Organizational Behavior: Final Exam Study Set 2

Self-concept

"the concept the individual has of himself as a physical, social, and spiritual or moral being."10 In other words, because you have a self-concept, you recognize yourself as a distinct human being. A self-concept would be impossible without the capacity to think about complex things and processes

asynchronous communication

team members can work on the same project at different times

External Locus of Control

tend to attribute key outcomes in their lives to environmental causes, such as luck or fate

Personality Dimensions

Extraversion and conscientiousness were found to be the most stable of the Big Five conscientiousness had the strongest positive correlation with job performance and training performance. how to help conscientious employees perform well. Specifically, they prefer goal-focused leadership, like high-complexity jobs, and need valid feedback that will help them learn and not frustrate their pursuit of goals entrepreneurs score high on conscientiousness. Another relevant finding: Extraversion (an outgoing personality) correlated positively with promotions, salary level, and career satisfaction. And, as one might expect, neuroticism (low emotional stability) was associated with low career satisfaction.

Psychological contracts

represent an individual's perception about the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange between him- or herself and another party. In a work environment, the psychological contract represents an employee's beliefs about what he or she is entitled to receive in return for what he or she provides to the organization.

Ability

represents a broad and stable characteristic responsible for a person's maximum—as opposed to typical—performance on mental and physical tasks

Vision

represents a long-term goal that describes "what" an organization wants to become.

polychronic time

seen in the multiple and cyclical activities and concurrent involvement with different people in Mediterranean, Latin American, and especially Arab cultures

Organizational culture

set of shared, taken-for-granted implicit assumptions that a group holds and that determines how it perceives, thinks about and reacts to its various environments can impact employee motivation, satisfaction, and turnover can be a source of competitive advantage managers can influence organizational culture

Demographic fault line

-"hypothetical dividing lines that may split a group into subgroups based on one or more attributes." -Fault lines form when work-group members possess varying demographic characteristics and negative interpersonal processes occur when people align themselves based on salient fault lines or demographic characteristics. Fault lines form when work-group members possess varying demographic characteristics (e.g., gender, age, ethnicity), and negative interpersonal processes occur when people align themselves based on salient fault lines or demographic characteristics.

Nonverbal Communication

-any message, sent or received independent of the written or spoken word -includes such factors as use of time and space, distance between persons when conversing, use of color, dress, walking behavior, standing, positioning, seating arrangement, office locations and furnishings. Sources: -Body movement and gestures Open body positions such as leaning forward communicate immediacy, a term used to represent openness, warmth, closeness, and availability for communication. Defensiveness is communicated by gestures such as folding arms, crossing hands, and crossing one's legs. Women nodded their heads and moved their hands more than men. Leaning forward, large body shifts, and foot and leg movements were exhibited more frequently by men than women. Hand gestures are especially problematic in cross-cultural situations. -Touch People tend to touch those they like. Women do more touching during conversations than men. men and women interpret touching differently. Sexual harassment claims might be reduced by keeping this perceptual difference in mind. -Facial Expressions Facial expressions convey a wealth of information. Smiling at a business meeting typically represents warmth, happiness, or friendship, whereas frowning conveys dissatisfaction or anger. the association between facial expressions and emotions varies across cultures.Smiling broadly and showing one's teeth, for example, conveys different emotions around the world. -Eye Contact Eye contact is a strong nonverbal cue that serves four functions in communication. 1) eye contact regulates the flow of communication by signaling the beginning and end of conversation. There is a tendency to look away from others when beginning to speak and to look at them when done. 2) gazing (as opposed to glaring) facilitates and monitors feedback because it reflects interest and attention. T 3) eye contact conveys emotion. People tend to avoid eye contact when discussing bad news or providing negative feedback. 4) gazing relates to the type of relationship between communicators. norms for eye contact vary across cultures. Westerners are taught at an early age to look at their parents when spoken to. In contrast, people from many Asian, Latin, and African cultures are taught to avoid eye contact with a parent or superior in order to show obedience and subservience. Positive Nonverbal Actions That Help Communication - Maintaining appropriate eye contact. - Occasionally using affirmative nods to indicate agreement. - Smiling and showing interest. - Leaning slightly toward the speaker. - Keeping your voice low and relaxed. - Being aware of your facial expressions. Actions to Avoid - Licking your lips or playing with your hair or mustache. - Turning away from the person you are communicating with. - closing your eyes and displaying uninterested facial expressions such as yawning. - Excessively moving in your chair or tapping your feet. - Using an unpleasant tone and speaking too quickly or too slowly. - Biting your nails, picking your teeth, and constantly adjusting your glasses.

Social categorization theory

-holds that similarities and differences are used as a basis for categorizing self and others into groups, with ensuing categorizations distinguishing between one's own in-group and one or more out-groups. -People tend to like and trust in-group members more than out-group members and generally favor in-groups over out-groups.

Four Sociological Criteria of a Group

1 - Two or more freely interacting individuals 2 - Collective norms 3 - Collective goals 4 - Common identity

Four P's of Political Success

1) Power Assessment - How can you improve your leverage position? 2) Performance - How can your work make the business more successful? 3) Perception - How can you enhance your reputation, especially with those who can achieve your goals? 4) Partnerships - How can you increase your network of allies and supporters?

Support for transformational leadership underscores six important managerial implications.

1) the establishment of a positive vision of the future—inspirational motivation—should be considered a first step at applying transformational leadership. 2) the best leaders are not just transformational; they are both transactional and transformational, and they avoid a laissez-faire or "wait-and-see" style. 3) transformational leadership not only affects individual-level outcomes like job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and performance, but it also influences group dynamics and group-level outcomes. 4) transformational leadership works virtually. 5) employees at any level in an organization can be trained to be more transactional and transformational. 6) transformational leaders can be ethical or unethical. Top management can create and maintain ethical transformational leadership by -Creating and enforcing a clearly stated code of ethics -Recruiting, selecting, and promoting people who display ethical behavior. -Developing performance expectations around the treatment of employees—these expectations can then be assessed in the performance appraisal process. -Training employees to value diversity. -Identifying, rewarding, and publicly praising employees who exemplify high moral conduct.

Organizational Culture Layers

Basic assumptions: Constitute organizational values that have become so taken for granted over time that they become assumptions that guide organizational behavior *Observable artifacts, espoused values, and basic assumptions

Culture Shock

involves anxiety and doubt caused by an overload of unfamiliar expectations and social cues The best defense against culture shock is comprehensive cross-cultural training, including intensive language study. Once again, the best way to pick up subtle—yet important—social cues is via the local language.

Individual-Organization Value Conflict

Conflict can occur when values espoused and enacted by the organization collide with employees' personal values. We defined this type of conflict as PE fit. PE fit represents the extent to which personal characteristics match those from a work environment

Suppress

Differences are squelched or discouraged when using this approach. This can be done by telling or reinforcing others to quit whining and complaining about issues. The old "you've got to pay your dues" line is another frequently used way to promote the status quo.

synchronous communication

Employees in different locations and time zones can work simultaneously

Diversity climate

Employees' aggregate perceptions about an organization's policies, practices, and procedures pertaining to diversity

Sources of Uncertainty

Five common sources of uncertainty within organizations are Unclear objectives. Vague performance measures. Ill-defined decision processes. Strong individual or group competition. Any type of change.

What Makes the Internet Generation Tick? Eight Norms

Freedom. A desire to experience new and different things takes precedence over long-term commitments. Flexible work hours and locations, a say in how things are done, and freedom of choice are desirable. Customization. Everything from personalized cell phone ring tones to lifestyle choices to unique Facebook layouts make life interesting and fun. Scrutiny. With both trash and treasure on the Internet, Net Geners have learned to be skeptical, check things out, and ask probing questions. Candor and straight talk are favored. Authority figures and "facts" are not taken at face value. Integrity. "Net Geners care about integrity—being honest, considerate, transparent, and abiding by their commitments. This is also a generation with profound tolerance." Trust in employers, people, and products is important. Some ethical elasticity (e.g., pirating music and plagiarizing) when in cyberspace is an open issue. Collaboration. Relationships are of key importance. They know how to work and play with others and are eager to offer up opinions and suggestions. Volunteering is valued. Entertainment. A job should not be a life sentence; it should be both challenging and fun. The Internet is a productivity tool, personal communication device, information source, and "fun tool of choice." Multitasking is a way of life to keep things moving and interesting. Speed. "They're used to instant response, 24/7. Video games give them instant feedback; Google answers their inquiries within nanoseconds." Rapid-fire texting, instant messaging, and tweeting are far faster and superior to e-mail and slow organizational decision making. Fast, accurate, and helpful feedback on job performance is demanded. Innovation. An impatience for new and different user experiences is evident. "In the workplace, innovation means rejecting the traditional command-and-control hierarchy and devising work processes that encourage collaboration and creativity."

