonbury Festival is the largest open-air music festival in Europe and is globally recognized. It comes under the heading of cultural tourism which embraces many activities including visiting heritage sites, exploring historical and religious buildings and attending music, fine arts and drama festivals. The music concerts and festivals industry is gaining popularity across the world. Festivalgoers are attracted by the opportunity to see a particular type of performance or a particular performer and to be part of the festival culture. This will present an opportunity to socialize with friends and maintain friendships as well as listen to music. 2. Development - Glastonbury began as the Pilton Pop Festival in 1970, and with the exception of 2001, it has been held every year since its inauguration. The festival is held in a huge open air arena which covers approximately 800 acres. This site now accommodates up to 250,000 people. 3. The impacts of the Glastonbury Festival Economic impacts - Mendip local authority area, Shepton Mallet, Street and Wells and their rural hinterland, Bristol and Bath, the south-west region and the UK all benefit financially from the festival, but their financial support in the provision of services is essential. 4. Each visitor to the festival spends on average £293. The income from the festival makes substantial contributions to charities such as Water Aid, Greenpeace and Oxfam and may also be used to support local projects such as the provision of school and sporting facilities. On the other hand, Glastonbury has negative impacts including dealing with huge numbers of tourists, drug and substance abuse and crime such as theft. 5. The festival is not wholly welcomed by the local community because it is associated with rebellion and the hippie culture. During the weeks of June, the activities of local residents are severely restricted and the festival is a burden for them. Nevertheless, some civic pride is derived from hosting a global event. It also offers local people an employment opportunity. 6. Environmental impacts A) Air pollution CO2 emissions increase dramatically during June when the three-day festival is running. Car transport is still most popular because of its flexibility, but attempts have been made to encourage supporters to use public transport. Green coaches using environmentally acceptable fuels have been encouraged. B) Waste disposal The creation of waste is one of the greatest problems at the site. This consists mainly of human waste, empty plastic water bottles and tents. The tents present an enormous problem because many of the fans leave them behind at the end of the festival and their condition is not good enough for charity use. In 2011 the Association of Independent Festivals found that one in six tents were left behind. C) Noise pollution Many of the performances continue through the night, which causes disturbance to local residents. D) Provision of resources Energy, water and food need to be supplied and residue has to be disposed of.

CASE STUDY: The costs and benefits of hosting an international event: the London 2012 Olympic Games and Paralympic Games

1. The London 2012 Olympic Games and Paralympic Games were considered to be a great success for various reasons. The Games attracted a worldwide audience and helped to regenerate one of London's poorest areas. The Games created some 12,000 new jobs, up to £17 billion was spent on upgrading infrastructure and 2,800 new homes were built. The Games were a major factor in a 1.2 per cent reduction in London's unemployment rate in early 2012. More than 46,000 people worked at the Olympic Park and Olympic Village, more than 10 per cent of whom were previously registered unemployed. 2. The Games encouraged developments in the East End of London, such as Westfield shopping centre employing the unemployed from the East End. In the run-up to the games, women and black, Asian and minority ethnic (BAME) people found employment in construction jobs connected with the Games. The "Women into Construction" project funded by the London Development Agency and construction schools recruited and placed 266 women directly with Olympic Park contractors. 3. The UK government invested £30 million to transform the Olympic site into the "Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park" which includes housing, new schools, health centres, business space and sports venues. This involves converting the Olympic Village into more than 2,800 flats with additional new neighbourhoods containing 11,000 residences, a third of which will be affordable housing. 4. Transport for London invested £6.5 million in transport infrastructure in preparation for the 2012 games. Ten railway lines and 30 new bridges now connect London communities. There has been a £10 million investment to upgrade pedestrian cycling routes. 5. Sustainable efforts in this project were monitored by an independent commission that rated the global effort as "a great success". More than 90 per cent of demolition waste was recycled and 62 per cent of operational waste was reused, recycled or composted. To encourage biodiversity 300,000 plants were planted in the Olympic Park's wetlands area. In addition, over 1,000 new trees were planted in East London. 6. Nevertheless, there were many people who were not happy with the Games. They cost around £11 billion (plus the cost of infrastructure developments) and received lottery funding of £675 million, which could have gone elsewhere. Some people and businesses did not want to move but were forcibly relocated. There were regional development impacts too — London and the South East received the bulk of the funds, increasing inequalities between those areas and the rest of the country. 7. The London 2012 Olympic Committee had four main aims for the Games: • to regenerate and transform one of London's poorest areas • to create a Games for the world, reflecting London's diversity • to inspire young people into taking part in sport • to create a legacy for east London which would last beyond 2012. 8. There were many changes that the Games brought about and continue to bring about. A new Olympic Park, the Queen Elizabeth Park, was opened on 1 January 2013 along the Lea river. Some 2,800 housing units were created from the Athletes Village and 50 per cent of these were affordable housing for local people. The first new residents moved into East Village in April 2013. In July 2013 the Copper Box opened as a local community leisure facility. In spring 2014 the Aquatic Centre opened as a local swimming pool. Transport infrastructure continues to be improved — in 2017 Crossrail will open at Stratford ready for the World Athletics Championships. Another 7,000 flats may be built by 2035. In 2016 the football club West Ham United moved into the Olympic Stadium, and in 2017 the media centre reopened as "Here East", a tech start-up hub. 9. Assessing the legacy The main aims of hosting the Games were to build new sporting facilities and infrastructure, to host a successful Games and to make the facilities available for use after the games. Another aim was to get more young people involved in sport. 10. This aim has not been achieved: according to Sport England, the number of Britons exerting themselves at least once a week fell by 200,000 between 2012 and 2014. Partly this is down to government cuts to sports centres and the like. 11. After the 2012 Olympic Games the London 2012 organizers stated that they wanted an even better performance from British Athletes in the 2016 Olympic Games, and so the British government provided an extra E1 billion towards the development of elite sports, upgrading of existing infrastructure, the creation of new sports facilities and increased participation in sports, in particular sports related to the Olympic and Parlaympic Games. The locus on elite athletes might not translate into local participation. 12. The industrial and tourism sectors are expected to continue to grow in the coming years. However, the East London area, when compared to the rich West London area, is still very deprived. Much more long-term development is needed to change the relative inequalities in London. The waiting list for social housing in Tower Hamlets is around 22,000. Many of the housing developments are private — only 28 per cent are earmarked to be "affordable" (defined as 80 per cent of the market rent). Although the unemployment rate fell in Newham and Tower Hamlets, it is still higher than London's average.

