Organizational Behavior Exam 2

What are Judgmental Heuristics?

"Rules of Thumb" •Cognitive shortcuts or biases that are used to simplify the process of making decisions •Can help managers make decisions but can lead to bad decisions •There are pros and cons to the use of heuristics. -Because these shortcuts derive from knowledge gained from past experience, they can help managers make decisions. -However they can lead to bad decisions, particularly for people facing severe time constraints. •Knowledge about these biases or heuristics can help you to avoid using them in the wrong situation or being blinded by not knowing you are in fact using them.

What is Outcome Interdependence?

A common form of team interdependence. The degree to which the outcomes of task work are measured, rewarded, and communicated at the group level so as to emphasize collective outputs rather than individual contributions.

Implications of LMX Theory

- Expectations: leaders are expected to establish high performance expectations - diversity: managers need to be careful that they don't create a homogenous work environment - initiative: it is important to take positive actions to improve a poor LMX

What are Formal/Informal Groups?

- Formal groups are assigned and supported by organizations to accomplish specific goals - Informal groups have members who's overriding purpose for meeting is friendship or a common interest

An integrated model of leadership

-Demographics, Intelligence and skills, Task-oriented traits, and Interpersonal attributes to -Leadership behaviors to -Situation factors to -Leadership effectiveness

What are the 2 basic models (types) of decision making?

-Rational - uses analytical and conscious thought. Usually slow and logical. -Nonrational - relies on intuition and involves mental shortcuts (heuristics). Can be quick and required little cognitive effort

A leader is someone who...

...influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal. Key aspects of leadership include... •Creating and communicating a vision •Influencing others through use of power •Motivating task behavior in pursuit of shared objectives •Establishing and maintaining group culture •Empowering others •Clarifying roles and niche in marketplace •Making tough decisions with limited information

What is a Road Map to Ethical Decision Making?

1. Is the proposed action legal? 2. If "yes", does the proposed action maximize shareholder value? 3. If the decision maximizes shareholder value, the decision maker than considers whether or not the action is ethical. 4. If the decision does not maximize shareholder value, then the decision maker should consider whether it would be ethical not to take the proposed action.

What are the Six Principles of Persuasion?

1. Liking 2. Reciprocity 3. Social Proof 4. Consistency 5. Authority 6. Scarcity

What are the 4 Steps of Creativity?

1. Problem Formulation/Definition 2. Preparation/Information Gathering 3. Idea Generation 4. Idea Evaluation/Validation

What is an Automated Experience?

A choice based on a familiar situation and a partially subconscious application of learned information related to it.

What is Task Interdependence?

A common form of team interdependence. The degree to which team members depend on each other for information, materials, and other resources to complete their job tasks.

What is the Basic Communication Process?

A communicator's message affects the receiver, which effects an event. Throughout this process, perceptual screens influence message quality, accuracy, and clarity. These may include age, gender, values, beliefs, culture, experiences, and needs (barriers to communication) The feedback loop affects communicators based on the receiver. The context and affect of a message are important. 1. Sender encodes a message 2. Message is transmitted through a medium 3. Receiver decodes the message 4. Receiver sends feedback 5. Noise happens throughout

What is a Decision Making Style?

A decision-making style is simply how an individual perceives and comprehends stimuli and the general manner in which he or she chooses to respond to such information. This is based on two different dimensions: •Value orientation - reflects the extent to which an individual focuses on either task and technical concerns or people and social concerns when making decisions. Some people are very task focused at work and do not pay much attention to people issues, whereas others are just the opposite. •Tolerance for ambiguity - indicates the extent to which a person has a high need for structure or control in his or her life. Some people desire a lot of structure in their lives (i.e. low tolerance for ambiguity) finding ambiguous situations stressful and psychologically uncomfortable while others do not have a high need for structure and thrive in uncertain situations (i.e. a high tolerance for ambiguity).

What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?

A form of computing that allows machines to perform cognitive functions.

What is Transactional Leadership?

A form of task-oriented leader behavior. Clarifies employees' roles and tasks requirements and provides followers with positive and negative rewards contingent on performance.

What is Initiating Structure?

A form of task-oriented leader behavior. Leader behavior that organizes and defines what group members should be doing to maximize output.

What are some Forms of ADR?

A growing number of organizations have formal ADR policies involving an established sequence of various combinations of these techniques which are ranked from easiest and least expensive to most difficult and costly: •Facilitation: A third party informally urges disputing parties to deal directly with each other in a positive and constructive manner. •Conciliation: A neutral third party informally acts as a communication conduit between disputing parties - useful when conflicting parties refuse to meet face to face. Immediate goal is to establish direct communication with the broader aim of finding common ground and a constructive solution. •Peer review: A panel of trustworthy coworkers (objective) hears both sides of a dispute in an informal and confidential meeting. Decisions by the review panel may or may not be binding depending on the company's ADR policy. Membership on the review panel often is rotated among employees. •Ombudsman: Trusted and respected employee hears grievances on a confidential basis and attempts to arrange a solution. More common in Europe than North America. •Mediation: Trained neutral third-party guides disputing parties in exploring innovative solutions. Some companies have in-house mediators who have received ADR training, most use external mediators with no ties to the company. Mediator does not render a decision - up to the disputants to reach a mutually acceptable decision. •Arbitration: Parties agree to accept the decision of a neutral arbitrator in a formal court-like setting, often complete with evidence and witnesses. Statements are confidential. Decisions are based on legal merits. Trained arbitrators are versed in relevant laws and case precedents.

What is Cohesiveness?

A sense of "we-ness" that tends to override individual differences and motives.

What are the Levels of Listening?

A similar, but alternative model of listening styles is known as "levels of listening". There are 3 levels: •Level 1 Listening - involves the receiver interjecting their thoughts, experiences, perceptions or messages in the middle of the sender's message. -Will include behaviors such as interrupting or cutting off the sender... •Level 2 Listening - involves the receiver making the sender "the only person in the world" while they are listening to them. The receiver is interested and involved in the message being sent by the sender. -Will include behaviors such as actively listening (acknowledging the senders message by nodding or saying "uh-huh") and then paraphrasing the message or asking follow-up questions... Reflective Listening - the skill of listening carefully to another person and repeating back to the speaker the heard message to correct any inaccuracies or misunderstandings

What is an opportunity?

A situation in which results that exceed goals and expectations are possible.

What is a team?

A team is a small number of people: • with complementary skills • committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach • they hold themselves mutually accountable A group becomes a team when: • Leadership becomes a shared activity. • Accountability shifts from strictly individual to both individual and collective. • The group develops its own purpose or mission. • Problem solving becomes a way of life, not a part-time activity. • Effectiveness is measured by the group's collective outcomes and products.

What is Consideration?

A type of relationship-oriented leader behavior. leader behavior that is concerned with group members' needs and desires and that is directed at creating mutual respect or trust Promotes social interaction

What is Empowering Leadership?

A type of relationship-oriented leader behavior. •Creates perceptions of psychological empowerment in others. •Reflects employees' beliefs that they have control over their work.

What is Abusive Supervision?

Abusive supervision is the sustained display of hostile verbal and nonverbal behavior by managers. Examples of abusive supervision behaviors include: •Telling employees that their ideas are stupid. •Criticizing employees in front of colleagues and other managers. •Reminding workers of past errors and missteps. •Using the so called "silent treatment". Organizations can implement a variety of strategies to eliminate abusive behavior, including: •An anonymous tip line that employees can call to report abuse. •Written company policies prohibiting abusive behavior. •Acknowledgment by senior managers that there is no place for abusive behavior in the company's culture.

What is Collaboration?

the act of sharing information and coordinating efforts to achieve a collective outcome While collaborating, it is important to: - Communicate expectations - Set team goals - Encourage creativity - Build work flow rhythm - Leverage team member strengths

What is Alternate Dispute Resolution (ADR)?

Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) is a third-party intervention technique. •Disputes between employees, employees and their managers/employers, and between companies too often end up in lengthy and costly court battles. •US businesses spend hundreds of billions of dollars per year on direct legal costs - minor compared to indirect costs like missed opportunities due to litigation concerns, disclaimers, and extra testing. •Benefit of ADR is that it uses faster, more user-friendly methods of dispute resolution, instead of traditional, adversarial approaches such as unilateral decision-making or litigation

What is Conflict Resolution?

An approach to intergroup conflict Conflict resolution involves working to eliminate specific negative interactions. Some tactics include: •Conduct team building. •Encourage and facilitate friendships via social events. •Foster positive attitudes (e.g. empathy and compassion). •Avoid or neutralize negative gossip resolution. •Be a role model.

What is Contact Hypothesis?

An approach to intergroup conflict. •The more members of different groups interact, the less intergroup conflict they will experience. •Quality contact matters from the in-group's perspective.

What are some Individual Reactions to Power?

An attempt to use power will result in one of 3 reactions •Resistance - people can simply be indifferent, be passive-aggressive, or actively resist to the extent of purposefully undermining you or even sabotaging your efforts. The degree and form of resistance thus matters. •Compliance - those that comply do only what is expected, nothing more. They do what is required and exert no extra effort and provide no extra input. •Commitment - those that are committed "drink the Kool-Aid." They believe in the cause and often go above and beyond to assure its success.

What are Group Norms?

An attitude, opinion, feeling, or action shared by two or more people that guides behavior Norms help create order and allow groups to function more efficiently, as they prevent groups from having to progress through the development process each and every time they meet. The differences between roles and norms are: - Roles are at the individual level and they pertain to a specific job or situation. - Norms are a shared phenomena and apply to group, team, or organization Norms are reinforced for many purposes including: • Group/organization survival • Clarification of behavioral expectations • Avoidance of embarrassment • Clarification of central values/unique identity Creation of norms: • Norms generally emerge on their own over time • Norms can be purposefully created (preferred because then we have control over them) • Roles and norms are almost like peer pressure - at its root, peer pressure is simply the influence of the group on the individual, and the expectations associated roles and norms are the means of this influence.