Four Functions of Organizational Culture

Give members an organizational identity. Facilitate collective commitment. Promote social system stability. Shape behavior by helping members make sense of their surroundings.

Making a Good Impression

If you "dress for success," project an upbeat attitude at all times, and have polished a 15-second elevator speech for top executives, you are engaging in favorable impression management—particularly so if your motive is to improve your lot in life.

Implicit cognition

Implicit cognition represents any thoughts or beliefs that are automatically activated from memory without our conscious awareness. The existence of implicit cognition leads people to make biased decisions without an understanding that it is occurring

Barriers to implementing successful diversity programs:

Inaccurate stereotypes and prejudice. Ethnocentrism Poor career planning A negative diversity climate An unsupportive and hostile working environment for diverse employees Lack of political savvy on the part of diverse employees Difficulty in balancing career and family issues Fears of reverse discrimination Diversity is not seen as an organizational priority The need to revamp the organization's performance appraisal and reward system Resistance to change

Job Enrichment

Job enrichment is the practical application of Frederick Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory of job satisfaction entails modifying a job such that an employee has the opportunity to experience achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement. These characteristics are incorporated into a job through vertical loading. Rather than giving employees additional tasks of similar difficulty (horizontal loading), vertical loading consists of giving workers more autonomy and responsibility. Intuit, for example, attempts to do this by "encouraging workers to take four hours a week of 'unstructured time' for their own projects and hosting 'idea jams,' where teams present new concepts for prizes

Intrinsic Rewards

Psychic rewards, however, are intrinsic rewards because they are self-granted. One who derives pleasure from the task itself or experiences a sense of competence or self-determination is said to be intrinsically motivated

Characteristics of Effective Teamwork

Real teamwork requires a concerted collective effort. It requires lots of tolerance, practice, and trial-and-error learning.

Schwartz's Value Theory

Schwartz believes that values are motivational in that they "represent broad goals that apply across contexts and time

Tuckman's Five-Stage Theory of Group Development

Stage 1: Forming Ice breaking stage Group members tend to be uncertain and anxious about their roles, the people in charge and the group's goals Mutual trust is low prior experience between members of the group can create friction there is a good deal of holding back to see who takes charge and how. If the formal leader does not assert authority, an emergent leader will eventually step in to fulfill the group's need for leadership and direction. Leaders typically mistake this honeymoon period as a mandate for permanent control. But later problems may force a leadership change. Stage 2: Storming Time of testing Individuals try to determine how they fit into the power structure subgroups take shape Procrastination may occur subtle forms of rebellion, such as procrastination, occur. Many groups stall in stage 2 because power politics erupts into open rebellion Stage 3: Norming Groups that make it through stage 2 generally do so because a respected member, other than the leader, challenges the group to resolve its power struggles so something can be accomplished. Questions about authority and power are resolved through unemotional, matter-of-fact group discussion. A feeling of team spirit is experienced because members believe they have found their proper roles. Group cohesiveness, defined as the "we feeling" that binds members of a group together, is the principal by-product of stage Stage 4: Performing Vital Stage Activity focused on solving task problems Climate of open communication, strong cooperation, and lots of helping behavior Stage 5: Adjourning Work is done Time to move on to other things The return to independence can be eased by rituals celebrating "the end" and "new beginnings." Parties, award ceremonies, graduations, or mock funerals can provide the needed punctuation at the end of a significant group project. Leaders need to emphasize valuable lessons learned in group dynamics to prepare everyone for future group and team efforts.

Build Relationships

This approach is based on the premise that good relationships can overcome differences. It addresses diversity by fostering quality relationships—characterized by acceptance and understanding—among diverse groups

Interpersonal Value Conflict

This type of value conflict often is at the core of personality conflicts, and such conflicts can negatively affect one's career

Categories of Leader Behavior within the Revised Path-Goal Theory

Three key changes: 1) Leadership is more complex and involves a greater variety of leader behavior. 2) The role of intrinsic motivation and empowerment in influencing leadership effectiveness 3) Shared leadership

The Full-range Model of Leadership

Transactional Leadership focuses on clarifying employees' role and task requirements and providing followers with positive and negative rewards contingent on performance. encompasses the fundamental managerial activities of setting goals, monitoring progress toward goal achievement, and rewarding and punishing people for their level of goal accomplishment. Transformational leaders transform followers by creating changes in their goals, values, needs, beliefs, and aspirations. They accomplish this transformation by appealing to followers' self-concepts—namely their values and personal identity. -engender trust, seek to develop leadership in others, exhibit self-sacrifice and serve as moral agents, focusing themselves and followers on objectives that transcend the more immediate needs of the work group. Transformational leader behavior is first influenced by various individual and organizational characteristics. -tend to have personalities that are more extraverted, agreeable, and proactive and less neurotic than nontransformational leaders. -have higher emotional intelligence. -Female leaders also were found to use transformational leadership more than male leaders. -less traitlike and more susceptible to managerial influence. -an individual's life experiences play a role in developing transformational leadership and that transformational leadership can be learned. -organizational culture influences the extent to which leaders are transformational. Cultures that are adaptive and flexible rather than rigid and bureaucratic are more likely to create environments that foster the opportunity for transformational leadership to be exhibited. Transformational leaders engage in four key sets of leader behavior: (attached) 1) The first set, referred to as inspirational motivation, involves establishing an attractive vision of the future, the use of emotional arguments, and exhibition of optimism and enthusiasm. A vision is "a realistic, credible, attractive future for your organization." 2) Idealized influence includes behaviors such as sacrificing for the good of the group, being a role model, and displaying high ethical standards. 3) individualized consideration, entails behaviors associated with providing support, encouragement, empowerment, and coaching to employees. These behaviors necessitate that leaders pay special attention to the needs of their followers and search for ways to help people develop and grow. You can do this by spending time talking with people about their interests and by identifying new learning opportunities for them. Showing interest in people by remembering their names and previous conversations are other simple ways in which you can demonstrate individualized consideration. Finally, treating people with respect and telling them the truth with compassion also represent examples of consideration. 4) Intellectual stimulation involves behaviors that encourage employees to question the status quo and to seek innovative and creative solutions to organizational problems. -pertains to encouraging employee creativity, innovation, and problem solving. -The group problem-solving techniques discussed in Chapter 12 can help to stimulate employees. -fostering an adhocracy culture will assist in creating a work environment that promotes intellectual stimulation. You can use any of the cultural embedding techniques we discussed in Chapter 3 in this pursuit.

Emotional Contagion

We, quite literally, can catch another person's bad mood or displayed negative emotions.

Instrumental cohesiveness

a sense of togetherness that develops when group members are mutually dependent on one another because they believe they could not achieve the group's goal by acting separately A feeling of "we-ness" is instrumental in achieving the common goal.

Demographic Fault Line

as "hypothetical dividing lines that may split a group into subgroups based on one or more attributes.

The Contingency Approach to Designing Organizations

organizations tend to be more effective when they are structured to fit the demands of the situation

Field Study

probes individual or group processes in an organizational setting. Because field studies involve real-life situations, their results often have immediate and practical relevance for managers.

Expatriate

refers to anyone living or working outside their home country.

Cognitions

represent "any knowledge, opinion, or belief about the environment, about oneself, or about one's behavior." those involving anticipation, introspection, planning, goal setting, evaluating, and setting personal standards are particularly relevant to OB.

Sustainability

represents "a company's ability to make a profit without sacrificing the resources of its people, the community, and the planet

Proactive personality

someone who is relatively unconstrained by situational forces and who effects environmental change. positively associated with individual, team, and organizational success.

Resiliency

the ability to bounce back from major blows in life, can be developed through deliberate practice,

Employees with a clear line of sight

understand the organization's strategic goals and know what actions they need to take, both individually and as team members.

Individual Differences

variability among workers is substantial at all levels but increases dramatically with job complexity. In life insurance sales, for example, variability in performance is around six times as great as in routine clerical jobs bridges between self-concept and self-expression.

Perception

cognitive process that enables us to interpret and understand our surroundings Recognition of objects is one of this process's major functions The study of how people perceive one another has been labeled social cognition and social information processing.

Leadership Styles

Leadership behavior that is active, aggressive, directive, structured, and task-oriented seems to have favorable results early in the group's history. However, when those behaviors are maintained throughout the life of the group, they seem to have a negative impact on cohesiveness and quality of work. Conversely, leadership behavior that is supportive, democratic, decentralized, and participative seems to be related to poorer functioning in the early group development stages. However, when these behaviors are maintained throughout the life of the group, more productivity, satisfaction, and creativity result.