Factors affecting participation in sports and tourism

1. The decision to participate in sport and tourism is affected by a wide range of physical, demographic and socio-economic factors, including age, sex, economic circumstances, ethnicity, health, stage in life cycle, available time and other responsibilities. Other influences include peer group involvement, participation as a child and location (that is, where people live relative to available facilities). 2. There are significant spatial variations in the participation in sport and in international sporting success. The participation rate refers to the proportion of a population that takes part in a specific sporting activity.

CASE STUDY: The Maldives — a Small Island Developing State: How the Maldives is responding to threats

1. The environment All new tourism development sites must undergo an environmental impact assessment to measure potential construction carrying capacity for the area. Developers must produce a mitigation plan against flooding. This must include a 40 m setback from the high-water mark, a maximum of 20 per cent land coverage by buildings, and building height restriction to tree-top level. Building materials such as sand and aggregates must be imported, mainly from India, but there is scope for recycling all demolition and building waste. 2. The problem of waste management is addressed through the compulsory installation of incinerators, bottle crushers and compactors in all resorts. Sewage disposal through soak-pits into the aquifer is discouraged, and all new resort developments must now have their own waste-water treatment plants. The installation of desalination plants for the provision of desalinated water in tourist resorts has also substantially reduced the stress on the natural aquifer. 3. President Mohamed Nasheed pledged to make the Maldives carbon neutral within a decade, which means encouraging the development of solar and wind energy. In 2009 he held an underwater cabinet meeting to emphasize his commitment to addressing the problem of climate change and consequent sea-level rise. 4. The economy The Maldivian government aims to diversify the economy beyond tourism and fishing, and encourage linkage between tourism and other sectors such as construction, manufacturing and transport. Other aims include reforming public finance and encouraging foreign investment in the development of new resorts, broadening the tourism market by promoting domestic tourism, and attracting visitors from China and India. The goal is to increase employment, which is problematic given the limited resource base of the Maldives.

Tourism in Venice — an urban "hotspot"

1. The historic centre of Venice comprises 700 ha with buildings protected from alterations by government legislation. There is a conflict of interest between those employed in the tourist industry (and who seek to increase the number of tourists) and those not employed in the tourist industry (and who wish to keep visitor numbers down). The optimum carrying capacity for Venice is 9,780 tourists who use hotel accommodation, 1,460 tourists staying in non-hotel accommodation and 10,857 day trippers on a daily basis. This gives an annual total of over 8 million people. This is 25 per cent greater than the number of tourists actually arriving in Venice. However, the pattern of tourism is not even. There are clear seasonal variations with an increase in visitor numbers in summer and at weekends. Research has estimated that an average of 37,500 day trippers visit Venice every day in August. A ceiling of 25,000 visitors a day has been suggested as the maximum carrying capacity for Venice. 2. There are important implications for the environment and its long-term preservation if the carrying capacity is exceeded. The environmental and economic carrying capacity have different values (one concerned with preservation, the other with economic gain), but the 25,000 is a useful benchmark. 3. In 2000 the carrying capacity of 25,000 visitors was exceeded on over 200 days and on seven days the visitor numbers exceeded 100,000. 4. The large volume of visitors who travel to Venice creates a range of social and economic problems for planners. The negative externalities of over-population stagnate the centre's economy and society through congestion and competition for scarce resources. Day tripping is becoming increasingly important, while residential tourism is becoming less important. There have been complaints from local people of tourists sleeping on bridges, stealing gondolas for night-time rides, swimming in the canals, covering churches with graffiti, and even cooking in St Mark's Square. Thus the local benefits of tourism are declining. 5. The negative impact of tourism on Venice has resulted in a vicious circle of decline as day trippers, who contribute less to the local economy than resident visitors, replace the resident visitors as it becomes less attractive to stay in the city. A number of measures have been taken to control the flooding of Venice by day trippers such as: • denying access to the city by unauthorized tour coaches via the main coach terminal • building gates around the city and charging visitors to enter. 6. Nevertheless, the city continues to market the destination, thereby alienating the local population. Indeed, the local population has fallen from 120,000 in the 1960s to 55,000 in 2015. 7. Since 2000, Venice has seen an increasing number of cruise liners and passengers. In 2015, more than 650 boats docked, bringing over 2.2 million passengers. Over the same period, the value of tourism in Venice declined by €300 million. Cruise passengers do not stay in hotels, generally they do not eat large meals in Venice, and often they have their own guide. 8. The excessive number of day trippers has also led to a deterioration in the quality of the tourist experience. This is significant in that it highlights problems affecting many historic cities around the world, especially those in Europe.