What is moral character?

An individual's general tendency to think, feel, and behave in ways associated with ethical and unethical behavior

What is Pressure?

An influence tactic demanding compliance or using intimidation or threats

What are Coalition Tactics?

An influence tactic getting others to support your efforts to persuade someone

What is Exchange?

An influence tactic making explicit or implied promises and trading favors

What is Consultation?

An influence tactic. Getting others to provide insights, experience, or information you can use in planning and making decisions.

What is Ingratiation?

An influence tactic. Getting others to provide insights, experience, or information you can use in planning and making decisions.

What is Rational Persuasion?

An influence tactic. Trying to convince someone with reason, logic, or facts.

What are Legitimating Tactics?

An influence tactic. basing a request on authority or right, organizational rules or policies, or explicit/implied support from superiors

What are Personal Appeals?

An influence tactic. referring to friendship and loyalty when making a request

What are Inspirational Appeals?

An influence tactic. trying to build enthusiasm by appealing to one's emotions, ideals, or values

What is punctuated equilibrium?

As groups establish periods of stable functioning until an event causes a dramatic change in norms, roles, and/or objectives, the group then establishes and maintains new norms of functioning, returning to equilibrium. Punctuated equilibrium can occur during innovation and an inciting event. Punctuated equilibrium is concerned with how a group functions in the face of change

What are Cross-Functional Teams?

Assembled to address specific problem, task, or project. Usually exist for duration to compete purpose. Members usually divide time between primary job and various project teams.

What are Project Teams?

Assembled to address specific problem, task, or project. Usually exist for duration to compete purpose. Members usually divide time between primary job and various project teams.

What is Devil's Advocacy?

Assigns someone in an organization or group to identify potential issues or challenges with a proposed process

Emotions in Negotiation

Be aware that you signal a LOT with your emotions when you are negotiating. Emotions are contagious, and if you want the other party to be calm, creative, or energetic, then consider showing these emotions yourself. Use emotions to your advantage: •Identify the ideal emotions that will best suit your objectives. •Manage your emotions. Take steps to promote positive emotions. •Know your hot buttons - and manage them. •Keep your balance. Know when to break or redirect. •Identify your take-away emotions - how do you want to feel when you are finished negotiating?

What is Overconfidence Bias?

Being overconfident about estimates or forecasts. Grows in strength when people are asked moderate to extremely difficult questions rather than easy ones.

What is Team Composition?

the collection of jobs, personalities, knowledge, skills, abilities, and experience levels of team members

What are some Best Practices of Using Virtual Teams?

Best practices for using virtual teams include: • Adapting communications to preferred channels and convenient times. • Sharing the love by keeping distributed workers in the loop and connected. • Developing productive relationships with key people on the team who can make or break the team assignment. • Treating members of virtual teams like true partners and not hired help. • Being available by letting others know when you can be reached, where, and how. • Documenting the work when the project is handed off from one time zone to the next by having senders and receivers clearly specify what they have completed and what they need in each transfer. • Providing regular updates on your progress to the necessary team members. • Selecting the right people who thrive in interdependent work environments and are self-reliant and self-motivated. • Requiring effective communication skills.

What are the Levels of Political Action?

Bottom -> Top Individual Level - Individual pursuit of general self-interests Coalition Level - Cooperative pursuit of group interests in specific issues Network Level - Cooperative pursuit of general self-interests

What are some Practical Problem-Solving Techniques?

Brainstorming •Used to help groups generate multiple ideas and alternatives for solving problems, developing creative ideas for new products or removing performance roadblocks, and developing action plans to achieve goals. •Rules for brainstorming: •Defer judgment •Build on the ideas of others •Encourage wild ideas •Go for quantity or quality •Be visual •Stay focused on the topic One conversation at a time Delphi Technique •Originally developed by the Rand Corporation for technological forecasting, this process involves generating ideas or judgments from physically dispersed experts •Useful when: •Face-to-face discussions are impractical •Disagreements and conflict may occur •Group domination is an issue •Groupthink is likely Decision Support Systems (DSS) •Computer-based interactive systems that help decision makers use data and models to solve unstructured problems •Today, these systems are used to solve any type of problem, structured or unstructured. •These systems also were found to improve information processing and decision making within virtual teams.

What is satisficing?

Choosing a solution that meets some minimum qualifications and thus is "good enough".

What is Climate?

Climate is employees' shared perceptions of policies, practices, and procedures A psychologically safe climate is a shared belief held by team members that the team that is safe to engage in risky behaviors, such as questioning current practices without retribution or negative consequences. •Captures a sense of confidence that the team will not embarrass, reject, or punish someone for speaking up. •When employees feel psychologically safe, they are more likely to speak up and present their ideas and less likely to take disagreements personally. You can help create a psychologically safe climate by: •Assuring leaders are inclusive and accessible. •Hiring and developing employees who are comfortable expressing their own ideas and are receptive to those expressed by others. •Celebrating and reinforcing the value of differences between group members and their ideas.

What are Teams?

Collections of two or more individuals whose tasks and responsibilities depend on the other members, are collectively accountable for the performance and outcomes associated with their work, and work together for the time required for task completion.

What are the 3 Cs of Team Players?

Committed Collaborative Competent

What are Gender Differences in Communication?

Communication Differences between Women and Men •Female perspective. - Focus on rapport and relationships. - Seek and give confirmation and support. •Male perspective. - Expected to communicate more aggressively. - Hide emotions. •Some researchers believe differences are due to inherited biological differences between men and women •This perspective, which also is called the "evolutionary psychology" or "Darwinian perspective," attributes gender differences in communication to drives, needs, and conflicts associated with reproductive strategies used by women and men

What is Encoding?

Communication begins when the sender encodes an idea or thought. •This involves translating thoughts into code or language others can understand. •Sender selects the medium for the message. -Examples of a medium include face-to-face, telephone, email, charts and graphs, social media. - Choice of medium depends on the nature of the message, intended purpose, type of audience, proximity to audience, time horizon, and personal preferences

What is Communication Competence?

Communication competence is a performance-based index of an individual's abilities to effectively use communication behaviors in a given context. It includes skills in the areas of: •Non-verbal communication - For example, body movements, touch, facial expressions, and eye contact. •Active listening is the process of actively decoding and interpreting verbal messages. - Requires cognitive attention and information processing unlike hearing. •Non-defensive listening - Avoiding shutting down or being passive-aggressive, standing behind rules or policies, creating a diversion, or counterattacking.

What are some Common Causes of Conflict?

Conflict can arise from any of a variety of places - both related to the workplace and job, and from outside. Some of the common causes include: •Personality differences. •Irritating workplace behaviors. •Unmet needs. •Perceived inequities of resources and policies. •Unclear roles. •Competing responsibilities. •Change. •Poor management. •Poor communication. •Difference in work methods.

What is Conflict?

Conflict is the energy created by the perceived gap between what we want and what we're experiencing. Conflict occurs when one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party •Key to this definition is "perceives"... Conflict is the product of perception and as such, is VERY subjective. •It is inevitable and may be cultivated. •It can have both positive and negative outcomes. •Organizations can have too much or too little conflict. •It may be either functional or dysfunctional.

What is Consensus in Group Decision Making?

Consensus is reached when: •All members can say they either agree with the decision or have had their say and were unable to convince others of their viewpoint •Everyone agrees to support the outcome This indicates that consensus does not require unanimous agreement because group members may still disagree with the final decision but are willing to work toward its success. It is important that group members honestly and accurately communicate with each when trying to reach a consensus.

What is Fiedler's Contingency Model?

Contingency theories are based on the premise that a leader's effectiveness is contingent on the extent to which a leader's style fits or matches characteristics of the situation at hand. One such theory is Fred Fiedler's Situational Theory. •Fiedler posits that leaders are thought to have a dominant style motived by either relationship or task that is resistant to change. •As such, If a leader's dominant leadership style does not match the situation, Fiedler suggests it is better to move the leader to a more suitable situation •Leader effectiveness depends on the extent to which leader style matches the situation. •As situations change, different styles become more appropriate. •Fiedler identified three dimensions of situational control: 1.Leader-member relations - the extent to which the leader has the support, loyalty, and trust of the work group. 2.Task structure - the amount of structure contained within tasks performed by the workgroup 3.Position power - the degree to which the leader has formal power to reward, punish, or otherwise obtain compliance from employees.

What are the 3 types of trust?

Contractual trust - trust of character. Communication - trust of disclosure. Competence - trust of capability.

What is the Model of Creativity?

Creative performance behaviors influence creative outcome effectiveness. Creative performance behaviors: four key behaviors that drive the production of creative outcomes. Creative outcome effectiveness: the joint novelty and usefulness (quality) of a product or service as judged by others. Researchers believe that the four behaviors constituting creative performance behaviors unfold according to the following sequence: Accurate problem formulation/definition. Preparation/information gathering to build a base of tacit and explicit knowledge from which creativity will flow. Idea generation by making new mental connections regarding the creative task or problem at hand. Idea evaluation/validation to select the most creative and promising idea from multiple options.

What are Crucial Conversations?