Role overload

Occurs when "the sum total of what role senders expect of the focal person far exceeds what he or she is able to do."

Propensity to trust

Propensity might be thought of as the general willingness to trust others. Propensity will influence how much trust one has for a trustee prior to data on that particular party being available. People with different developmental experiences, personality types, and cultural backgrounds vary in their propensity to trust.... An example of an extreme case of this is what is commonly called blind trust. Some individuals can be observed to repeatedly trust in situations that most people would agree do not warrant trust. Conversely, others are unwilling to trust in most situations, regardless of circumstances that would support doing so.

Sexual Harassment - What exactly is?

The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) says that unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature constitute sexual harassment when submission to such conduct is made a condition of employment; when submission to or rejection of sexual advances is used as a basis for employment decisions; or when such conduct creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environment. These EEOC guidelines interpreting Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 further state that employers are responsible for the actions of their supervisors and agents and that employers are responsible for the actions of other employees if the employer knows or should have known about the sexual harassment.

Group Size

Within a contingency management framework group size depends on the manager's objective for the group. If a high-quality decision is the main objective, then a three- to five-member group would be appropriate If the objective is to generate creative ideas, encourage participation, socialize new members, engage in training, or communicate policies, then groups much larger than five could be justified As group size increases, group leaders tended to become more directive, and group member satisfaction tends to decline slightly.

Cohesiveness

a process whereby "a sense of 'we-ness' emerges to transcend individual differences and motives Cohesive group members stick together for one or both of the following reasons: -they enjoy each others' company -they need each other to accomplish a common goal. Accordingly, two types of group cohesiveness, identified by sociologists, are socio-emotional cohesiveness and instrumental cohesiveness Self-selected work teams (in which people pick their own teammates) and off-the-job social events can stimulate socio-emotional cohesiveness. The fostering of socio-emotional cohesiveness needs to be balanced with instrumental cohesiveness. The latter can be encouraged by making sure everyone in the group recognizes and appreciates each member's vital contribution to the group goal. While balancing the two types of cohesiveness, managers need to remember that groupthink theory and research cautions against too much cohesiveness.

Laboratory Simulation Approach

based on the assumption that group behavior needs to be observed firsthand in controlled laboratory settings It would be difficult, at least with respect to decision quality, to justify groups larger than five members.... Of course, to meet needs other than high decision quality, organizations may employ groups significantly larger than four or five. In the usual face-to-face brainstorming sessions, productivity of ideas did not increase as the size of the group increased. But brainstorming productivity increased as the size of the group increased when ideas were typed into networked computers

Minority dissent

extent to which group members feel comfortable disagreeing with other group members, and a group's level of participation in decision making most innovative groups possessed high levels of both minority dissent and participation in decision making. How can you apply these results to your own group meetings at school or work? One way is to foster more discussion among group members during meetings. Research also confirms a side benefit to this recommendation. Group members' job satisfaction and performance are increased through group discussion. Another suggestion is to seek divergent views from group members during decision making, and do not ridicule or punish people who disagree with the majority opinion.

Optimizing

involves solving problems by producing the best possible solution and is based on a set of highly desirable assumptions—having complete information, leaving emotions out of the decision-making process, honestly and accurately evaluating all alternatives, time and resources are abundant and accessible, and people are willing to implement and support decisions.

Evidence-based decision making (EBDM)

represents a process of conscientiously using the best available data and evidence when making managerial decisions Seven Implementation Principles: 1 - Treat your organization as an unfinished prototype 2 - No brag, just facts 3 - See yourself and your organization as others do_ Many managers are filled with optimism and inflated views of their talents and chances for success. This leads them to downplay risks and to commit an escalation of commitment bias. 4 - Evidence-based management is not just for senior executives - Research shows that the best organizations are those in which all employees, not just top managers, are committed to EBDM 5 - Like everything else, you still need to sell it - you will need to similarly use vivid stories and case studies to sell the value of EBDM 6 - If all else fails, slow the spread of bad practice - Because employees may face pressures to do things that are known to be ineffective, it may be necessary to engage in "evidence-based misbehavior." This can include ignoring requests and delaying action. Be cautious if you use this principle. 7 - The best diagnostic question: What happens when people fail?

Overcoming Resistance to Change

-Provide as much information as possible to employees about the change -Inform employees about the rationale for the change -Conduct meetings to address employee's concerns -Provide employees the opportunity to discuss how the proposed change might affect them

Different Approaches to Decision Making

Centralized decision making key decisions are made by top management Decentralized decision making important decisions are made by middle- and lower-level managers

Job enlargement

Involves putting more variety into a worker's job by combining specialized tasks of comparable difficulty. Some call this horizontally loading the job

Personal Initiative: The Other Side of Delegation

Is characterized by the following aspects: it (1) is consistent with the organization's mission, (2) has a long-term focus, (3) is goal-directed and action-oriented, (4) is persistent in the face of barriers and setbacks, and (5) is self-starting and proactive

A Contingency Model for Selecting Communication Media

Effective communication occurs when the richness of the medium is matched appropriately with the complexity of the problem or situation. Media low in richness—impersonal static and personal static—are better suited for simple problems; media high in richness—interactive media and face-to-face—are appropriate for complex problems or situations. Media Richness -involves the capacity of a given communication medium to convey information and promote understanding Media richness is based on four factors: (1) feedback (ranging from fast to very slow), (2) channel (ranging from the combined visual and audio characteristics of a videoconference to the limited visual aspects of a computer report), (3) type of communication (ranging from personal to impersonal), and (4) language source (ranging from the natural body language and speech involved in a face-to-face conversation to the numbers contained in a financial statement). A two-way face-to-face conversation is the richest form of communication. Although relatively high in richness, telephone conversations and videoconferencing are not as informative as face-to-face exchanges. At the other end of the scale, newsletters, computer reports, and general e-mail blasts are lean media because feedback is very slow, the channels involve only limited visual information, and the information provided is generic or impersonal. E-mail and social media messages vary in media richness: leaner if they impersonally blanket a large audience and richer if they mix personal textual and video information that prompts quick conversational feedback.

Is Emotional Intelligence a Key Leadership Trait?

Emotional intelligence is the ability to manage oneself and one's relationships in mature and constructive ways: The six components of emotional intelligence are shown in Table 5-5. Given that leadership is an influence process between leaders and followers, it should come as no surprise that emotional intelligence is predicted to be associated with leadership effectiveness. While Goleman and other consultants contend that they have evidence to support this conclusion, it has not been published in scientific journals. We agree with others who contend that there presently is not enough research published in OB journals to substantiate the conclusion that emotional intelligence is significantly associated with leadership effectiveness.

Human Relations Movement

Grew out of the Hawthorne studies; proposed that workers respond primarily to the social context of work including social conditioning, group norms and interpersonal dynamics; assumed that the managers concern for workers would lead to increased worker satisfaction and improved worker performance

Human and Social Capital

HRM has become increasingly important as firms have come to realize the value of their human resources in improving productivity; its critical to the bottom line performance of the firm and the HR planning has become part of the strategic planning process

Organizational Behavior (OB)

Interdisciplinary field dedicated to better understanding and managing people at work. -Deals with how people act and react in organizations of all kinds. -Research and application oriented -3 Basic Levels: individual, group, organizational

Common Political Tactics in Organizations

Listed in descending order of occurrence, the eight political tactics that emerged were Attacking or blaming others. Using information as a political tool. Creating a favorable image. (Also known as impression management.) Developing a base of support. Praising others (ingratiation). Forming power coalitions with strong allies. Associating with influential people. Creating obligations (reciprocity).

"Under Management" Only 1 out of 100 managers provides every direct report with these five basics every day:

Performance requirements and standard operating procedures related to tasks and responsibilities. Defined parameters, measurable goals, and concrete deadlines for all work assignments for which the direct report will be held accountable. Accurate monitoring, evaluation, and documentation of work performance. Specific feedback on work performance with guidance for improvement. Fairly distributed rewards and detriments [penalties].