Hierarchy

Hierarchy =an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) in which the items are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. A ranking system.

International security

1. The impact of terrorism on the travel and tourism industry can lead to long-term economic decline and associated social and economic impacts. Any terrorist threats in the industry are a cause of major concern for many governments and TNCs. The effect may be felt in associated industries including airlines, hotels, restaurants and shops that cater for tourists. 2. The success of travel and tourism does not shield it from the impact of terrorism. The 11 September 2001 (9/11) terrorist attacks in the USA highlighted the need for safe travel. The attacks had an immediate and important impact on worldwide travel. The initial drop in arrivals immediately following 9/11 reflected widespread concern about the safety of travel. 3. Terrorists target tourists in order to achieve ideological aims, punish people for supporting the government, and strengthen claims to political legitimacy by making the government look weak. 4. Terrorist attacks are not new. In 1972 during the Munich Olympic Games, Palestinian gunmen killed 11 Israeli athletes. During the mid-1980s there was a sharp decline in tourism to London due to the Irish Republican Army (IRA) bombing campaign in England. Similarly, tourism in Northern Ireland was very undeveloped for many years due to the country's negative image which was caused by terrorism. 5. Tourists and local people may differ in social and economic characteristics. When local people facing hardship are forced to co-exist with wealthy international tourists enjoying luxuries, friction is inevitable and may lead to conflict. Travel patterns may reflect ideological values, political views and cultural values of tourists and their countries. For example, certain tourist behaviours, such as the consumption of pork in an Islamic country, drinking alcohol, gambling and Western dress styles can be at odds with local values. This theory may help explain Egyptian frustration with tourism in 1997 when gunmen killed 71 tourists outside the Egyptian resort of Luxor. 6. The rapid growth of the worldwide tourism industry is due to a number of interrelated factors including economic growth, a rise in disposable income, increased leisure time and promotion of tourism by governments, as well as development strategy. 7. At the national level, governments can also do much to implement tighter security. Despite tourism's economic strength, terrorism and political turmoil present major challenges to the industry. Many experts believe that certain parts of the Middle East, Pakistan, Afghanistan and sub-Saharan Africa are turning out to be the main power centres for terrorism, and so limit the potential for tourism there.

The link between economic development and participation in leisure activities

1. The level of economic development of a country can affect the quality and range of leisure activities within it. The HICs have widespread leisure facilities with a great deal of government investment and all age groups catered for. In the LICs leisure is less important than survival and leisure facilities are extremely limited. Government expenditure on domestic leisure provision is small although investment in tourism is a means of development for some LICs. 2. As countries develop, there is a change in the leisure activities undertaken by most of their residents. This occurs for a number of reasons. Very poor people may not be able to afford appliances such as televisions. However, as people's incomes improve, televisions become one of the first appliances that they may purchase, and so watching TV becomes an important leisure activity. However, it is not just about being able to afford the leisure activity; it is also about having the time to enjoy the activity or partake in it. For example, as many newly industrialized countries (NICs) develop, there will be large numbers of migrant workers, many of whom will work long hours. Their potential to participate in leisure activities may be limited not only due to long working hours, but also to having to share accommodation, and sending money home. In addition, some may choose to spend their free time studying, so that they can qualify in a particular trade. For more wealthy countries/communities the combination of more income and more leisure time leads to a greater range of leisure activities, other than listening to the radio or watching TV. 3. In addition, in wealthy countries, leisure activities vary with age (and stage in the family life cycle, see Table E.2). The model shown in Table E.2 assumes that people have the time available for leisure activities, and can afford to participate. It shows how the type of leisure activity varies with age.