Crucial conversations are discussions between two or more people where the stakes are high, opinions vary, and emotions run strong. Examples of work-related crucial conversations are talking to a coworker who behaves offensively; critiquing a colleague's work; talking to a team member who isn't keeping commitments; or giving an unfavorable performance review. Handling difficult communications effectively can prevent problems, motivate team members, increase collaboration, and improve bottom-line results. During critical conversations, often our negative emotions kick in and the fight or flight response may take over. Crucial conversations often happen unexpectedly, which means people typically are unprepared. Some recommendations on how to be effective during crucial conversations include: •Sharing your facts. •Telling your story. •Asking for the other person's facts and stories. •Talking tentatively. •Encouraging testing.

What are Generational Differences in Communication?

Current workplace involves people from four generations: •Traditionalists •Baby Boomers •GenX •Millennials (GenY) Different generations favor different media - Millennials and Gen Xers are more likely to prefer instant messaging and texting rather than phone calls, letters, and reports than are Baby Boomers and Traditionalists. As well, younger employees are more likely to use the Internet and social media to accomplish their tasks.

What is Cyberloafing?

Cyberloafing is when employees use the Internet at work for personal use. Lost productivity due to cyberloafing is a primary concern for employers in their adoption of social media. Further, employees rarely think about the potential lost productivity. Employees waste time in a number of ways: •50% talking on the phone or texting. •39% surfing the Internet. •38% on social media. -23% are sending personal email

What are the 3 Characteristics of Groups and Teams?

Dependence - the extent to which one member's tasks and responsibilities are linked to those of other members Accountability - involves who is responsible for the tasks and related outcomes Time - the duration members spend together completing tasks and responsibilities

What is a Social Media Policy?

Describes the who, how, when, and for what purposes of social media use, and the consequences for noncompliance.

What are the Two Ways (Systems) of Thinking?

Developed by Daniel Kahneman System 1 - Intuitive and Largely Unconscious Thought System 2 - Analytical and Conscious Thought

What are the Four Decision-Making Styles?

Directive: Low Tolerance for Ambiguity and Low Value Orientation Analytical: High Tolerance for Ambiguity and Low Value Orientation Conceptual: High Tolerance for Ambiguity and High Value Orientation Behavioral: Low Tolerance for Ambiguity and High Value Orientation

Harrassment

Discrimination based on a protected class that becomes illegal when it threatens your employment or is considered intimidating, hostile, or abusive

The Evolution of Power: From Domination to Delegation

Domination: Authoritarian Power - Manager/leader imposes decisions Consultation: Influence sharing - manager/leader consults followers when making decisions Participation: Power Sharing - Manager/leader and followers jointly make decisions Delegation: Power Distribution - Followers granted authority to make decisions

What is Dysfunctional Conflict?

Dysfunctional conflict threatens an organization's interests and is characterized by: •Threaten or diminish an organizations interests •Absenteeism •Turnover •Unionization •Litigation

What is the Reina Seven-Step Model for Rebuilding Trust?

Each step moves a group further away from distrust and closer to trust restored. 1. Acknowledge what caused trust to be compromised 2. Allow feelings and emotions to be discussed, constructively 3. Get and give support to others in the process 4. Reframe the experience and shift from being a victim to taking a look at the options and choices 5. Take responsibility. Ask, "What did I do or not do that caused this to happen?" 6. Forgive yourselves and others 7. Let go and move on

What are Roles?

• A set of expected behaviors for a particular position • Group roles are expected behaviors for members of the group as a whole • Sociologists view roles and their associated expectations as a fundamental basis of human interaction and experience. • People often play multiple roles. At work, for example, employees frequently play roles that go beyond duties in a job description, such as helping coworkers and suggesting improvements

What are some Privacy Concerns with Social Media?

Employers and their employees have reputations which are built over time and can have extreme consequences professionally. Employees are especially concerned about employers having access to personal e-mails and attachments, voicemail, text and instant messages, lists of apps on their devices, information in their mobile apps, and their location. Some recommendations for employers include: •Communicating what personal information from mobile devices is accessed by the employer. •Ensuring employees understand what is accessible depending on the operating system used. •Creating and communicating clear and sensible policies regarding potential employer actions regarding information on employees' mobile devices.

What is Empowerment?

Empowerment is a trend that continues in today's workplace wherein employees are given greater influence, instead of the more traditional top-down command-and-control centralized management practices. These are efforts to enhance employee performance, well-being, and positive attitudes by giving employees greater influence and using decentralized management practices. Empowerment can be implemented through two means: •Structural: Job redesign to transfer of power to employees. •Psychological: Through enhancing self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation.

Ethics in Negotiations

Ethics has been extensively studied and linked to first impressions of and satisfaction with negotiation partners, distributive and integrative negotiation success, and speed of reaching final agreements, among others. As well, your ethical behaviors when negotiating will impact your partner's perceptions as well. •Success of negotiations is influenced by the quality of information exchanged •Telling lies, hiding key facts, and engaging in other potentially unethical tactics erodes trust and goodwill •Unethical negotiating tactics need to be factored into organizational codes of ethics.

What is Feedback?

Feedback is simply the receiver's reaction to the sender's message.

What is the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) Scale?

Fiedler's scale to determine which traits a leader least likes in a coworker. A high LPC score suggests that a person is relationship-motivated, while low scores suggest a task-motivated style.

What are Flex Space and Flextime?

Flex space occurs when policies enable employees to do their work from different locations besides the office Flextime is flexible scheduling, covering either the time when work mist be completed (deadlines) or the limits of the workday

What is Tuckman's 5-Stage Model of Group Development?

Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning

What are the Five Bases of Power?

French and Raven's taxonomy, known as their "Five Bases of Power" include 5 types of power broken down into 2 categories. The top 3 bases are position based, the bottom two are person based: •Reward power: Control over the ability to promise or grant some type of reward. •Coercive power: Control over the ability to use threats or some type of actual punishment. •Legitimate power: Based on position or formal authority as granted by the organization or perceived by target. •Expert power: Sharing of or possession of special knowledge or important information. •Referent power: Power of one's personality, sometimes called charisma. Important to remember - it is perception that is key here. If someone perceives another has a power, in essence, they do...

What is Functional Conflict?

Functional conflict is constructive or cooperative conflict characterized by: •Consultative interactions •A focus on the issues •Mutual respect •Useful give and take •Often results in positive outcomes Functional conflict can result in open-mindedness, increased understanding and strengthened relationships, innovation, and accelerated growth.

How can we Mediate the Impacts of Internet Access?

Given concerns over cyberloafing, lost productivity, and other issues (such as online bullying) some organizations are turning to blocking access to the Internet. There are however several downsides to restricting access: •Alienate employees. •Fairness. •Perceptions of lack of trust. An organization needs to adopt effective policies to combat the problems associated with Internet access at work. Effective policies should: •Create safe channels for employees to air their concerns. •Clarify what is confidential. •Outline consequences for violations. •Identify spokespersons. •Discuss appropriate ways to engage others. •Explain what is illegal. •Align social policy with organizational culture. •Educate employees.

Good Evidence

Good evidence is something that is not strictly unsubstantiated opinion... If the article has no references or academic sources cited, chances are it is an opinion piece (an example would be an op-ed, newspaper or magazine article - although literature reviews are valid) Many people use web sites as evidence... the problem is that anyone can publish anything on the net.... Even ".edu" cites are problematic as their content has not been scrutinized. It could even be a professor posting an example of a "bad" paper! What constitutes "good" verses "bad' evidence? •One thing to look at is the methodology used... •What did the authors do to support their hypotheses? Statistical tests performed? Surveys or experiments? Done well? •What was the sample used? Size of the sample? Demographic information - potential bias? •What are some potential problems with the above noted issued?

What are Self-Managed Teams?

Groups of workers who are given administrative oversight for their task domains such as planning, scheduling, monitoring, and staffing. Involves a revolutionary change in management philosophy, structure, staffing and training practices as well as reward systems.

What is Groupthink?

Groupthink occurs when: •Members become deeply involved in a cohesive in-group. •Striving for unanimity overrides motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action. Symptoms of groupthink •Invulnerability •Inherent Morality •Rationalization •Stereotyped Views of Opposition •Self-Censorship •Illusion of Unanimity •Peer Pressure -Mindguards Groupthink can be avoided or mitigated by using a few simple techniques: •Everyone in the group is a critical evaluator and actively voices objections and doubts. •Top-level executives should not use policy committees to rubber-stamp decisions that have already been made. •Have different groups with different leaders explore the same policy questions. •Managers should encourage group debates and bring in outside experts to introduce fresh perspectives. •Assign the role of Devil's Advocate to someone. •Once consensus is reached, encourage everyone to rethink their position.

What are Hard and Soft Tactics?

Hard tactics exert more overt pressure - exchange, coalition, pressure, and legitimating tactics. Soft tactics - rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, ingratiation, and personal appeals

What is the Analytical Style of Decision-Making?

High Tolerance for Ambiguity and Low Value Orientation Analytical decision makers are those who: - tolerate ambiguity well - consider as many facts as possible - respond well to new situations

Power of a Good Impression

How do you make a good impression? •Set goals for networking events. •Consider the message that your jewelry, makeup, and clothes send. •Pay attention to your nonverbal communication. •Manage your emotions and mood. •Be interested to be interesting. Favorable upward impression-management tactics include job-focused, supervisor-focused, and self-focused techniques. A moderate amount of upward impression management is a necessity for the average employee today.

What is the Implicit Leadership Theory?

Implicit Leadership Theory is based on the idea that people have beliefs about how leaders should behave and what they should do for their followers These beliefs are summarized in a leadership prototype: •A mental representation of the traits and behaviors that people believe are possessed by leaders •It is important to understand the content of leadership prototypes because we tend to perceive that someone is a leader when he or she exhibits traits or behaviors that are consistent with our prototypes (sound familiar??)