Goal Setting Practical Insights

Specific high goals lead to greater performance. Goal specificity pertains to the quantifiability of a goal. people demonstrated that performance was greater when people had specific high goals.50 Feedback enhances the effect of specific, difficult goals. Feedback plays a key role in all of our lives. Feedback lets people know if they are headed toward their goals or if they are off course and need to redirect their efforts. Goals plus feedback is the recommended approach. Goals inform people about performance standards and expectations so that they can channel their energies accordingly. In turn, feedback provides the information needed to adjust direction, effort, and strategies for goal accomplishment. Participative goals, assigned goals, and self-set goals are equally effective. Both managers and researchers are interested in identifying the best way to set goals. Action planning facilitates goal accomplishment. An action plan outlines the activities or tasks that need to be accomplished in order to obtain a goal. They can also include dates associated with completing each task, resources needed, and obstacles that must be overcome. Managers can use action plans as a vehicle to have performance discussions with employees, and employees can use them to monitor progress toward goal achievement. An action plan also serves as a cue to remind us of what we should be working on, which in turn was found to lead to goal-relevant behavior and success. Goal commitment and monetary incentives affect goal-setting outcomes. Goal commitment is the extent to which an individual is personally committed to achieving a goal. In general, an individual is expected to persist in attempts to accomplish a goal when he or she is committed to it. Researchers believe that goal commitment moderates the relationship between the difficulty of a goal and performance. That is, difficult goals lead to higher performance only when employees are committed to their goals. Conversely, difficult goals are hypothesized to lead to lower performance when people are not committed to their goals.

Psychological Capital

Striving for success by developing one's self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resiliency. [PsyCap is] an individual's positive psychological state of development and is characterized by: (1) having confidence (self-efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging tasks; (2) making a positive attribution (optimism) about succeeding now and in the future; (3) persevering toward goals, and when necessary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to succeed; and (4) when beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond (resiliency) to attain success.

Behavioral Styles Theory

The Ohio State Studies identified two independent dimensions of leader behavior. -Consideration: creating mutual respect and trust with followers. -Initiating structure: organizing and defining what group members should be doing. -Leader behaviors can be systematically improved and developed. -There is no one best style of leadership. -The effectiveness of a particular leadership style depends on the situation at hand.

Corporate social responsibility (CSR)

The notion that corporations have an obligation to constituent groups in society other than stockholders and beyond that prescribed by law or union contract.

Management by Objectives

a management system that incorporates participation into decision making, goal setting, and objective feedback. The central idea of MBO, getting individual employees to "own" a piece of a collective effort

Self-esteem

a belief about one's own self-worth based on an overall self-evaluation. is measured by having survey respondents indicate their agreement or disagreement with both positive and negative statements. increasing during young and middle adulthood, reaching a peak at about age 60 years, and then declining in old age from 31 countries worldwide, a moderate positive correlation was found between self-esteem and life satisfaction. But the relationship was stronger in individualistic cultures individualistic cultures socialize people to focus more on themselves, while people in collectivist cultures "are socialized to fit into the community and to do their duty.

Organization chart

a graphic representation of formal authority and division of labor relationships Dimensions of an Organizational Structure -Hierarchy of authority - delineates the official communication network and speaks volumes about compensation. Research shows that there is an increasing wage gap between layers over time. That is, the difference in pay between successive layers tends to increase over time. -Division of labor -Spans of control the number of people reporting directly to a given manager. Generally, the narrower the span of control, the closer the supervision and the higher the administrative costs as a result of a higher manager-to-worker ratio. -Line and staff positions Staff personnel do background research and provide technical advice, and recommendations to line managers. Line Managers have authority to make organizational decisions.

Golem Effect

a loss in performance resulting from low leader expectations

Self-Efficacy

a person's belief about his or her chances of successfully accomplishing a specific task. -arises from the gradual acquisition of complex cognitive, social, linguistic, and/or physical skills through experience." -role models can inspire us to build self-efficacy The relationship between self-efficacy and performance is a cyclical one. Efficacy → performance cycles can spiral upward toward success or downward toward failure.

escape strategy

amounts to avoiding the problem. Behaviors and cognitions are used to avoid or escape situations. Individuals use this strategy when they passively accept stressful situations or avoid them by failing to confront the cause of stress

teleworking

connecting to the office from practically anywhere

Genderflex

entails the temporary use of communication behaviors typical of the other gender in order to increase the potential for influence.

Cross-cultural management

explains the behavior of people in organizations around the world and shows people how to work in organizations with employee and client populations from many different cultures."64 Historically, cross-cultural management research has focused almost exclusively on cultural differences. One researcher, troubled by inappropriate cross-cultural comparisons, recently called this approach "comparing chopsticks with forks

Servant leadership

focuses on increasing services to others rather than to oneself less likely to engage in self-serving behaviors that hurt others

Adhocracy Culture

has an external focus and values flexibility. This type of culture fosters the creation of innovative products and services by being adaptable, creative, and fast to respond to changes in the marketplace. Adhocracy cultures do not rely on the type of centralized power and authority relationships that are part of market and hierarchical cultures. They empower and encourage employees to take risks, think outside the box, and experiment with new ways of getting things done. This type of culture is well suited for start-up companies, those in industries undergoing constant change, and those in mature industries that are in need of innovation to enhance growth.

Ethics

involves the study of moral issues and choices. It is concerned with right versus wrong, good versus bad, and the many shades of gray in supposedly black-and-white issues.

Job rotation

moving employees from one specialized job to another

Feedback

objective information about individual or collective performance. Subjective assessments such as "You're doing a poor job," "You're lazy," or "We really appreciate everyone's hard work" do not qualify as objective feedback. But hard data such as units sold, days absent, dollars saved, projects completed, customers satisfied, and quality rejects are all candidates for objective feedback programs. Managers can enhance their credibility as sources of feedback by developing their expertise and creating a climate of trust. Negative feedback is typically misperceived or rejected Recipients of feedback perceive it to be more accurate when they actively participate in the feedback session versus passively receiving feedback feedback serves two functions for those who receive it: one is instructional and the other motivational. Feedback instructs when it clarifies roles or teaches new behavior. Interpersonal feedback increases as the group develops through successive stages. Interpersonal feedback becomes more specific as the group develops. As the group develops, positive feedback increases and negative feedback decreases. The credibility of peer feedback increases as the group develops

Collectivist culture

oppositely called "we" and "us" cultures, rank shared goals higher than individual desires and goals Collectivist cultures, oppositely called "we" and "us" cultures, rank shared goals higher than individual desires and goals. People in collectivist cultures are expected to subordinate their own wishes and goals to those of the relevant social unit.

Empowerment

recognizing and releasing into the organization the power that people already have in their wealth of useful knowledge, experience, and internal motivation.

Stereotype threat

refers to the 'predicament' in which members of a social group (e.g., African Americans, women) 'must deal with the possibility of being judged or treated stereotypically, or of doing something that would confirm the stereotype

Foreign Assignment Cycle

the first and last stages of the cycle occur at home. The middle two stages occur in the foreign or host country. Each stage hides an OB-related trouble spot that needs to be anticipated and neutralized. Otherwise, the bill for another failed foreign assignment will grow.

Deming

85-15 rule.31 Specifically, when things go wrong, there is roughly an 85% chance the system (including management, machinery, and rules) is at fault. Only about 15% of the time is the individual employee at fault

Cross Functionalism

A common feature of self-managed teams, particularly among those above the shop-floor or clerical level, is cross-functionalism. In other words, specialists from different areas are put on the same team.

Desired Conflict Outcomes

Agreement. But at what cost? Equitable and fair agreements are best. An agreement that leaves one party feeling exploited or defeated will tend to breed resentment and subsequent conflict. Stronger relationships. Good agreements enable conflicting parties to build bridges of goodwill and trust for future use. Moreover, conflicting parties who trust each other are more likely to keep their end of the bargain. Learning. Functional conflict can promote greater self-awareness and creative problem solving. Like the practice of management itself, successful conflict handling is learned primarily by doing. Knowledge of the concepts and techniques in this chapter is a necessary first step, but there is no substitute for hands-on practice.

Internet and Social Media Revolution

Because of _________ traditional media such as newspapers radio and television are less important for the younger generation

An Open-System Perspective

Closed System self-sufficient entity, closed to the surrounding environment. Open System depends on constant interaction with the environment for survival

Techniques for Stimulating Functional Conflict: Devil's Advocacy and the Dialectic Method

Devil's advocacy assigning someone the role of critic. Dialectic method calls for managers to foster a structured debate of opposing viewpoints prior to making a decision. A major drawback of the dialectic method is that "winning the debate" may overshadow the issue at hand. Also, the dialectic method requires more skill training than does devil's advocacy.

Team Building

Experiential learning aimed at better internal functioning of groups. is a catch-all term for a whole host of techniques aimed at improving the internal functioning of work groups. Whether conducted by company trainers or outside consultants, team-building activities and workshops strive for greater cooperation, better communication, and less dysfunctional conflict.