Variations in the sphere of influence

1. The sphere of influence refers to the area from which a facility or an attraction draws its support. A small playground may have a low threshold population and a very small range, hence it will have a small sphere of influence (catchment area). In contrast, the sports stadium of a top-league sports team is likely to derive its support from a much wider area. It will have a greater sphere of influence, a much larger range and threshold population. 2. The main purpose of a sports facility is to provide the opportunity to participate in sports for a number of people. Hence, many sports facilities are centrally located within their market areas. The greater the number of sports provided, the higher the order of the sports place. Low-order sports places provide sporting facilities that have a small catchment area, and a small threshold population. Higher-order sports facilities are fewer in number, more widely spaced, and have larger threshold populations. 3. An example of a sports place at the bottom of the scale could be a playground, with a sphere of influence of about 1 km, providing facilities/activities for young children. At a higher level, there may be a sports facility with a variety of indoor and outdoor activities — a sports centre — providing for a range of up to 10 km. At the top end of the scale, there may be a top-level sports complex and athletics stadium/ swimming pool, serving a larger population from a greater distance. In the UK, it has been suggested that the threshold population for an 18-hole golf course is about 30,000 people, and that about 3 ha of playing fields should be provided for every 1,000 people. In the USA, baseball pitches ("diamonds") and tennis courts have a threshold population of 6,000 and 1,000 respectively. In addition, it is possible to suggest threshold populations for which a sports team becomes viable. In the USA, a threshold population of one million fan visits per season is necessary for a baseball franchise. 4. In France and the USA, it has been shown that there is a clear positive correlation between the population size of a region and the number of clubs. For example, New York with a population of over 17 million had nine franchises, Pittsburgh with 2.4 million had three franchises, while Salt Lake City with 1 million people had one franchise. A simple hierarchy is outlined below.

Inclusion via changing gender roles

1. The world of sport is male dominated and women often face considerable challenges, sometimes just to participate in sport. For Muslim women there are additional challenges. 2. Islam promotes good health and fitness. However, Muslim women cannot participate in mixed-gender sports, and the environment in which they play and sports dress also need to be considered. In the UK, only 12.5 per cent of Asian women do enough sport each week to benefit their health, compared with 18.8 per cent of white women. In contrast, in traditional Muslim countries, for example countries in the Middle East, attitudes to physical exercise among Muslim women are much more positive than in the UK. 3. In Saudi Arabia, there has been an increase in the number of sporting facilities that are available for women only. For example, the Luthan Hotel and Spa is a women-only establishment in Riyadh. In the USA there are a number of swimming pools that offer women-only sessions, or sessions to serve both Jewish and Muslim women; for example, in St Louis Park, Minnesota and Williamsburg, Brooklyn.

Movie location tourism

1. There are a number of links between places used in TV and film and their attraction for fans. Films such as Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit have attracted many tourists to New Zealand, keen to visit sites used in the films. Skellig Michael (see Photo E.16) saw a surge in visitors after it appeared in a Star Wars film. Some television series attract large numbers of visitors. The UK programme Coronation Street attracts many visitors to Manchester, and Granada Studios had a Coronation Street tour. The TV detective Morse (and latterly Lewis and Endeavour) are said to have boosted tourism in Oxford, and Morse tours point out locations used in the series. Other popular TV series include Game of Thrones, leading to an increase in the number of tourists to Northern Ireland. 2. On a different scale, locations have been created to cater for people's desire to experience film/TV locations. Disneyland, Universal Studios and the Wizarding World of Harry Potter (Photo E.17) have created theme parks based around a film/concept.

Hosting international sporting events

1. There are a number of political, economic and cultural factors that affect the hosting of an international event such as the Olympic Games or a World Cup. Most countries that bid to host such an event have to be in a position where they can guarantee that they can run the event successfully, hence the Olympic Games tend to be hosted in HICs and NICs/emerging economies. NICs that have hosted the events include China (Beijing Olympic Games, 2008), Brazil (2014 World Cup and 2016 Olympic Games) and South Africa (Football World Cup in 2010). 2. Hosting such an event requires stadia, transport infrastructure, hotels and other facilities for tourists/fans, and training facilities for the athletes/ players taking part. Cultural factors may include the provision of sporting facilities — the Winter Olympic Games generally occurs in a country where winter sports is a tradition. Political factors involved in the allocation of the Games/World Cup include lobbying by national governments and alleged corruption of organizations such as the IOC and FIFA.

Factors affecting participation in sports and tourism - Political, social and cultural factors:

1. There is also evidence that political factors influence participation in tourism and the provision of sporting infrastructure. Examples include the terrorist attacks in Paris and Brussels in 2015 and instability in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. 2. Social factors are also important. Some people cannot afford the membership fees associated with certain sports. Golf clubs are often expensive. Boxing is a sport generally associated with a working-class population (although Oxford University and Cambridge University each have boxing clubs). Polo is another sport that is largely the preserve of the wealthy. 3. Cultural factors can also influence tourist destinations. Places such as Lourdes and Mecca attract many pilgrims each year. Culture also affects participation in sport. A good example is the low participation of Muslim women in athletics and swimming. The convention for Muslim women to remain robed means that successful Muslim athletes, such as the Moroccan middle-distance runner Hasna Benhassi, receive much criticism at home.