How Political Should I be?

Individuals who are highly political: •Run the risk of being called self-serving. •May lose credibility. •May be considered poor team players. Individuals who are strictly non-political: •May experience slower promotions. •May feel left out. •May be considered poor team players.

What are Influence Tactics?

Influence is a conscious effort to affect and change a specific behavior in others. There are 9 generic influence tactics typically used when trying to influence someone: •Rational persuasion •Inspirational appeals •Consultation •Ingratiation •Personal appeals •Exchange •Coalition tactics •Pressure •Legitimizing tactics

What are the 4 Key Behaviors of Transformational Leadership?

Inspirational Motivation •Use of charisma •Attractive vision of the future Idealized Influence •Sacrificing for the good of the group •Being a role model with high ethical standards Individualized Consideration •Pay special attention to needs of followers •Find ways for people to develop and grow Intellectual Stimulation Encourage creativity, innovation, and problem-solving

What are Five Common Conflict-Handling Styles?

Integrating (problem solving): interested parties confront the issue and cooperatively identify the problem, generate and weigh alternatives, and select a solution. Obliging (smoothing): people show low concern for themselves and a great concern for others. Dominating: high concern for self and low concern for others, often characterized by "I win, you lose" tactics. Avoiding: passive withdrawal from the problem and active suppression of the issue are common. Compromising: give-and-take approach with a moderate concern for both self and others.

What are Intergroup Conflicts?

Intergroup conflict is conflict among work groups, teams, and departments. •This is a common threat to individual and organizational effectiveness. •Conflict states are shared perceptions among team members about the target (i.e., tasks or relationships) and intensity of the conflict •Conflict processes are the means by which team members work through task and relationship disagreements. •Group cohesiveness can turn a "group" into a "team," but excessive levels can impact the team's ability to think critically.

What is the Dialectic Method?

Involves a structured dialogue or debate of opposing viewpoints prior to making a decision

What is Leadership?

It is defined as a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal •As was discussed in chapter 12, you do not need to have a formal position of authority to be a leader. •Anyone who exerts influence over others in the pursuit of organizationally relevant matters is a leader. Effective leadership is more than just leadership. Effective leadership is more than just leadership. •To be effective requires a mix of traits, competencies, and interpersonal attributes. •From contingency theory we know effective leaders match their choice of behavior to the situational context.

What is Intuition?

Judgements, insights, or decisions that "come to mind on their own, without explicit awareness of the evoking cues and of course without explicit evaluation of the validity of these cues".

What are Holistic Hunches?

Judgments based on the subconscious integration of information stored in memory

What is Value-Added Negotiation?

Negotiating parties cooperatively develop multiple deal packages while building a productive long-term relationship by following these steps: •Clarify interests - after each party identifies tangible and intangible needs, they meet to discuss their respective needs and find common ground for negotiation •Identify options - marketplace of value is created by discussing desired elements of value (i.e. property, money, behavior, etc.) •Design alternative deal packages - each party mixes and matches elements of value in workable combinations •Select a deal - deal packages are analyzed and jointly discussed. One is selected from feasible deal packages with a spirit of creative agreement •Perfect the deal - discuss unresolved issues, develop a written agreement, and build relationships for future negotiations.

What is leader-member exchange theory?

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model of Leadership •Based on the assumption that leaders develop unique one-to-one relationships with each of the people reporting to them •Behavioral scientists call this sort of relationship a vertical dyad. •In-Group Exchange - creates trust and mutual obligation - High LMX •Out-Group Exchange - creates formality in expectations and rewards - Low LMX •The forming of vertical dyads is said to be a naturally occurring process, resulting from the leader's attempt to delegate and assign work roles. •Over the last two decades, LMX has been the second-most-researched theory of leadership. •It differs considerably from those previously discussed as it focuses on the quality of relationships between managers and subordinates as opposed to the behaviors or traits of either leaders or followers. •It also differs in that it does not assume that leader behavior is characterized by a stable or average leadership style as do the previously discussed models. In other words, most models of leadership assume a leader treats all employees in about the same way.

What are Fiedler's Three Dimensions of Situational Control?

Leader-member relations - the extent to which the leader has the support, loyalty, and trust of the work group Task structure - a measurement of the amount of structure contained within tasks performed by the work group Position Power - the leader's formal power to reward, punish, or otherwise obtain compliance from employees

Leaders and Followers

Leaders want followers who are: •Productive. •Reliable. •Honest. •Cooperative. •Proactive. •Flexible. Followers want leaders who will: •Foster significance and meaning in their work. •Foster sense of community and respect. •Make them feel engaged and energized at work.

Leadership vs Management

Leaders: •Deals with the interpersonal aspects of a manager's job •Inspires others, provides emotional support, gets employees to rally around a common goal •Key role in creating a vision and strategic plan Managers: •Typically performs functions associated with planning, investigating, organizing, and control •Concentrates on getting things done •Charged with implementing the vision and strategic plan Leaders and managers: Have distinct personalities Make different contributions Leaders agitate for change and new approaches. They have dynamic tension with Managers who advocate for stability and status quo. Both make valuable contributions that are very different

Contrasting Leadership and Management

Leadership & management are distinct, yet complementary systems of action. Effective leadership + good management = healthy organizations Effective leadership produces useful change and creates a level of uncertainty. Leadership characteristics include: •Setting a direction for the organization •Using communication to align people with that direction •Motivating people to action through empowerment and basic need gratification Effective management controls complexity by reducing uncertainty and stabilizes the organization. Management characteristics include: •Planning and budgeting •Organizing and staffing •Controlling and problem solving

Takeaways from Fiedler's Model

Leadership effectiveness goes beyond traits and behaviors Organizations should attempt to hire or promote people whose leadership styles fit or match the situational demands Leaders need to modify their style to fit a situation

What is Listening?

Listening is when we are actively decoding and interpreting verbal messages. Unlike hearing, which is merely a physical activity, listening requires cognitive attention and information processing. Listening is a cornerstone skill of communication competence. Many of us think we are good listeners when evidence suggests just the opposite, and we will not become better listeners unless we are motivated to do so. There are four typical listening styles (following slide). •These listening styles differ with respect to how invested the listener is, their level of participation, and the type of body language they display. •Effective listening is a learned skill that requires effort and motivation to practice. •We can improve our listening skills by showing respect, listening from the first sentence, being mindful, keeping quiet, asking questions, summarizing and paraphrasing, remembering what was said, and using nonverbal cues.

What is the Behavioral Style of Decision-Making?

Low Tolerance for Ambiguity and High Value Orientation Receptive to suggestions and focus strongly on people and the social aspects of a work situation.

What is the Directive Style of Decision-Making?

Low Tolerance for Ambiguity and Low Value Orientation Task-Oriented People who have a directive decision style: - like to focus on facts - are decisive and action oriented - focus on the short term

What is Selecting a Medium?

Managers can communicate through a variety of media, including face-to-face conversations and meetings, telephone calls, charts and graphs, and the many digital messaging forms.

What is Media Richness?

Media Richness refers to the capacity of a given communication medium to convey information and promote understanding. Media can vary from rich to lean. There are four factors that affect media richness: •Speed of feedback •Channel •Type •Language source

What is Transformational Leadership?

Model of Transformational Leadership •Transformational leadership represents a broad type of leader behavior that goes beyond task and relational leadership. •Its origins date back to the 1940's when German sociologist Max Weber discussed the pros and cons of charismatic leadership. •Charisma is a form of interpersonal attraction that inspires acceptance, devotion, and enthusiasm. •Transformational leaders transform followers to pursue organizational goals over self-interests by using leader behaviors that appeal to followers' self-concepts such as values, motives, and personal identity

Email - Friend or Foe?

Most people agree that email is essential, but it can be challenging and can be a major consumer of your time and an enemy of your productivity Some tips on managing e-mail: •Do not assume e-mail is confidential •Be professional and courteous - avoid sloppiness •Don't use e-mail for volatile or complex issues •Keep messages brief and clear - save people time •Be careful with attachments •Be mindful of the non-verbals that may be associated with your username or account address

What is Psychological Empowerment?

employees' belief that they have control over their work

What is Negotiation? What are the Two Basic Types of Negotiation?

Negotiation is a give-and-take decision-making process involving two or more parties with different preferences Two Basic Types of Negotiation: •Distributive Negotiation (Bargaining) - often referred to as win-lose or fixed pie negotiation. Usually involves a single issue in which one person gains at the expense of another. •Integrative Negotiation - often referred to as win-win or non-fixed pie negotiation. This is where an agreement can be found that is better for both parties than what they would have reached on their own.

What is the Perceptual Model of Communication?

Noise affects everything (through perceptual screens and distracting items). The sender: - encodes ideas and thoughts in ways for the receiver to understand - creates a message The message is transmitted on a medium The receiver: - decodes the message - creates meaning from the message - sends back feedback

What is Noise?

Noise is anything that interferes with the transmission and understanding of a message.

What is Anchoring Bias?

Occurs when decision makers are influenced by the first information received about a decision even if it is irrelevant. Happens because initial information, impressions, data feedback, or stereotypes anchor our subsequent judgments and decisions.

What is Minority Dissent?

Occurs when group members feel comfortable disagreeing with other group members

What is Hindsight Bias?

Occurs when knowledge of an outcome influences our belief about the probability that we could have predicted the outcome earlier. We tend to get overconfident about our foresight, which leads to bad decisions.

What is Team Interdependence?

One important aspect of teams is interdependence, or the extent to which members are dependent on each other to accomplish their work. Two common forms of interdependence are: • Task interdependence is the degree to which team members depend on each other for information, materials, and other resources to complete their job tasks. • Outcome interdependence is the degree to which the outcomes of task work are measured, rewarded, and communicated at the group level so as to emphasize collective outputs rather than individual contributions.