Managing the Goal-Setting Process - Step 2: Promote Goal Commitment

Goal commitment can be enhanced by following these guidelines: Explain why the organization is committed to a comprehensive goal-setting program. Create clear lines of sight by clarifying the corporate goals and linking the individual's goals to them. "The task of leaders is to simplify.". Let employees participate in setting their own goals and creating their own action plans. Encourage them to set challenging "stretch" goals. Goals should be difficult, but not impossible.24 Foster personal growth by having employees build goal ladders, chains of progressively more difficult and challenging goals. Specifically, focusing on completed goals in the ladder promotes a feeling of satisfaction. Focusing on remaining goals in the ladder tends to motivate a higher level of achievement. High achievers are good at strategically alternating their focus on what has been accomplished (for a feeling of satisfaction) and their focus on the challenges ahead (for motivation to work harder)

Mathematical Modeling Approach

Involves building a mathematical model around certain desired outcomes of group action such as decision quality. Due to differing assumptions and statistical techniques, the results of this research are inconclusive

Negotiation

Negotiation give-and-take decision-making process involving interdependent parties with different preferences Two types: Distributive Integrative Distributive negotiation involves traditional win-lose thinking. Integrative negotiation calls for a progressive win-win strategy The success of integrative negotiation, such as added-value negotiation, hinges to a large extent on the quality of information exchanged, as researchers have documented. -Negotiators with fixed-pie expectations produced poor joint outcomes because they restricted and mismanaged information. -a slight tendency for women to negotiate more cooperatively than men. But when faced with an "apples-for-apples" bargaining strategy (equivalent countermoves), women were significantly more competitive than men. -Personality characteristics can affect negotiating success. Negotiators who scored high on the Big Five personality dimensions of extraversion and agreeableness tended to do poorly with distributive (fixed-pie; win-lose) negotiations. -Studies of negotiations between Japanese, between Americans, and between Japanese and Americans found less productive joint outcomes across cultures than within cultures. Less understanding of the other party makes cross-cultural negotiation more difficult than negotiations at home.

Team Leadership

Team leadership aimed at building group cohesiveness and limiting conflict tended to enhance team performance A coaching style of leadership was effective for charismatic leaders when dealing with team members having low self-efficacy. A directive style worked better for leaders who lacked charisma and had team members with high self-efficacy. Treating members as separate individuals and applying differentiated leadership may result in some loss of group effectiveness

Socio-emotional cohesiveness

a sense of togetherness that develops when individuals derive emotional satisfaction from group participation.

Procedural justice

defined as the perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions

credibility

developing the integrity, intent, capabilities, and results that make you believable, both to yourself and to others

Informal Group

exists when the members' overriding purpose of getting together is friendship

Decision making

identifying and choosing alternative solutions that lead to a desired state of affairs You can use two broad approaches to make decisions. You can follow a rational model or various nonrational models.

morally attentive

meaning they faithfully consider the ethical implications of their actions and circumstances

Intrapersonal Value Conflict

people are likely to experience inner conflict and stress when personal values conflict with each other. For employees who want balance in their lives, a stressful conflict can arise when one values Therapists suggest that this type of value conflict can be reduced by "taking pride in characteristics that can't be stripped away—virtue, integrity, honesty, generosity. They also recommend investing more time and pride in relationships with family, friends, and community."6 In general, people are happier and less stressed when their personal values are aligned.

Glass ceiling

represents an absolute barrier or solid roadblock that prevents women from advancing to higher-level positions

counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs)

types of behavior that harm employees, the organization as a whole, or organizational stakeholders such as customers and shareholder. Examples of CWBs include theft, gossiping, backstabbing, drug and alcohol abuse, destroying organizational property, violence, purposely doing bad or incorrect work, surfing the Net for personal use, excessive socializing, tardiness, sabotage, and sexual harassment.

Cooperation

Individuals are said to be cooperating when their efforts are systematically integrated to achieve a collective objective. The greater the integration, the greater the degree of cooperation.

Framing bias

This bias relates to the manner in which a question is posed. Research shows that most people chose Program A even though the two programs produce the same results. This result is due to the framing bias. The framing bias is the tendency to consider risks about gains—saving lives-differently than risks pertaining to losses—losing lives. You are encouraged to frame decision questions in alternative ways in order to avoid this bias.

Role ambiguity

occurs when "members of the role set fail to communicate to the focal person expectations they have or information needed to perform the role, either because they do not have the information or because they deliberately withhold it people experience role ambiguity when they do not know what is expected of them. people in individualistic cultures have higher role ambiguity than people in collectivist cultures. In other words, people in collectivist or "we" cultures had a clearer idea of others' expectations. Collectivist cultures make sure everyone knows their proper place in society. People in individualistic "me" cultures, such as the United States, may enjoy more individual discretion, but comparatively less input from others has its price—namely, greater role ambiguity.

Learning Goal

strives to improve creativity and develop skills When skills are lacking, a developmental process is needed wherein learning goals precede performance outcome goals.

Group

two or more freely interacting people who share collective norms and goals and have a common identity -size of a group is limited by the possibilities of mutual interaction and mutual awareness ex. A total department, a union, or a whole organization would not be a group in spite of thinking of themselves as "we," because they generally do not all interact and are not all aware of each other. However, work teams, committees, subparts of departments, cliques, and various other informal associations among organizational members would fit this definition of a group

Cyber Loafing

using the Internet for nonwork-related activities such as communicating with friends via e-mail and social media, Web surfing, shopping, and gaming

Employee Engagement

"the harnessing of organization members' selves to their work roles; in engagement, people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally during role performance." The essence of this definition is the idea that engaged employees "give it their all" at work. Further study of this attitudinal variable reveals that it contains four components: (1) feelings of urgency, (2) feelings of being focused, (3) feelings of intensity, and (4) feelings of enthusiasm caused by a host of variables that can be separated into two categories: personal factors and contextual or work-environment factors. -Personal characteristics found or thought to influence employee engagement include positive or optimistic personalities, proactive personality, conscientiousness, PE fit, and being present or mindful. Mindfulness represents the extent to which someone is focused on a moment in time and what is happening rather than daydreaming about something or somewhere else. -contextual factors that potentially impact employee engagement. One clearly involves organizational culture. For example, employees are more likely to be engaged when an organization has a clan culture that promotes employee development, recognition, and trust between management and employees Job security and feelings of psychological safety also propel employee engagement. -Job security and feelings of psychological safety also propel employee engagement. employee engagement is higher when people feel that they are being supported by both their direct supervisor and the company as a whole and when they have a line of sight with the organization's vision, strategies, and goals: Line of sight represents the extent to which employees understand how their jobs influence the achievement of broader strategic goals employee engagement was significantly associated with organizational-level customer satisfaction/loyalty, profitability, productivity, turnover, and safety outcomes.a positive relationship between employee engagement and employees' performance and physical and psychological well-being, and corporate-level financial performance and customer satisfaction

organizational culture Outcomes associated with

1) Organizational culture is clearly related to measures of organizational effectiveness 2) Employees are more satisfied and committed to organizations with clan cultures 3) An organizations financial performance is not very strongly related to organizational culture 4) Companies with market culture tend to have more positive organizational outcomes 5) Innovation and quality can be increased by building characteristics associated with clan, adhocracy and market cultures into the organizations 6) Customer satisfaction is most strongly related to market cultures 7) Hierarchy cultures are not associated with positive outcomes

Five Bases of Power

1) Reward - obtaining compliance by promising or granting rewards. Reward power is at the heart of shaping on-the-job behavior with verbal or written recognition and other forms of positive reinforcement. Employees tell us one of the problems they have with rewards is they only receive them when the goal finally is accomplished. Their complaint is generally that no one ever says anything along the way to getting the results. 2) Coercive - obtaining compliance through threatened or actual punishment. 3) Legitimate - obtaining compliance through formal authority. individuals who obtain compliance primarily because of their formal authority to make decisions. Positive legitimate power focuses constructively on job performance. Negative legitimate power tends to be threatening and demeaning to those being influenced. Its main purpose is to build the power holder's ego. Importantly, there is growing concern today about the limits of managers' legitimate power relative to privacy rights and off-the-job behavior. 4) Expert - obtaining compliance through one's knowledge or information. The power of supervisors is enhanced because they know about work schedules and assignments before their employees do. 5) Referent - obtaining compliance through charisma or personal attraction. comes into play when one's personality becomes the reason for compliance. Role models have referent power over those who identify closely with them. Expert and referent power had a generally positive effect Reward and legitimate power had a slightly positive effect Coercive power had a slightly negative effect

meta-analysis

A statistical pooling technique that permits behavioral scientists to draw general conclusions about certain variables from many different studies. It typically encompasses a vast number of subjects, often reaching the thousands. Are instructive because they focus on general patterns of research evidence, not fragmented bits and pieces or isolated studies.