The costs and benefits of tourism as a national development strategy

1. Tourism as a development option has many attractions. Tourism is a positive route towards economic development for poor countries, especially when they lack the raw materials for manufacturing. Tourism can be regarded as an export, but goods and services are not subject to the price fluctuation of commodities sold on the world market. Tourism can be an effective way for a country to overcome its problems of balance of payments. 2. From the perspective of the host country and its population, tourism is labour intensive and can overcome the problem of unemployment both in rural and urban environments. The tourist economy provides jobs directly (tourist welfare, catering, transport, guiding and accommodation) or indirectly (construction, engineering and food production). Tourism also provides opportunities to acquire new skills, for example in languages, catering and entertainment. 3. Tourism can create a multiplier effect, which means that income gained by local people is circulated through the economy by their purchasing of products within the host area. Tourism can redistribute wealth globally, nationally and locally provided that leakage is not allowed to drain the economy (as when foreign-owned companies manage the business, reap the profits and repatriate them). 4. Tourism adds diversity to the export base of the country and thereby helps to stabilize its foreign exchange earnings.

Physical and Human Factors Explaining the Growth of Rural and Urban Tourism Hotspots: Urban vs Rural Tourism

1. Tourism in urban areas often provides a greater range of attractions than in rural areas. Urban economies have a greater range of economic activities are usually less dependent on tourism. 2. Higher density and range of attractions eg. primary attractions : museums, architecture, historic sites & secondary attractions eg. spas, hotels, clubs. 3. Likely less dependent on tourism eg. if tourism disappeared in London they would be fine = have other things going on eg. industry. 4. Rural tourism is often linked to the natural environment and or rural way of life. Rural areas have less diverse economies which may lead to over-dependency on tourism. 5. Usually fewer attractions but often intense focus on limited attractions (rural areas way of life = exasperated by people from cities) --> historic sites vs. city, which may have few. 6. Specific natural features, valley, mountain, glacier, etc. 7. Secondary attractions are less (eg. clubs, restaurants, spas) 8. More economically dependent on tourism (fewer alternatives -- sources of income in comparison to cities). 9. Environmental impact of much greater concern = main primary attraction - natural environment.

CASE STUDY: The Maldives — a Small Island Developing State: Vulnerability to external shocks

1. Tourist demand and revenue grew rapidly between 1990 and 2009, at an annual rate of 5 per cent, but the rate has fallen and is predicted to average 2 per cent between 2010 and 2020. The Maldives, like many SIDS, are vulnerable to external shocks, whether from natural causes or human activity, and both are beyond their control. ves are exposed to a range of extern hreats or shocks. Their lack of economic diversity and high ependence on tourism increases their vulnerability. 2. Sea-level rise is a real threat to the Maldives, where the average ground level is only 1.5 m above sea level; it is the lowest country on the planet. Since the early 1900s sea level has risen globally by about 20 cm, and current estimates suggest that it will rise by a further 59cm by 2100. 3. Tsunamis are another threat. These islands are in a tectonically active zone and were badly affected by the Asian tsunami of December 2004, which left 100 dead, displaced 12,000 and caused $300 million of property damage. As a result of the tsunami tourist demand fell, and GDP contracted by 4.6 per cent in 2005. Although reconstruction was rapid and tourist numbers recovered, the trade deficit grew as a result of high oil prices and the import of construction materials required to rebuild resorts. 4. Since the world economic recession of 2008, growth has been stagnating for all sectors. The national economy has a narrow base that relies heavily on tourism, with a limited source area supplying 70 per cent of all tourists. Any threats to this limited market from changes in the world economy will be serious.

Sport participation in the UK

1. While men and women are equally likely to walk for health and recreational purposes, men are more likely to cycle or to take part in sport. Participation in sport is also greater among younger people, those with a car, students and those in higher income bands. People in managerial positions tend to take part in sport more frequently than those in other socio-economic groups, and people in full-time employment are more than twice as likely to cycle for health and recreation as retired people. The most popular sports vary by sex. Three of the top five sports for both men and women are swimming, health and fitness, and cycling. However, female participation is heavily concentrated in swimming and health and fitness, while male participation is more widely spread across a range of different activities. Time, expense and health problems are the most commonly cited reasons for not participating in sport. Participation in sport also varies according to personality - some people prefer high-risk sports such as mountaineering and rock climbing, whereas others may prefer more sedate sports such as bowls. 2. While non-participation does not vary by sex, it does by other demographic and socio-economic factors. Those most likely not to participate in any cultural or sporting activities are aged 75 and over; black and minority ethnic (BME); lone pensioners; local authority tenants; people with no qualifications; those in semi-routine or routine occupations; people who are permanently or temporarily sick, disabled or injured; and people who are on relatively low incomes. People who participated in sport as a child are more likely to participate as an adult. The analysis shows that the majority of adults who play sport also played sport as children. 3. Specific sports have their own gender profiles. However, while, for example, nearly 85 per cent of those who take part in weight training are male, just over 5 per cent of men actually weight train. Women are more likely than men to take part in keep fit and aerobics, and over 75 per cent of • Figure E.5: Sports participation in the UK by gender Source: Department for media, culture and sport. 2011. "Adult participation in sport" participants in those activities are female. Men are more likely than women to take part in cycling, and over two-thirds of cyclists are male. Women are more likely than men to go swimming, as also reflected in the proportions of participants. 4. The most popular sports also vary by age group. For example, 16-24-year-olds are most likely to play football outdoors (over 20 per cent), and football is the most popular sport among this age group. Health and fitness (that is, going to the gym) is a top 10 activity for all age groups and highest for those aged 16-24 (over 20 per cent) and 25-44-year-olds (18 per cent). The 16-44-year-olds are thi. most likely to swim, while people aged 75 and over are the least likely to. Golf is a top 10 activity for all age groups except 16-24-year-olds.