What is Passive Leadership?

One relationship-oriented leader behavior, known as Passive Leadership or "laissez-faire" leadership, which represents a general failure to take responsibility for leading, can be demoralizing and it makes employees feel unsupported. •Examples of laissez-faire leadership include: •avoiding conflict •failing to provide coaching on difficult assignment •failing to assist employees in setting performance goals •failing to give performance feedback •or being so hands-off that employees have little idea about what they should be doing.

What are some Frequently Used Political Tactics?

Organizational players use a variety of both positive/beneficial and negative/detrimental tactics. •Building a network of useful contacts. •Using key players to support initiatives. •Making friends with power brokers. •Bending the rules to fit the situation. •Self-promotion. •Creating a favorable image. •Praising others. •Attacking or blaming others. Using information as a political tool.

What are Personality Conflicts?

Personality conflicts are based on interpersonal opposition based on personal dislike or disagreement. •These are common and when are ignored or avoided, they often escalate •The book offers some practical tips for handling these types of conflict.

What is Position Power? What is Personal Power?

Position Power - associated with a particular job or position within an organization - legitimate, reward, coercive Personal Power - possessed independently of a position or job - expert and referent

What is Psychological Empowerment?

Psychological empowerment is when employees feel a sense of: •Meaning: belief that your work values and goals align with those of your manager, team, or employer. •Competence: personal evaluation of your ability to do your job. •Self-determination: sense that you have control over your work and its outcomes. •Impact at work: feeling that your efforts make a difference and affect the organization. Structural empowerment draws on job design and characteristics, but psychological empowerment is related to self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation. Psychological empowerment deals with employees' perceptions or cognitive states regarding empowerment. Recent research and practice have shown that the same four elements that foster psychological empowerment for individuals apply to teams and organizations.

What is Escalation of Commitment?

Refers to the tendency to stick to an ineffective course of action when it is unlikely that the bad situation can be reversed.

What is Framing Bias?

Relates to the manner in which a question is posed or framed. Framing is important because it shows that our decisions are influenced by the manner in which a problem or question is framed.

What is Availability Bias?

Represents a decision maker's tendency to base decisions on information that is readily available in memory leading us to overestimate the importance of information recently received or thought about. Recent information is not necessarily the best or most accurate information.

What are the Dark-Side Traits?

Research has also shown that individuals who possess certain dark (or more negative) traits are more likely to emerge as leaders. These traits, however, are negatively associated with leadership effectiveness. Narcissism •Self-centered, strong drive for personal power - feelings of superiority. •More charismatic and passionate yet more likely to promote counterproductive behaviors from others. Machiavellianism •Entails the use of manipulation, puts results ahead of principles. •Linked to counterproductive behaviors. Psychopathy •Lack of concern for others, impulsive. •Lack of remorse or guilt.

Applying Contingency Theories

Research suggests five steps for leaders to make themselves more effective: Step 1: Identify important outcomes. Step 2: Identify relevant leadership behaviors. Step 3: Identify situational conditions. Step 4: Match leadership to the conditions at hand. Step 5: Determine how to make the match. There can be unintended negative consequences to using a contingency approach: •Treating group members differently can result in some employees feeling they are not in the leader's "in-group" which can have a counterproductive effect on employees' self-efficacy and subsequent group performance. •Leaders of teams need to be careful when treating individual team members differently, as there are potential pros and cons to the application of contingency theories in a team context.

Leadership Effectiveness

Researchers have long sought to identify a set of traits to differentiate leaders from followers. Research results have been mixed, but some traits and attributes have small but positive associations with effective leader emergence such as: •Intelligence and emotional intelligence. •Communication skills. •The Big 5 Personality Traits

What is Paraphrasing?

Restating what someone else has said or written.

How do the five bases of power relate to commitment and compliance?

Reward, coercive, and negative legitimate power tend to product compliance (and sometimes resistance). Positive legitimate power, expert power, and referent power tend to foster commitment. Generally, different bases of power affect important outcomes such as job performance, job satisfaction, and turnover. •Expert and referent power have a generally positive effect. •Reward and legitimate power have a slightly positive effect. •Coercive power has a slightly negative effect.

What is House's path-goal theory?

Robert House's Path-Goal Theory contends that leaders are seen as effective when employees view them as a source of satisfaction or as paving the way to future satisfaction. Leaders accomplish this by: •Reducing roadblocks. •Providing guidance and support. •Linking rewards to goal accomplishment. What determines leadership effectiveness? The match between leadership behavior and the two contingency factors which include employee characteristics and environmental factors.

Who are Effective Leaders?

So who are some "good" leaders? See if you can think of some people you consider to be good leaders... Do you know why they are on your list? Can you identify what it is about them that puts them there as a "good" leader? Now think about this - how do leaders differ from, and how are they similar to managers?

What is Social Loafing?

Social loafing is the tendency for individual effort to decline as group size increases. This generally leads to: •Lower quality work. •Others being forced to work harder. •Disruption for the team. You can counter social loafing by: •Limiting group size. •Assuring equity of effort. •Holding people accountable. Offer hybrid rewards.

What is Social Media and How is it Related to Productivity at Work?

Social media is web-based and mobile technologies used to generate interactive dialogue with members of a network •The driving force behind technology including social media is to boost employee and employer productivity: •Employee productivity is boosted through: •Increased job satisfaction and better work-life balance. •Higher performance and retention. •More creativity and collaboration. •Employer productivity is boosted through: •Connection in real time and over distances with stakeholders. •Connecting sources of knowledge across the organization. •Expanding and opening traditional boundaries to involve outsiders in problem solving (i.e. crowdsourcing).

What is Optimizing?

Solving problems by producing the best possible solution based on a set of highly desirable conditions.

What are the good and bad aspects of the Rational Model?

Some benefits of trying to follow a rational process: •Quality: decision quality may be enhanced - follow more logically from all available knowledge and expertise. •Transparency: makes reasoning behind a decision transparent and available to scrutiny. •Responsibility: made public, it discourages the decider from acting on suspect considerations (i.e. personal advancement) and encourages more responsible decisions. Some drawback of trying to follow a rational process: •Incomplete information: managers rarely have complete information •A-emotional: the process inherently leaves emotions out •Politics: difficult for managers to honestly and accurately evaluate alternatives without some prejudice •Limitations: time and resources are limited •Support: people may be unwilling to implement and support decisions

What are the Pros and Cons of Virtual Teams?

Some of the pros of virtual teams include: • Reduced real estate costs. • Ability to leverage diverse KSAs over geography and time. • Ability to share knowledge of diverse markets. • Reduced commuting and travel expenses. • Reduced work-life conflicts • Ability to attract and retain talent. Likewise, a number of the cons of virtual teams are: • Difficult to establish cohesion, work satisfaction, trust, cooperative behavior, and commitment to team goals. • Cultural differences. • Differences in local laws and customs. • Lack of nonverbal cues. • Lack of collegiality. • Lack of face-to-face interaction. • Communication is limited. • Decision-making might have biases and perceived inequities. • Leadership - it may be difficult to build rich relationships. • Diversity - differences are difficult to appreciate.

A quick summary of what makes for a good article...

Some things to look for include... •Comprehensive list of references •The types and quality references listed •Methodology and sample used by the authors to support their argument •Published in a credible journal •Author's credentials

How can we Increase Influence?

Some tools to help enhance the ability to influence others: •Know what you want and believe you can get it •Be credible, trustworthy, inspirational, open minded and empathetic. •Strong communication capacity •Rely on the core. •Be believable and trustworthy. •Consult rather than legitimate. •Expect little from schmoozing. •Be subtle. •Learn to influence.

Proper Use of Literature When Your Original Thoughts Are Inaccurate

Sometimes your initial thoughts or hypotheses turn out inaccurate... If that is the case, you can use literature to refute an argument you are making and to develop a new one... Find arguments, data and statements that are contrary to what your original argument or hypothesis was and then build your new theory or case around them... Find arguments, data, and statements that are in line with your original argument or hypothesis, and use the new information about the revised theory to refute them as well... Find articles that have replicated findings that are in line with your new arguments...

What are the 4 Stages of Rational Decision Making?

Stage 1 - identify the problem or opportunity. •Determine the actual versus the desirable. Stage 2 - generate alternative solutions. •Need to slow down to evaluate a broader set of alternatives. •Invest in studying a greater number of potential solutions. Stage 3 - evaluate alternatives and select a solution. •Consider ethics, feasibility, and whether it removes the causes and solves the problem. Stage 4 - implement and evaluate. •Stakeholders evaluate how effectively the solution solves the problem. •If the solution fails, you can return to Stage 1.

What is the Ted Five-Step Protocol to Boosting Your Communication Effectiveness?

Step 1 - Frame Your Story: think of your presentation as a journey and decide where you want to start and end. Include only the most relevant details or points and bring them to life with examples. Plan your journey to end with a solution or conclude with a question to spur audience engagement or give them something to think about afterwards. Step 2 - Plan Your Delivery: avoid reading from a "script"... use bullet lists that provide an outline of what you want to say in each section. Be sure you know not only the content for each point, but also how to transition from one to the next. Step 3 - Develop Your Stage Presence: be aware of how much you move - not too much or too little. Eye contact is an important element of stage presence. Self-efficacy is important in overcoming nervousness, as is realizing that people expect you to be nervous. Step 4 - Plan Your Multimedia: keep technology simple, don't let it distract the audience... it should be a "visual aid", not the entire presentation! Keep in mind, people respond differently to pictures and videos than to words, as they convey emotion better than words. Step 5 - Put It Together: be prepared in advance and practice in front of others so they can give you effective feedback.