Kelley's Model of Attribution

Behavior can be attributed either to: Internal factors within a person (such as ability) or: External behavior within the environment (such as a difficult task) *It is important to remember that consensus relates to other people, distinctiveness relates to other tasks, and consistency relates to time. 1) Consensus involves a comparison of an individual's behavior with that of his peers. There is high consensus when one acts like the rest of the group and low consensus when one acts differently. 2) Distinctiveness involves comparing a person's behavior on one task with the behavior from other tasks. High distinctiveness means the individual has performed the task in question in a significantly different manner than he or she has performed other tasks. Low distinctiveness means stable performance or quality from one task to another. 3) Consistency determined by judging if the individual's performance on a given task is consistent over time.High consistency implies that a person performs a certain task the same, time after time. Unstable performance of a given task over time would mean low consistency.

Third-Party Intervention Options for Handling Conflict Triangles

Conflict triangle occurs when two people are having a problem and, instead of addressing the problem directly with each other, one of them gets a third person involved Alternative Dispute Resolution avoiding costly lawsuits by resolving conflicts informally or through mediation or arbitration Preferred options 1 and 2, called detriangling, involve the third-party channeling the disputants' energy in a direct and positive manner toward each other. Importantly, the third party avoids becoming part of a political coalition in options 1 and 2. Options 3 through 8 can be a slippery slope toward further counterproductive triangling. Also, political and ethical implications multiply as the third party progresses to option 3 and beyond.

Making a Poor Impression

Four motives: (1) Avoidance: Employee seeks to avoid additional work, stress, burnout, or an unwanted transfer or promotion. (2) Obtain concrete rewards: Employee seeks to obtain a pay raise or a desired transfer, promotion, or demotion. (3) Exit: Employee seeks to get laid off, fired, or suspended, and perhaps also to collect unemployment or workers' compensation. (4) Power: Employee seeks to control, manipulate, or intimidate others, get revenge, or make someone else look bad.94 Within the context of these motives, unfavorable upward impression management makes sense. Five unfavorable upward impression management tactics identified by the researchers are as follows: Decreasing performance—restricting productivity, making more mistakes than usual, lowering quality, neglecting tasks. Not working to potential—pretending ignorance, having unused capabilities. Withdrawing—being tardy, taking excessive breaks, faking illness. Displaying a bad attitude—complaining, getting upset and angry, acting strangely, not getting along with co-workers. Broadcasting limitations—letting co-workers know about one's physical problems and mistakes, both verbally and nonverbally.

Functional versus Dysfunctional Conflict

Functional conflict Serves organization's interests Also called constructive or cooperative conflict Dysfunctional conflict threatens organization's interests.

Organizational Innovation

Innovation Creation of something new that is used by consumers. Seeds of Innovation: 1) Hard work in a specific direction. Most innovations come from dedicated people diligently working to solve a well-defined problem. This hard work can span many years. 2) Hard work with direction change. Innovations frequently occur when people change their approach toward solving a problem. In other words, hard work closes some doors and opens others. 3) Curiosity and experimentation. Innovations can begin when people are curious about something of interest, and experimentation is used to test for the viability of curious ideas. This seed of innovation requires an organizational culture that supports experimentation. T 4) Wealth and money. Innovations frequently occur because an organization or an individual simply wants to make money. 5) Necessity. Many innovations grow from the desire to achieve something or to complete a task that is needed to accomplish a broader goal. 6) Combination of seeds. Many innovations occur as a result of multiple factors.

Managing the Goal-Setting Process - Step 1: Set Goals

SMART is an acronym for specific, measurable, attainable, results oriented, and time bound. There are two additional recommendations for Step 1. First, for complex tasks, employees need to be trained in problem-solving techniques and developing performance action plans. An action plan specifies the strategies or tactics necessary to accomplish a goal. Second, because of individual differences, it may be necessary to establish different goals for employees performing the same job. An individual's goal orientation is another important individual difference to consider when setting goals. Three types of goal orientations are a learning goal orientation, a performance-prove goal orientation, and a performance-avoid goal orientation. People with a high learning goal orientation view skills as malleable. They make efforts not only to achieve current tasks but also to develop the ability to accomplish future tasks. People with a high performance-prove goal orientation tend to focus on performance and try to demonstrate their ability by looking better than others. People with a high performance-avoid goal orientation also focus on performance, but this focus is grounded in trying to avoid negative outcomes.

Anchoring bias

The anchoring bias occurs when decision makers are influenced by the first information received about a decision, even if it is irrelevant. This bias happens because initial information, impressions, data, feedback, or stereotypes anchor our subsequent judgments and decisions. How would you answer the following two questions? Is the population of Iraq greater than 40 million? What's your best guess about the population of Iraq? Was your answer to the second question influenced by the number 40 million suggested by the first question? If yes, you were affected by the anchoring bias.

Assimilate

The basic premise behind this alternative is that all diverse people will learn to fit in or become like the dominant group. It only takes time and reinforcement for people to see the light. Organizations initially assimilate employees through their recruitment practices and the use of company orientation programs. New hires generally are put through orientation programs that aim to provide employees with the organization's preferred values and a set of standard operating procedures.

Schwartz's Value Theory Continued

The circular pattern reveals which values are most strongly related and which ones are in conflict. In general, adjacent values like self-direction and universalism are positively related, whereas values that are further apart (e.g., self-direction and power) are less strongly related. Taking this one step further, Schwartz proposes that values that are in opposing directions from the center conflict with each other. Examples are power and universalism or stimulation and conformity/tradition. For instance, the drive to live a stimulating life by engaging in activities like skydiving or mountain climbing would conflict with the desire to live a moderate or traditional life.

Organization Design

The structures of accountability and responsibility used to develop and implement strategies, and the human resource practices and information and business processes that activate those structures Traditional Design -Functional structure groups people according to the business functions they perform, for example, manufacturing, marketing, and finance. A functional structure can save money by grouping together people who need similar materials and equipment -Divisional structure groups together activities related to outputs, such as type of product or customer. Divisional structures increase employees' focus on customers and products -Matrix structure combines functional and divisional chains of command to form a grid with two command structures. A successful matrix structure requires superior managers who communicate extensively, foster commitment and collaboration, manage conflict and negotiate effectively to establish goals and priorities consistent with the organization's strategy

Historical Perspective

The study of a subject in light of its earliest phases and subsequent evolution. *The object is to sharpen one's vision of the present, not the past.

Isolate

This option maintains the current way of doing things by setting the diverse person off to the side. In this way the individual is unable to influence organizational change. Managers can isolate people by putting them on special projects. Entire work groups or departments are isolated by creating functionally independent entities, frequently referred to as "silos."

A Generic Typology of Organizational Change

This typology is generic because it relates to all sorts of change, including both administrative and technological changes. Adaptive change is lowest in complexity, cost, and uncertainty. It involves reimplementation of a change in the same organizational unit at a later time or imitation of a similar change by a different unit. Adaptive changes are not particularly threatening to employees because they are familiar. Innovative changes fall midway on the continuum of complexity, cost, and uncertainty. Unfamiliarity, and hence greater uncertainty, make fear of change a problem with innovative changes. At the high end of the continuum of complexity, cost, and uncertainty are radically innovative changes. Changes of this sort are the most difficult to implement and tend to be the most threatening to managerial confidence and employee job security. At the same time, however, radically innovative changes potentially realize the greatest benefits. Importantly, radical changes must be supported by an organization's culture. Organizational change is more likely to fail if it is inconsistent with any of the three levels of organizational culture: observable artifacts, espoused values, and basic assumptions

Idiosyncratic Deals (I-Deals)

a middle ground between top-down and bottom-up methods and attempts to overcome their limitations Idiosyncratic deals (i-deals) represent "employment terms individuals negotiate for themselves, taking myriad forms from flexible schedules to career development."72 Although "star performers" have long negotiated special employment contracts or deals, demographic trends and the changing nature of work have created increased opportunities for more employees to negotiate i-deals. I-deals tend to involve personal flexibility, developmental needs, and task-related content. The goal of such deals is to increase employee motivation and productivity by allowing employees the flexibility to negotiate employment relationships that meet their needs and values.

Adams's Equity Theory of Motivation

a model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships. As a process theory of motivation, equity theory explains how an individual's motivation to behave in a certain way is fueled by feelings of inequity or a lack of justice. two primary components are involved in the employee-employer exchange, inputs and outcomes. An employee's inputs, for which he or she expects a just return, include education/training, skills, creativity, seniority, age, personality traits, effort expended, and personal appearance. On the outcome side of the exchange, the organization provides such things as pay/bonuses, medical benefits, challenging assignments, job security, promotions, status symbols, and participation in important decisions. if the comparison person enjoys greater outcomes for similar inputs, negative inequity will be perceived . On the other hand, a person will experience positive inequity when his or her outcome to input ratio is greater than that of a relevant coworker. Interestingly, the current economy can create positive inequity for layoff survivors because they feel fortunate to still have a job.