Facts about Woodstock

1. Woodstock drew 400,000 young people to Bethel, New York in the Catskill Mountains. 2. The festival created massive traffic jams and extreme shortages of food, water, and medical and sanitary facilities. 3. No incidents of violence occurred at the Woodstock festival. 4. Most of the 80 arrests at Woodstock were made on drug charges involving LSD, amphetamines and heroin. Marijuana smokers, estimated to be the majority of the audience, were not arrested at Woodstock. 5. Three accidental deaths were reported at Woodstock. 6. The Festival had been scheduled to be held in Walkill, New York. After Walkill townspeople objected, it was moved to the 600-acre farm of dairyman Max B. Yasgur. 7. The crush of spectators, however, caused ticket-taking to be abandoned. Ultimately, Woodstock Ventures, Inc. spent $2.5 million while collecting only $1.5 million.The $1 million debt was to be offset by a film of the festival and recordings of the music. 8. Acts at Woodstock included Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, the Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane, Joan Baez, Santana, The Who and a nascent Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young. 9. Festival featured 33 musical acts. 10. One baby was born backstage at Woodstock??

Factors affecting participation in sports and tourism - Physical factors:

A number of physical factors have an impact on participation in sport and tourist activities. For example: • skiing and winter sports are associated with mountain areas, such as the Alps, that have regular and reliable snow in winter • coastal areas with large plunging breakers produce ideal conditions for surfing, such as in Hawaii and California • hilly areas can promote mountain biking, as in the case of Wales • rivers and lakes promote fishing • it has been suggested that the increase in red blood cell concentration at high altitude favours long-distance runners in the high-altitude regions of Kenya and Ethiopia • areas with wide sandy beaches, and a reliable climate in summer (that is, hot and dry) will favour coastal/beach tourism, for example Miami Beach, Florida.

Historical and Cultural factors

A places history or culture may provide primary tourist attractions such as: 1. castles (Rhine Valley castles), 2. festivals and events (Running of the Bulls), 3. architecture (Timbuktu), 4. local cuisine 5. archeological sites (Palenque). 6. UNESCO sites often become overwhelmed with tourism and may threaten the primary attraction.

The risks of tourism for SIDS

After decades of mass tourism, isolation and remoteness are two of the major tourist attractions, but transport costs are high and access to the core economies of Europe, North America and Japan is usually limited.

What other factors may influence the size and shape of a sphere of influence for a leisure facility?

Brainstorm some ideas with a fellow Geographer..

Children combining work and leisure in Sudan

Cindi Katz's study of children living in the village of Howa (a pseudonym) demonstrates how work and play are inseparable. Children are expected to work from an early age. This may involve tasks such as: • collecting water • running errands to she shop • weeding plots • herding sheep and goats. When doing these things, children introduce elements of play into their activities. For example, when boys are out herding, games such as shedduck are played which is play fighting where participants have to hop with one leg behind them. By combining games with overseeing the herds, boys can make the work more enjoyable and the time passes more quickly. Children use scrap metal to make dolls, tractors, houses and models of local shops. They then use these to act out domestic life and agricultural cycles. An awareness of how trade and wage labour operate is exemplified in their acting out of payment for crops using money made out of broken china. Society in much of sub-Saharan Africa depends upon child labour, but despite this pressure on their time children are still able to combine work and play.

Environmental / Physical factors :

Climate: 1. Appealing climates. Often in contrast to the climate of the origin of tourists. Cool climate residents of often seek warm (ie Northern Europeans heading to the Med, tropical residents heading to hill stations like Cameron Highlands) 2. Reliable seasonal climate - for example seasonal snowfall for skiing, dry seasons for beach locations, windy seasons for surfing and sailing 3. Global climate change will also impact places where leisure activities are located, see this diagram

Intra-urban spatial patterns

Figure E.9 shows the distribution of leisure facilities around a typical small or medium-sized town. In most small and medium-sized cities there is a concentration of leisure facilities and tourist attractions in the central area of the city, while on the periphery there are increasing numbers of sports and leisure centres, garden centres and country parks. The central area contains the main concentration of restaurants, cinemas, theatres and other facilities that do not require much space. Finally, some leisure facilities such as parks, recreation grounds and community centres may be dispersed into neighbourhoods

Case Study : Hierarchy of a sports league and the relationship between team location and fan location

From the syllabus: Explain the hierarchy of a league and the location of its teams. Examine the relationship between team location and the residence of its supporters.

Sports teams are often arranged in hierarchies...