What is Structural Empowerment?

Structural empowerment is based on transferring authority and responsibilities from management to employees. •Managers can boost employee empowerment by changing policies, procedures, job responsibilities, and team designs. •Decision-making authority and other broader responsibilities should only be shared with those who are competent to do what is necessary. Empowerment is not a zero-sum game where one person's gain is another's loss - sharing power is a means for increasing your own power. Empowerment is a matter of degree, not an either-or proposition. A common element of empowerment involves pushing decision-making authority down to lower levels. The degree of power-sharing should match the needs of the situation and the capabilities of the individuals or teams involved.

Giving Proper Credit When Using Literature

Style of documentation - There are different styles for different disciplines - OB discipline usually uses APA (American Psychological Association) style In-text citations... - What are they? - Why are they so important? - What is expected of you? The dreaded reference sheet... - What is it, really? - Why is it so crucial? - What is expected here? The library is the best place to find out about documentation... They have print books and reference material available to help you with proper citation and documentation. And the librarians are awesome! Don't hesitate to reach out to them for help...

What are the two types of group roles?

Task Roles • These allow the group to function and keep the group on track • May include any of a variety of 10 different role titles (see the text for a list) Maintenance Roles • These roles serve the needs of the group members and help keep the group together. • May include any of a variety of 7 different role titles (see the text for a list)

What are the "3 C's" of Effective Teams?

Team Charters - both researchers and practitioners urge groups and teams to plan before tackling their tasks and recommend that teams develop team charters and team performance strategies. • Team charters are documents that describe how the team will operate. • Team performance strategies are deliberate plans that outline what exactly the team is to do. Team Composition - the collection of jobs, personalities, knowledge, skills, abilities, and experience of team members. • It is important that team member characteristics fit the responsibilities of the team for the team to be effective. • It is important to create teams with the composition to match the desired objectives. Capacity - the ability make needed changes in response to demands put on the team.

What are the Types of Teams?

Teams can be differentiated by purpose, duration, and level of member commitment. Work teams: • Well-defined purpose, typically permanent, and usually require full commitment from members. Project teams: • Assembled to address specific problem, task, or project. • Usually exist for duration to compete purpose. • Members usually divide time between primary job and various project teams. Self-managed teams: • Groups of workers who are given administrative oversight for their task domains such as planning, scheduling, monitoring, and staffing. • Involves a revolutionary change in management philosophy, structure, staffing and training practices as well as reward systems. Cross-functional teams: • Occurs when specialists from different areas are put on the same team. Virtual teams: • Teams that work together over time and distance via electronic media to combine effort and achieve common goals.

What are Virtual Teams?

Teams that work together over time and distance via electronic media to combine effort and achieve common goals.

What are Teamwork Competencies?

Teamwork competencies need to be role modeled and taught. These include group problem solving, mentoring, conflict management skills, and emotional intelligence. An individual with teamwork competencies: - Contributes to the team's work - Constructively interacts with team members - Keeps team on track - Expects quality work - Possesses relevant knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) for team's responsibilities

What are the four types of Task Interdependence?

pooled - sales teams sequential - assembly lines reciprocal - hiring processes comprehensive - product development teams (video games)

What are Contingency Theories?

propose that the effectiveness of a particular style of leader behavior depends on the situation

What is the Model of Intuition?

The Intuition Model is based on making decisions using one's intuition. There are two forms of intuition: holistic hunches and automated experiences. Intuition is represented by two distinct processes: one is automatic, involuntary, and mostly effortless, while the second is controlled, voluntary, and effortful. There are two sources of intuition: expertise (i.e., explicit and tacit knowledge) and feelings. Explicit knowledge: information that can easily be put into words. Tacit knowledge: information gained through experience that is difficult to express and formalize. An intuitive response builds on the interaction between one's expertise and feelings in a given situation

What is the Normative Model of Nonrational Decision Making?

The Normative Model is guided by "bounded rationality" Bounded rationality is the notion that decision makers are bounded or restricted by a variety of constraints when making decisions. These constraints include any personal characteristics or resources (internal and external) that reduce rational decision making. •Personal characteristics include the limited capacity of the human mind, personality, and time constraints. •Internal resources are the organization's human and social capital, financial resources, technology, plant and equipment, and internal processes and systems. •External resources include things the organization cannot directly control such as employment levels in the community, capital availability, and government policies.

Team Adaptive Capacity

The ability of a team to adapt to changes such as changing demands or the transition of members in or out of the group

What is Team Adaptive Capacity?

The ability to make needed changes in response to demands put on the team

What is empathy?

The ability to recognize and understand another person's feelings and thoughts.

What are some Anti-Bullying Strategies?

The authors offer a laundry list of recommendations for combating bullying. These include: •Develop a workplace bullying policy. •Encourage open and respectful communication. •Identify and model appropriate ways for people to interact with colleagues. •Develop and communicate a system for reporting bullying. •Identify and resolve conflicts quickly and fairly to prevent escalation. •Identify the situations, policies, and behaviors likely to cause bullying or allow it to occur. •Train employees to manage conflict. •Establish and enforce clear consequences for those who engage in bullying. •Monitor and review employee relationships, with particular attention to fairness.

What is a Global Mindset?

The belief in one's ability to influence dissimilar others in a global context.

What is Group Cohesiveness?

The degree to which members feel part of the collective or "we" of the group

Adjourning

The fifth stage of Tuckman's Model of Group Development •Work of the group is completed, and group moves on to other activities. •Opportunity for leaders to emphasize valuable lessons learned. Individual Issues: "What's next?" Group Issues: "Can we help members transition out?"

Forming

The first stage of Tuckman's Model of Group Development - the "Ice-Breaking" stage • Group members uncertain about their role and mutual trust is low. • Good deal of holding back to see who is in charge, but conflict is beneficial and leads to increased creativity. Individual Issues: "How do I fit in?" Group Issues: "Why are we here?"

Stage 1 - Identify the Problem or Opportunity

The first stage of the rational decision making model. •Determine the actual versus the desirable.

Performing

The fourth stage of Tuckman's Model of Group Development •Activity focused on problem solving and work is done without hampering others. •Climate of open communication and cooperation with a great deal of helping behavior. Individual Issues: "How can I best perform my role?" Group Issues: "Can we do the job properly?"

Stage 4 - Implement and Evaluate

The fourth stage of the rational decision making model. •Stakeholders evaluate how effectively the solution solves the problem. •If the solution fails, you can return to Stage 1.

Leadership and Gender

The increase of women in the workforce has generated much interest in understanding the similarities and differences in female and male leaders. According to research: •Male leaders: •More task-oriented behaviors. •Autocratic, directive style. •More likely to view themselves as effective. •Female leaders: •More relationship-oriented behaviors •Democratic or participative style •Viewed as being more effective by peers, managers, direct reports •Viewed as more cohesive, cooperative, learning-oriented

What is a Vertical Dyad?

The linkage of the relationship between the leader and member. Explains the level of relationship between leader and member

What is Bounded Rationality?

The notion that decision makers are bounded or restricted by a variety of constraints when making decisions. Part of the normative model of non-rational decision making.

Storming

The second stage of Tuckman's Model of Group Development - the time of testing •Testing leader's policies and assumptions and how they fit into the power structure. •Subgroups take shape and subtle forms of rebellion occur. Individual Issues: "What's my role here?" Group Issues: "Why are we fighting over who's in charge and who does what?"

Stage 2 - Generate Alternative Solutions

The second stage of the rational decision making model. •Need to slow down to evaluate a broader set of alternatives. •Invest in studying a greater number of potential solutions.

Norming

The third stage of Tuckman's Model of Group Development - group becomes more cohesive •Less conflict with increasing team member interactions and interdependence of work tasks. Individual Issues: "What do the others expect me to do?" Group Issues: "Can we agree on roles and work as a team?"

Stage 3 - Evaluate Alternatives and Select a Solution

The third stage of the rational decision making model. •Consider ethics, feasibility, and whether it removes the causes and solves the problem.

What are the 4 Listening Styles?

There are 4 "listening styles that include: •Active listening - "I am fully invested" •Involved listening - "I am partially invested" •Passive listening - "Not my responsibility to listen" •Detached listening - "I'm disinterested in listening to you" The authors offer several tips for effective listening: •Show respect and listen from the first sentence. •Be mindful and keep quiet. •Ask questions, paraphrase and summarize. •Remember what was said. •Involve your body.

Using Literature as Evidence

There are several reasons we use literature as evidence to support an argument in OB research - Academic articles are allegedly scrutinized by scholars and experts in the field before they are published. - They use other "valid" sources to substantiate what their contentions are and build on these existent theories.

What are Relationship-Oriented Leader Behaviors? What are the 4 types of these behaviors?

These can include behaviors that are: supporting (e.g., helping people deal with stressful events) developmental (e.g., providing career advice) appreciative (e.g., providing positive praise) empowering (e.g., allowing employees to make decisions). •Primary purpose - enhance employees' skills and to create positive work relationships •Relationship-oriented behaviors include: •Consideration •Empowerment •Ethical leadership •Servant-leadership

What is Bullying?

Unwelcomed behavior that occurs over a period of time and is meant to harm someone who feels powerless to respond

Proper Use of Literature - Helping to Build Your Argument

Use literature to support an argument or hypothesis you are making... Find arguments, data, and statements that are in line with your argument or hypothesis... Find arguments, data and statements that are contrary to what your argument or hypothesis is and then use other evidence to refute them... Find articles that have replicated findings that are in line with your arguments or hypothesis...