Humility

a realistic assessment of one's own contribution and the recognition of the contribution of others, along with luck and good fortune that made one's own success possible has been called the silent virtue Humble individuals have a down-to-earth perspective of themselves and of the events and relationships in their lives. Humility involves a capability to evaluate success, failure, work, and life without exaggeration. Furthermore, humility enables leaders to distinguish the delicate line between such characteristics as healthy self-confidence, self-esteem, and self-assessment, and those of over-confidence, narcissism, and stubbornness. Humility is the mid-point between the two negative extremes of arrogance and lack of self-esteem. This depiction allows one to see that a person can be humble and competitive or humble and ambitious at the same time, which contradicts common—but mistaken—views about humility.

Cultural intelligence

ability to interpret ambiguous cross-cultural situations correctly the culturally intelligent person requires knowledge of culture and of the fundamental principles of cross-cultural interactions. This means knowing what culture is, how cultures vary, and how culture affects behavior. Second, the culturally intelligent person needs to practice mindfulness, the ability to pay attention in a reflective and creative way to cues in the cross-cultural situations encountered and to one's own knowledge and feelings. Third, based on knowledge and mindfulness, the culturally intelligent person develops cross-cultural skills and becomes competent across a wide range of situations. These skills involve choosing the appropriate behavior from a well-developed repertoire of behaviors that are correct for different intercultural situations

causal attributions

are suspected or inferred causes of behavior. Generally speaking, people formulate causal attributions by considering the events preceding an observed behavior.

GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness)

attempt to develop an empirically based theory to describe, understand, and predict the impact of specific cultural variables on leadership and organizational processes and the effectiveness of these processes

Role theory

attempts to explain how these social expectations influence employee behavior Roles -expected behaviors for a given position -sets of behaviors that persons expect of occupants of a position

Shared Leadership

dynamic, interactive influence process among individuals in groups for which the objective is to lead one another to the achievement of group or organizational goals or both This influence process often involves peer, or lateral, influence and at other times involves upward or downward hierarchical influence. Shared leadership is most likely to be needed when people work in teams, when people are involved in complex projects, and when people are doing knowledge work—work that requires voluntary contributions of intellectual capital by skilled professionals. Shared leadership also is beneficial when people are working on tasks or projects that require interdependence and creativity. A simple way to make this work is for one leader to focus on internal matters while the other is concerned with external issues. The application of shared leadership in this manner also helps organizations build a leadership pipeline for executive-level positions. shared leadership in teams was positively associated with group cohesion, group citizenship, and group effectiveness.Table 16-6 contains a list of key questions and answers that managers should consider when determining how they can develop shared leadership.

Task roles

enable the work group to define, clarify, and pursue a common purpose keep the group on track

Withdrawal Cognitions

encapsulate this thought process by representing an individual's overall thoughts and feelings about quitting

Organizational politics

intentional acts of influence to enhance or protect the self-interests of individuals or groups. An emphasis on self-interest distinguishes this form of social influence. Managers are constantly challenged to achieve a workable balance between employees' self-interests and organizational interests. When a proper balance exists, the pursuit of self-interest may serve the organization's interests. Political behavior becomes a negative force when self-interests erode or defeat organizational interests.

Discrimination

occurs when employment decisions about an individual are due to reasons not associated with performance or are not related to the job. For example, organizations cannot discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age, physical and mental disabilities, and pregnancy.

organizational identification

occurs when one comes to integrate beliefs about one's organization into one's identity

Foster Mutual Adaptation

people are willing to adapt or change their views for the sake of creating positive relationships with others. This implies that employees and management alike must be willing to accept differences and, most important, agree that everyone and everything is open for change.

Steps to Leading Organizational Change

prescribes how managers should sequence or lead the change process.

Conflict

process in which one party perceives its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party Conflict can escalate (strengthen) or deescalate (weaken) over time. current and future managers need to understand the dynamics of conflict and know how to handle it effectively (both as disputants and as third parties). Conflicts have both participants and observers. Some observers may be interested and active; others, disinterested and passive. Conflict as war: "We shot down that idea." Anyone viewing a conflict as war or a sports contest will try to win at all costs and wipe out the enemy. Conflict as opportunity: "What will it take to resolve this disagreement?" those seeing a conflict as an opportunity and a journey will tend to be more positive, open-minded, and constructive. Conflict as journey: "Let's search for common ground and all learn something useful." You might disagree with your co-workers on how to get there, but make sure you agree on what you're trying to accomplish.

Social Capital

productive potential resulting from strong relationships, goodwill, trust, and cooperative effort

Competing Values Framework

provides a practical way for managers to understand, measure, and change organizational culture One axis pertains to whether an organization focuses its attention and efforts on internal dynamics and employees or outward toward its external environment and its customers and shareholders. The second is concerned with an organization's preference for flexibility and discretion or control and stability. Combining these two axes creates four types of organizational culture that are based on different core values and different sets of criteria for accessing organizational effectiveness. **the clan culture—upper-left quadrant—is represented by values that emphasize an internal focus and flexibility, whereas the market culture—bottom-right quadrant—has an external focus and concern for stability and control. You can see the same conflict between an adhocracy culture that values flexibility and an external focus and a hierarchy culture that endorses stability and control along with an internal focus.

Fundamental Attribution Bias

reflects one's tendency to attribute another person's behavior to his or her personal characteristics, as opposed to situational factors. This bias causes perceivers to ignore important environmental forces that often significantly affect behavior.

Distributive justice

reflects the perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed or allocated

primary appraisal

results in categorizing a situation or stressor as irrelevant, positive, or stressful. Stress appraisals are obviously the most important in terms of our current discussion because they imply that a situation or stressor is perceived as harmful, threatening, or challenging.

Monochronic time

revealed in the ordered, precise, schedule-driven use of public time that typifies and even caricatures efficient Northern Europeans and North Americans Low-context cultures, such as in the United States, tend to run on monochronic time, while higher-context cultures, such as in Central America's Costa Rica, tend to run on polychronic time. People in polychronic cultures view time as flexible, fluid, and multidimensional. For example, imagine yourself doing business in the Persian Gulf nation of Qatar:

Judgmental heuristic

rules of thumb or shortcuts that people use to reduce information processing demands. We automatically use them without conscious awareness. The use of heuristics helps decision makers to reduce the uncertainty inherent within the decision-making process. Because these shortcuts represent knowledge gained from past experience, they can help decision makers evaluate current problems. But they also can lead to systematic errors that erode the quality of decisions, particularly for people facing time constraints such as primary health care doctors.

Scientific Management

that kind of management which conducts a business or affairs by standards established by facts or truths gained through systematic observation, experiment, or reasoning. The application of scientific management involves the following five steps: (1) develop standard methods for performing jobs by using time and motion studies, (2) carefully select employees with the appropriate abilities, (3) train workers to use the standard methods and procedures, (4) support workers and reduce interruptions, and (5) provide incentives to reinforce performance

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: The Pygmalion Effect

that someone's high expectations for another person result in high performance for that person The key process underlying both the Pygmalion and Galatea effects is the idea that people's expectations or beliefs determine their behavior and performance, thus serving to make their expectations come true. In other words, we strive to validate our perceptions of reality, no matter how faulty they may be. Thus, the self-fulfilling prophecy is an important perceptual outcome we need to better understand.

Communication competence / Communication Styles

the ability to communicate effectively in specific situations

emotional intelligence

the ability to manage oneself and one's relationships in mature and constructive ways. Referred to by some as EI and others as EQ, emotional intelligence is said to have four key components: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management. The first two constitute personal competence; the second two feed into social competence

Personality

the combination of stable physical and mental characteristics that give the individual his or her identity. These characteristics or traits—including how one looks, thinks, acts, and feels—are the product of interacting genetic and environmental influences.

Skill

the specific capacity to physically manipulate objects. Among the many desirable skills and competencies in organizational life are written and spoken communication, initiative, decisiveness, tolerance, problem solving, adaptability, and resilience. Importantly, our cautions about on-the-job personality testing extend to ability, intelligence, and skill testing and certification

proxemics

the study of cultural expectations about interpersonal space four interpersonal distance zones. Some call them space bubbles. They are intimate distance, personal distance, social distance, and public distance.

Bottom-Up Approaches

this approach to job design is driven by employees rather than managers and is referred to as job crafting.