Ice hockey in Canada

Gender and tourism/leisure

In 1966 42.2 per cent of women of working age were in employment. By 2013 this had increased to 67 per cent. Single professional women are more likely to: • have an active social life • regularly go to the theatre and cinema • actively participate in sport (67 per cent compared with 50 per cent of married women) • eat out regularly • go to the pub regularly (41 per cent compared with 14 per cent of women with children). The number of single professional and managerial women aged 25 to 44 is rapidly increasing and their work patterns and lifestyles will have an increasing impact on demands for leisure, retailing and housing.

Gaelic Games in Ireland

In Ireland, the Gaelic Games (hurling, Gaelic football and camogie) are arranged at a county level. Teams from the Republic of Ireland (26 counties) and Northern Ireland (6 counties) compete in a national league and knock-out competition. The league is based on merit, whereas the knock-out competition is based on a provincial knock-out competition (there are four provinces), followed by the All-Ireland semi-finals and final. Support for the counties is largely from within each county, although some may have moved away from their county of birth/residence for work, university and so on.

Future international tourism

International tourist arrivals worldwide are expected to increase by 3.3 per cent a year over the period 2010 to 2030 to reach 1.8 billion by 2030. By 2030, arrivals in emerging destinations are expected to increase at twice the rate of those in advanced economies. The market share of emerging economies increased from 30 per cent in 1980 to 45 per cent in 2014, and is expected to reach 57 per cent by 2030, equivalent to over 1 billion international tourist arrivals.

Costs and benefits of large-scale sporting, musical, cultural or religious festivals as temporary leisure sites

Large-scale sporting, musical, cultural or religious festivals may be temporary sites of leisure, but they provide many costs and benefits. Some events may take place in a location that is not normally used for leisure for the rest of the year, such as the Glastonbury Music Festival in the UK, whereas others may be temporary events in areas that are associated with leisure and tourism, such as the Triathlon at Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, the second largest triathlon in the UK.

Relationship between settlement size and sphere of influence of leisure activities?

Larger settlements have larger populations and therefore can support larger leisure facilities such as stadiums or theme parks. These larger facilities offer unique experiences that may not be available at smaller scales, these higher order leisure services draw people from a greater distance (range) and result in a larger sphere of influence.

Niche national tourism strategies

Niche tourism refers to special-interest tourism catering for relatively small numbers of tourists. There are many types of niche tourism, including heritage-tourism, ecotourism, agro-tourism, business, medical, adventure, wilderness, grey (or "silver"), tribal, and dark tourism. In contrast, mass tourism is typified by the package tour in which itineraries are fixed, stops are planned and guided, and all major decisions are made by the organizer. Familiarity is at a maximum and novelty at a minimum, and safety and companionship is gained from travelling in hi rge crowds.

Factors affecting personal participation in Sports and Tourism:

Some videos discussing participation in sports. Make notes on the various factors discussed in the videos: 1. Teens Talk https://www.vichealth.vic.gov.au/funding/growing-participation-in-sport-program 2. Changing the Game https://www.vichealth.vic.gov.au/programs-and-projects/increasing-female-participation-in-sport-initiative 3. Sports for rich people https://www.sbnation.com/london-olympics-2012/2012/8/14/3230768/the-10-best-sports-you-cant-afford Make notes and give examples for the following factors: Affluence Gender Stage in Lifecycle Personality Place of residence (within a country) Mobility Perception of ability Level of competition Participation by friends and peers Parental Pressure Others??

Transport continued...

Parking availability and parking cost is a big factor in areas where car ownership and usage is high. Cost of public transport and frequency.

What are the factors affecting the sphere of influence of different kinds of sporting and touristic facilities

Parks, gyms, stadiums, national parks, local football clubs, bowling alleys, tennis courts, community centres, golf courses,

Environmental / Physical factors : (2)

Physical features / Landscape 1. Areas of outstanding natural beauty are often leisure hotspots. For example: waterfalls, tropical beaches, mountains, canyons, lakes, volcanic activity. viewpoints.... 2. Different landscapes may permit different leisure activities - upland areas for skiing, climbing, hiking....lakes and rivers for kayaking....coral reefs for diving and snorkeling. 3. Wildlife is a major primary attraction for tourism in many regions

Religious Factors

Religious sites, traditions and events have been major draws of people for many centuries. Perhaps they have were the most common reasons for people to travel to visit other places in the past? 1. Mass with the Pope at Easter 2. Bathing in the Ganges at Veranasi 3. Ceremonies in Bali 4. Touching the Wailing Wall in Jerusalem

Tourism in Small Island Developing States (SIDS)

Small islands have relied on tourism as a means of economic development, and in many cases they have been successful. The islands of the Caribbean and Mediterranean are characterized by large-scale, high-density resort complexes, relatively short visitor stays and the gradual replacement of artificial attractions with natural and cultural amenities. Since the 1990s, tourist preference has shifted towards a more authentic experience on remote islands such as St Lucia in the Caribbean, the Maldives and Seychelles in the Indian Ocean, and French Polynesia in the South Pacific. As a development strategy for these islands, tourism brings both benefits and risks.