What is Representative Bias?

Used when people estimate the probability of an event occurring. Reflects the tendency to assess the likelihood of an event occurring based on one's impressions about similar occurrences.

What is Avoidance of Conflict?

We avoid conflict because we fear various combinations of things like fear of: •rejection •harm •damage to or loss of relationships •saying the wrong thing By managing conflict, a number of desirable outcomes can emerge such as: •agreement •stronger relationships •learning Avoiding conflict doesn't make it go away; it is more likely that the conflict situation will continue or even escalate. Instead of ignoring conflict, you may be well served to try things like: •Stop ignoring a conflict by bringing both sides together to address the issues. •Act decisively to improve the outcome. •Make the path to resolution open and honest. •Use descriptive language instead of evaluative. •Make the process a team-building opportunity. •Keep the upside in mind.

What are Work Teams?

Well-defined purpose, typically permanent, and usually require full commitment from members.

What is Trust?

What is trust? • the willingness to be vulnerable to another person, and the belief that the other person will consider the impact of how his or her intentions and behaviors will affect you. • When we feel or observe others trust us, we are more likely to trust them. Trust is thought to come in three forms. Contractual trust - trust of character. Communication - trust of disclosure. Competence - trust of capability.

What is crowdsourcing?

When companies invite nonemployees to contribute to achieving particular goals and manage the input process via the internet.

What is Escalation of Conflict?

When conflict escalates the intensity increases and often leads to cycles of provocation and counter-provocation The result is increasingly extreme and unjustifiable positions Warning signs of conflict escalation: •Tactics change. •Number of issues grows. •Issues move from specific to general. •Number of parties grows. Goals change.

What is Defensiveness?

When people perceive they are being attacked or threatened.

What is Goal Displacement?

When the primary goal is overridden by a secondary goal.

Research and Practice Provide Some Helpful Hints

Years of research and practical experience tell us that you should: •Know Who You Are - personality matters. Recent research shows people with high levels of agreeableness are best suited for integrative negotiations, those low in agreeableness are better at distributive negotiations. •Manage Outcome Expectations - in most cases each party has an expected outcome, and this is compared to the actual outcome. Skilled negotiators therefore manage expectations in advance of actual negotiations. •Show reaction to a first offer if it is out of bounds - this signals that they are outside of your zone of possible agreement (ZOPA) —the range of possibilities you are willing to accept. •Consider the Other Person's Outcome -you negotiate for your own benefit, but it often also matters how the other party makes out—are they satisfied? •Adhere to Standards of Justice - not only do the outcomes need to be perceived as fair (distributive justice), but so too do the processes by which they were attained. •Remember Your Reputation - you may "win" today and miss out on opportunities in the future... winning at all costs often has significant costs!

What is Charisma?

a form of interpersonal attraction that inspires acceptance, devotion, and enthusiasm

What is a leadership prototype?

a mental representation of the traits and behaviors that people believe are possessed by leaders

What is a Coalition?

an informal group bound together by the active pursuit of a single issue

What are Team Performance Strategies?

deliberate plans that outline what exactly the team is to do, such as goal setting and defining particular member roles, tasks, and responsibilities

What are Team Charters?

describe how the team will operate, for instance, how members will share information, hold members accountable, deal with conflict, and make decisions

What are some Characteristics of High Performing Teams?

• Shared and participative leadership. • Aligned on purpose - a compelling team purpose and clear goals. • Appropriate mix of knowledge, skills, and abilities. • Open communication - a climate of trust and open, honest communication. • Clear role expectations and shared responsibility. • Early and effective conflict resolution. • Norms for collaboration and a focus on task.

What is a Group?

• Two or more freely interacting individuals who share norms and goals and have a common identity Groups have low or no task dependency, are not accountable to each other for their work, and may or may not assemble for a specified period of time. • Groups usually accomplish more than individuals • Research consistently shows that groups routinely outperform the average of their individual members, particularly with quantitative tasks (synergy) • Groups can be formal or informal (the two can overlap). - Formal groups are assigned and supported by organizations to accomplish specific goals - Informal groups have members who's overriding purpose for meeting is friendship or a common interest

Uncertainty and Political Behavior

•A lack of trust in a boss or coworker boosts uncertainty as to whether they will undermine you and steal credit. •Each of these scenarios creates uncertainty for you, but research shows political maneuvering is triggered by 5 common sources of uncertainty within organizations: 1. Unclear objectives 2. Vague performance measures 3. Ill-defined decision processes 4. Strong individual or group competition 5. Any type of change

What is Nonverbal Communication?

•Any message sent or received independent of the written or spoken word - communication without words •Includes factors like time, space, distance between persons, use of color, dress, walking behavior, standing, positioning, seating arrangement, office locations and furnishings. •Experts estimate that 65% to 95% of every message is interpreted through nonverbal communication. •Body movements and gestures are a key source -Provide additional nonverbal information that can either enhance or detract from the communication process -May be interpreted differently in different cultures

What is the Trait Approach?

•Attempts to identify personality characteristics or interpersonal attributes that can be used to differentiate leaders from followers •Early research identified: •Intelligence •Dominance •Self-confidence •Level of energy and activity •Task-relevant knowledge •Early researchers felt that leaders were "born", not "made".. More contemporary thinking indicates we can develop these traits.

What is the Behavioral Styles Approach to leadership? What are the 4 categories of leader behaviors?

•Attempts to identify the unique behaviors displayed by effective leaders •Leaders rely on many different types of behaviors to influence others and to accomplish goals (one researcher identified as many as 65!). •These can be boiled down to four categories: •Task-oriented •Relationship-oriented •Passive Transformational

What is Work-Family Balance?

•Balance is the key to reducing conflict •Work-family balance begins at home •An employer's family-supportive philosophy is more important than specific programs - the organizational culture must be supportive •Importance of work-life family balance varies across generations - research on work values across 16,000 people from different generational groups suggests that organizations should consider implementing work policies that are targeted toward different generational groups •Balance requires flexibility which includes: -Flexspace: for example, telecommuting - when policies enable employees to do their work from different locations besides the office (e.g. home). -Flextime: this is flexible scheduling. Can concern when work is expected to be completed (e.g. deadlines) or working hours (e.g. 10-5). •It is critically important to emphasize the role of supervisors. The value of flexible work arrangements can be undermined if the supervisor isn't supportive.

What are Task Oriented Leader Behaviors?

•Can include a host of behaviors such as planning, clarifying, monitoring, and problem solving •Primary purpose - ensure that people, equipment, and other resources are used in an efficient way Types: Initiating structure: •Organizes group behavior to maximize productivity •Moderately strong positive relationship with leader effectiveness Transactional leadership •Focuses on clarifying roles and requirements. •Uses contingent rewards and punishments.

Why is Communication Important?

•Challenges lie in effectively communicating in today's 24/7 digitally connected world - especially now since the global pandemic shutdown. •It is important to understand the underlying communication process and the dynamics of communicating as technology continues to evolve. •Every managerial function and activity involves some form of direct or indirect communication. •Every person's communication skills affect both personal and organizational effectiveness.

What are Some Decision Making Biases?

•Confirmation Bias - has two components: •The decision maker subconsciously decides something even before investigating why it is the right decision, and then •seeks information that supports the decision while discounting information that does not. •Overconfidence Bias - being overconfident about estimates or forecasts. Grows in strength when people are asked moderate to extremely difficult questions rather than easy ones. •Availability Bias - represents a decision maker's tendency to base decisions on information that is readily available in memory leading us to overestimate the importance of information recently received or thought about. Recent information is not necessarily the best or most accurate information. •Representativeness Bias - used when people estimate the probability of an event occurring. Reflects the tendency to assess the likelihood of an event occurring based on one's impressions about similar occurrences. •Anchoring Bias - occurs when decision makers are influenced by the first information received about a decision even if it is irrelevant. Happens because initial information, impressions, data feedback, or stereotypes anchor our subsequent judgments and decisions. •Hindsight Bias - occurs when knowledge of an outcome influences our belief about the probability that we could have predicted the outcome earlier. We tend to get overconfident about our foresight, which leads to bad decisions. •Framing Bias - relates to the manner in which a question is posed or framed. Framing is important because it shows that our decisions are influenced by the manner in which a problem or question is framed. •Escalation of Commitment - refers to the tendency to stick to an ineffective course of action when it is unlikely that the bad situation can be reversed.

What is Programmed Conflict?

•Conflict that raises different opinions regardless of the personal feelings of the managers •Gets contributors to either defend or criticize ideas based on relevant facts rather than personal preference or political interest Programmed Conflict techniques include: •Devil's Advocacy - assigning someone the role of critic •Dialectic Method - fostering a structured debate of opposing viewpoints

What is Creativity?

•Creativity is the process of producing new and useful ideas concerning products, services, processes, and procedures •One can create something new (creation), combine or synthesize things (synthesis), or change things (modification)

What is Decoding?

•Decoding is the process of interpreting and making sense of a message. •Receivers decode and create meaning after they have received the message. - Can be influenced by cultural norms and values.

What is Linguistic Style?

•Differences in communication between men, women, and generations are partly caused by the array of linguistic styles people use. - Includes such features as directness or indirectness, pacing and pausing, word choice, and the use of such elements as jokes, figures of speech, stories, questions, and apologies. •Characteristic speaking pattern where we: - Use culturally learned signals to communicate what we mean - Interpret others' meaning - Evaluate one another as people

Takeaways from House's Path-Goal Theory

•Effective leaders use multiple types of leader behavior. •Leaders are encouraged to clarify the paths to goal accomplishment and to remove any obstacles that may impair an employee's ability to achieve his or her goals. •Leadership styles should be modified to fit various employee and environmental characteristics.

How can you Increase Creativity?

•Effectively manage creative performance behaviors •Create an environment that encourages risk taking •Willingness to give feedback •Develop a peer environment - good of the group is more important than the individual •Hire great people possessing required person factors •Stay connected with innovations taking place in academia •Change things like your commuting route, lunch time or workspace •Listen to noise •Do creative exercises

What is the Rational Model of Decision Making?

•Explains how managers should make decisions •Assumes managers are completely objective and possess complete information •Decisions thus demonstrate excellent logic and optimize the organization's best interests.

What is Ethical Leadership?

•Focus is on being a moral role model. •Positive relationship to job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behaviors, motivation and performance. •Lower levels of job stress, counterproductive work behaviors, and turnover.

What are some Advantages of Group Decision Making?

•Greater pool of knowledge - a group possesses more information and knowledge than one individual acting alone. •Different approaches to a problem - individuals with different backgrounds and experiences bring varied perspectives to diagnosing and solving problems. •Greater commitment to a decision - participation and a voice in decision making are more likely to result in commitment to a decision. This in turn leads group members to accept and feel responsible for implementing a proposed solution. •Better understanding of decision rationale - participating in a decision increases group members' understanding about why a decision is being made and what must occur to implement it. This in turn reduces miscommunication among people. •More visible role modeling - less experienced group members learn about group dynamics and how to solve problems.

What is Decision Making?

•Identifying and choosing alternative solutions that lead to a desired state of affairs •Most important step in this process is defining the problem. •A poorly or erroneously defined problem can result in treating a "symptom" rather than the problem, resulting in further issues arising. •Two basic models (types) of decision making: -Rational - uses analytical and conscious thought. Usually slow and logical. -Nonrational - relies on intuition and involves mental shortcuts (heuristics). Can be quick and required little cognitive effort

What is Incivility?

•Incivility is any form of socially harmful behavior, such as: -Aggression -Interpersonal deviance -Social undermining -Interactional justice -Harassment -Abusive supervision -Bullying - is somewhat different from other forms of incivility. It affects even those that are not bullied and has group-level implications •Incivility is common - recent research reports that 98% of employees stated they had experienced some form of incivility and 50% said they had been treated rudely at least once a week.

Takeaways from Behavioral Theory

•Leader behavior is more important than leader traits when it comes to effectiveness •Leader behaviors can be systematically improved and developed •There is no one best style of leadership

What is Nonrational Decision Making?

•Models of decision making that explain how managers actually make decisions •Organizations may aspire to make decisions using the rational model, but in reality, most decisions are made using one of the nonrational models. •There are two nonrational models: - Normative model - Intuition model

What is Work-Life Conflict?

•Occurs when the demands or pressures from work and family are mutually incompatible •Can take two distinct forms: -Work interference with family -Family interference with work •In either case, these conflicts can be: -Social (e.g., between the expectations of your boss and those of your spouse), or -Cognitive (e.g., your thoughts about home interfere with work or vice versa).

What are some Drivers of Creative Performance Behavior?

•Person Factors - the Big Five personality dimensions, an innovative cognitive style, self-efficacy, willingness to tolerate ambiguity, and proactive personality, all are positively associated with creative performance behaviors. •Environmental Characteristics - meaningful work, positive relationships with supervisors and coworkers, informational feedback, and spatial configuration of work settings all have a positive impact on creative performance behaviors. •Organizational climate and organizational culture also contribute to the exhibition of creative behaviors. •Managerial behavior and organizational policies and procedures are key ways to influence organizational climate and culture.

What is Evidence-Based Decision Making?

•Process of conscientiously using the best available data and evidence when making managerial decisions •Evidence is used in three different ways: •To make a decision - whenever the decision follows directly from the evidence. •To inform a decision - whenever the decision process combines hard, objective facts with qualitative inputs, such as intuition or bargaining with stakeholders. •To support a decision whenever - the evidence is gathered or modified for the sole purpose of lending legitimacy to a decision that has already been made. •Has both positive and negative effects: •On the positive side, manufactured evidence can be used to convince an external audience that the organization is following a sound course of action in response to a complex and ambiguous decision context. •On the negative side, this practice can stifle employee involvement and input because people will come to believe that management is going to ignore evidence and just do what it wants. The least effective way to use evidence-based decision making is to support a decision that has already been made.

What is Big Data?

•Reflects the vast quantity of data available for decision making used to create a competitive advantage •It also encompasses "the collection, sorting, and analysis of that information, and the techniques to do so." •It creates value by: •Making information transparent and usable •Allowing organizations to measure and collect all types of performance information to enhance productivity •Allowing for more narrow segmentation of customers Being used to develop new products

What is Servant Leadership?

•Service to others over service to oneself. •Servant leaders possess several key characteristics: •Listening., empathy and healing. •Awareness, persuasion and conceptualization. •Foresight, and stewardship. •Development of people and community building.

What are some Disadvantages of Group Decision Making?

•Social pressure - the desire to remain in good standing within the group leads to conformity and stifles creativity. •A few people dominate - the quality of a group's decision can be influenced by a few vocal people who dominate the discussion - particularly problematic when the vocal person is perceived as a powerful individual. •Goal displacement - when evaluating alternatives, secondary considerations such as winning an argument, getting back at a rival, or trying to impress the boss can override the primary goal of solving a problem. Goal displacement occurs when the primary goal is overridden by a secondary goal. •Groupthink - a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action.

What is Power?

•The ability to marshal human, informational, and other resources to get something done •Key here is "ability" •Power is about influencing others •Other definitions include: •"The influence of an individual or group over another individual or group", and •"An actor...has power in a given situation (situational power) to the degree that he can satisfy the purposes (goals, desires, or wants) that he is attempting to fulfill in that situation" •Remember that authority is a right, power is an ability and two do not always go hand in hand.

What is Confirmation Bias?

•The decision maker subconsciously decides something even before investigating why it is the right decision, and then •seeks information that supports the decision while discounting information that does not.

What is Communication?

•The exchange of information between a sender and a receiver, and the inference (perception) of meaning between the individuals involved •A process that takes place between two or more people •It's a very important process for managers because they tend to spend the majority of their time sending, receiving, and interpreting messages.

What are some Pros and Cons of the Rational Decision Making Model?

•The rational model is prescriptive, outlining a logical process that managers should use when making decisions - the rational model is based on the notion that managers optimize when making decisions. -Optimizing involves solving problems by producing the best possible solution and is based on a set of highly desirable conditions—having complete information, leaving emotions out of the decision-making process, honestly and accurately evaluating all alternatives, time and resources are abundant and accessible, and people are willing to implement and support decisions. -Practical experience, of course, tells us that these conditions are all rarely met, and assumptions to the contrary are unrealistic.

What are Organizational Politics?

•These are intentional acts of influence to enhance or protect the self-interest of individuals or groups. •These actions are not endorsed by or aligned with the interests of the organization •The emphasis here is on self-interest - it distinguishes politics from other forms of influence •When a proper balance or alignment exists, the pursuit of self-interest may also serve the organization's interests. •When political activities are out of balance and/or conflict with the organization's interests they are considered negative and not endorsed by the organization. Some key causes of political behavior: •Organizational justice. •Trust in co-workers. -Negative affect.

What is Impression Management?

•This is any attempt to control or manipulate the images related to a person, organization, or idea using speech, behavior, or appearance •Most impression management attempts are directed at making a good impression on important others, although there are exceptions. •It is important to remember that anyone can be the intended target of impression management - parents, teachers, peers, employees, and customers are all fair game.

What are some key sources of nonverbal behavior?

•Touching: another powerful nonverbal cue. People tend to touch those they like as it conveys an impression of warmth and caring and can be used to create a personal bond between people. Be careful about touching people from diverse cultures, however, as norms for touching vary significantly around the world. •Facial expressions: convey a wealth of information. Smiling, for instance, typically represents warmth, happiness, or friendship, whereas frowning conveys dissatisfaction or anger. •Eye contact: a strong nonverbal cue that varies across cultures. Some cultures it is interpreted as conveying honesty (i.e. in the US) and in others it conveys challenge (i.e. the Ivory Coast).

Implications of Transformational Leadership

•Transformational leadership can be ethical or unethical. •Establishment of a positive view of the future is the first step. •The best leaders are not just transformational. •Transformational leadership affects outcomes at the individual, group, and organizational levels. •Transformational leadership works virtually. •Transformational leadership does not imply ethical leadership.

What are some Pros and Cons of Using Intuition?

•Two benefits of using intuition to make decisions: •It can speed up the decision-making process, which is valuable when you are under time constraints. •It is useful when resources are limited. •Two drawbacks of using intuition: •It is subject to the same types of biases associated with rational decision making - biases that are discussed in the next section of this chapter. •The decision maker may have difficulty convincing others that the intuitive decision makes sense so a good idea may be ignored. Intuition and rationality are complementary, and managers should attempt to use both when making decisions.

How to be a Better Follower

•Understand your boss •Understand your own style, needs, goals, expectations, and strengths and weaknesses •Conduct a gap analysis between the understanding you have about your boss and the understanding you have about yourself •Build on mutual strengths and adjust or accommodate the leader's divergent style, goals, expectations, and weaknesses •Recognize conflict •Enhance success

What are the Takeaways from Trait Theory?

•We can no longer ignore the implications of leadership traits •Positive traits should be cultivated and "dark side" traits avoided •Organizations should include personality testing and trait assessments in hiring and promotion •It is important to develop a "global mind-set".. As more and more companies expand their international operations, or simply hire more culturally diverse people for domestic operations in the US, companies desire to enhance employees' "global mind-set."