Factors affecting participation in sports and tourism - Socio-economic factors:

Socio-economic factors that affect participation in sport Participation in sport varies according to socio-economic conditions, employment status and housing tenure. For example, people who own their house are more likely to participate in sport than those living in rented accommodation. Going to the gym is the most popular sporting activity for people living in rented accommodation. In contrast, swimming is the most popular sport for people in all other forms of housing tenure. Access to a car: People with access to a car have higher rates of sports participation than those without access to a car. In contrast, those without access to a car walk more regularly.

Principles of sustainable tourism

Sustainable tourism is that which: • operates within natural capacities for the regeneration and future productivity of natural resources • recognizes the contribution of people in the communities, customs and lifestyles linked to the tourism experience • accepts that people must have an equitable share in the economic benefits of tourism. This entails: • using resources sustainably — the sustainable use of natural, social and cultural resources is crucial and makes long-term business sense • reducing over-consumption and waste — this avoids the cost of restoring long-term environmental damage and contributes to the quality of tourism • maintains biodiversity — maintaining and promoting natural, social and cultural diversities is essential for long-term sustainable tourism and creates a resilient base for industry • supporting local economies — tourism that supports a wide range of local economic activities and which takes environmental costs and values into account both protects these economies and avoids environmental damage • involving local communities — the full involvement of local communities in the tourism sector not only benefits them and the environment in general but also improves the quality of the tourism experience • training staff — staff training that integrates sustainable tourism into work practices along with recruitment of local personnel of all levels improves the quality of the tourism product • marketing tourism responsibly — such as encouraging tourists to visit sites during off-peak periods to reduce visitor numbers and when ecosystems are most robust; marketing provides tourists with the full and responsible information, increases respect for the natural social and cultural environments of destination areas and enhances customer satisfaction • undertaking research — ongoing monitoring by the industry using effective data collection analysis is essential to help solve problems and to bring benefits to destinations, the industry, tourists and the local community • integrating tourism into planning — this entails tourism and development which are integrated into national and local planning policies, and management plans that undertake environmental impact assessments, projects, plans and policies to increase the long-term viability of tourism • better information provision — providing tourists with information about tourist destinations in advance and in situ, such as through visitor centres. The key objectives for sustainable tourism are: • quality of the environment • maximizing the economic benefit.

CASE STUDY: The Maldives — a Small Island Developing State: Background

The Maldives consist of an archipelago of 1,190 tiny islands, only 200 of which are inhabited by its population of 300,000. Located at latitude 3 degrees north, the islands experience a tropical monsoon climate with hot (26-31 °C) and humid conditions most of the year, and a dry season from October to April. For the majority of the 400,000 tourists who visit the islands annually, the sun-sea-sand combination makes this an ideal holiday destination.

Paralympic Games

The Paralympic Games is an international competition for athletes with a range of physical disabilities. It occurs immediately after the Olympic Games and takes place in the Olympic Stadium and other stadia. The Paralympic Games first took place in 1948, and consisted of British second World War veterans.

Unsustainable touristic growth

The concept of sustainable tourism has often used the concept of carrying capacity. Carrying capacity can be thought of in three main ways: • physical carrying capacity, which is the measure of absolute space, for example the number of spaces within a car park • ecological capacity — the level of use that an environment can sustain before environmental damage occurs • perceptual capacity — the level of crowding that a tourist will tolerate before deciding the location is too full.

CASE STUDY: The Maldives — a Small Island Developing State: Economic importance

Tourism accounts for 28 per cent of the Maldives' GDP and more than 60 per cent of its foreign exchange receipts. Over 90 per cent of government tax revenue comes from import duties. The development of tourism has fostered the overall growth of the country's economy. It has created direct and indirect employment and income generation opportunities in other related industries, the so-called multiplier effect. Fishing was once the prime industry here, but more recently tourism has assumed much greater importance. Agriculture and manufacturing continue to play a lesser role in the economy, constrained by the limited availability of cultivatable land and the shortage of domestic labour. Most staple foods must be imported. Industry, which consists mainly of garment production, boat building and handicrafts, accounted for only about 7 per cent of the Maldives' GDP in 2009.

Tourism facilities in urban areas

Urban areas are important for tourism because they are: • destinations in their own right • gateways for tourist entry • centres of accommodation • bases for excursions.

The benefits of tourism for SIDS

• A small land area and narrow resource base makes manufacturing an unlikely development strategy. • Tropical islands are well endowed with many natural attractions such as coasts, mountains, ecosystems, heritage sites and indigenous tribes. • As an exporting industry, tourism is not restricted by quotas or tariffs. • Both direct and indirect employment in the tourist industry provides jobs for local people, many of whom are untrained.

Key Content

• The growth and changing purpose of leisure time for societies in different geographic and developmental contexts. • The categorization of touristic activities (cost, duration, destination) and sporting activities (cost, popularity, site). • The link between economic development and participation in leisure activities. • Factors affecting personal participation in sports and tourism including affluence, gender, stage in life cycle, personality, place of residence.