Self-efficacy Model

would involve cognitive appraisal of the interaction between your perceived capability and situational opportunities and obstacles People program themselves for success or failure by enacting their self-efficacy expectations significant positive correlation between self-efficacy and job performance -can be boosted in the workplace through careful hiring, challenging assignments, training and coaching, goal setting, supportive leadership and mentoring, and rewards for improvement.

Feedback for Coaching Purposes and Organizational Effectiveness

Focus on performance, not personalities. Give specific feedback linked to learning goals and performance outcome goals. Channel feedback toward key result areas for the organization. Give feedback as soon as possible. Give feedback to coach improvement, not just for final results. Base feedback on accurate and credible information. Pair feedback with clear expectations for improvement.

Self-managed teams

Groups of employees granted administrative oversight for their work. Accountability is maintained indirectly by outside managers and leaders Team advisers rely on four indirect influence tactics: Relating. Understanding the organization's power structure, building trust, showing concern for individual team members. Scouting. Seeking outside information, diagnosing teamwork problems, facilitating group problem solving. Persuading. Gathering outside support and resources, influencing team to be more effective and pursue organizational goals. Empowering. Delegating decision-making authority, facilitating team decision-making process, coaching. the most commonly delegated tasks are work scheduling and dealing directly with outside customers. The least common team chores are hiring and firing. Most of today's self-managed teams remain bunched at the shop-floor level in factory settings. Self-managed teams had: A positive effect on productivity. A positive effect on specific attitudes relating to self-management No significant effect on general attitudes No significant effect on absenteeism or turnover

Advantages and Disadvantages of Group-Aided Decision Making

If additional information would increase the quality of the decision, managers should involve those people who can provide the needed information. If acceptance is important, managers need to involve those individuals whose acceptance and commitment are important. If people can be developed through their participation, managers may want to involve those whose development is most important.

Blind Conformity

Robert I Sutton, a professor of management science at Stanford University, recently offered this blistering assessment of blind conformity: Mindless imitation is among the most dangerous and widespread forms of management idiocy. One of the dumbest excuses for screwing up is "everyone else does it." ... When everyone else does nothing at all, or all do the same inane thing, such collective stupidity makes people feel far better than when they do the same, equally moronic things on their own.

Functional Roles Preformed by Group Members

Roles that are not always performed when needed, such as those of coordinator, evaluator, and gatekeeper, can be performed in a timely manner by the formal leader or assigned to other members. The task roles of initiator, orienter, and energizer are especially important because they are goal-directed roles. Research studies on group goal setting confirm the motivational power of challenging goals. As with individual goal setting, difficult but achievable goals are associated with better group results. Also in line with individual goal-setting theory and research, group goals are more effective if group members clearly understand them and are both individually and collectively committed to achieving them. In Japan cultural tradition calls for more emphasis on maintenance roles, especially the roles of harmonizer and compromiser.

Delphi Technique

The Delphi technique is a group process that anonymously generates ideas or judgments from physically dispersed experts. Unlike NGT, experts' ideas are obtained from questionnaires or via the Internet as opposed to face-to-face group discussions. A manager begins the Delphi process by identifying the issue(s) he or she wants to investigate. Next, participants are identified and a questionnaire is developed. The questionnaire is sent to participants and returned to the manager. In today's computer-networked environments, this often means that the questionnaires are e-mailed to participants. The manager then summarizes the responses and sends feedback to the participants. At this stage, participants are asked to (1) review the feedback, (2) prioritize the issues being considered, and (3) return the survey within a specified time period. This cycle repeats until the manager obtains the necessary information. The Delphi technique is useful when face-to-face discussions are impractical, when disagreements and conflict are likely to impair communication, when certain individuals might severely dominate group discussion, and when groupthink is a probable outcome of the group process.

Availability heuristic

The availability heuristic represents a decision maker's tendency to base decisions on information that is readily available in memory. Information is more accessible in memory when it involves an event that recently occurred, when it is salient (e.g., a plane crash), and when it evokes strong emotions (e.g., a high-school student shooting other students). This heuristic is likely to cause people to overestimate the occurrence of unlikely events such as a plane crash or a high-school shooting. This bias also is partially responsible for the recency effect. For example, a manager is more likely to give an employee a positive performance evaluation if the employee exhibited excellent performance over the last few months.

Confirmation bias

The confirmation bias has two components. The first is to subconsciously decide something before investigating why it is the right decision, for example, deciding to purchase a particular type of PDA (personal digital assistant). This directly leads to the second component, which is to seek information that supports purchasing this PDA while discounting information that does not.

Escalation of commitment bias

The escalation of commitment bias refers to the tendency to stick to an ineffective course of action when it is unlikely that the bad situation can be reversed. Personal examples include investing more money into an old or broken car or putting more effort into improving a personal relationship that is filled with conflict. Researchers recommend the following actions to reduce the escalation of commitment: -Set minimum targets for performance, and have decision makers compare their performance against these targets. -Regularly rotate managers in key positions throughout a project. -Encourage decision makers to become less ego-involved with a project. -Make decision makers aware of the costs of persistence.

Hindsight bias

The hindsight bias occurs when knowledge of an outcome influences our belief about the probability that we could have predicted the outcome earlier. We are affected by this bias when we look back on a decision and try to reconstruct why we decided to do something. Imagine yourself in the following scenario: You are taking an OB course that meets Tuesday and Thursday, and your professor gives unannounced quizzes each week. It's the Monday before a class, and you are deciding whether to study for a potential quiz or to watch Monday night football. Two of your classmates have decided to watch the game rather than study because they don't think there will be a quiz the next day. The next morning you walk into class and the professor says, "Take out a sheet of paper for the quiz." You turn to your friends and say, "I knew we were going to have a quiz; why did I listen to you?"

Overconfidence bias

The overconfidence bias relates to our tendency to be over-confident about estimates or forecasts. This bias is particularly strong when you are asked moderate to extremely difficult questions rather than easy ones. Imagine the problem this bias might create for a sales manager estimating sales revenue for the next year. Research shows that overoptimism significantly influences entrepreneurs' decisions to start and sustain new ventures.

Steps Managers Can Take to Enhance the Two Types of Group Cohesiveness

The trick is to keep task groups small, make sure performance standards and goals are clear and accepted, achieve some early successes, and follow the tips in Table 11-5. There is a small but statistically significant cohesiveness→performance effect. The cohesiveness→performance effect was stronger for smaller and real groups (as opposed to contrived groups in laboratory studies). The cohesiveness→performance effect becomes stronger as one moves from nonmilitary real groups to military groups to sports teams. Commitment to the task at hand (meaning the individual sees the performance standards as legitimate) has the most powerful impact on the cohesiveness→performance linkage. The performance→cohesiveness linkage is stronger than the cohesiveness→performance linkage. Thus, success tends to bind group or team members together rather than closely knit groups being more successful. Contrary to the popular view, cohesiveness is not "a 'lubricant' that minimizes friction due to the human 'grit' in the system." All this evidence led the researchers to this practical conclusion: "Efforts to enhance group performance by fostering interpersonal attraction or 'pumping up' group pride are not likely to be effective."

How to Create and Manage a Virtual Team

Virtual team physically dispersed task group that conducts its business primarily through modern information technology Virtual groups formed over the Internet follow a group development process similar to that for face-to-face groups Successful use of groupware (software that facilitates interaction among virtual group members) requires training and hands-on experience Internet chat rooms create more work and yield poorer decisions than face-to-face meetings and telephone conferences Inspirational leadership has a positive impact on creativity in electronic brainstorming groups Conflict management is particularly difficult for asynchronous virtual teams that have no opportunity for face-to-face interaction Having at least one member of a team working remotely "prompts the group to be more disciplined in its coordination and communication—yielding a better and more productive experience for all members.... But turn that isolate into a pair—by adding a coworker at the same location—and the team suffers. Meaningful face-to-face contact, especially during early phases of the group development process, is absolutely essential Periodic face-to-face interaction not only fosters social bonding among virtual team members, it also facilitates conflict resolution.

Guidelines for Developing Intuitive Awareness

You can develop your intuitive awareness by using the guidelines shown in...

Decision-Making Styles

When the dimensions of value orientation and tolerance for ambiguity are combined, they form four styles of decision making: directive, analytical, conceptual, and behavioral. directive a low tolerance for ambiguity and are oriented toward task and technical concerns when making decisions. are efficient, logical, practical, and systematic in their approach to solving problems. are action oriented and decisive and like to focus on facts. In their pursuit of speed and results, however, these individuals tend to be autocratic, exercise power and control, and focus on the short run. Interestingly, a directive style seems well suited for an air-traffic controller. analytical much higher tolerance for ambiguity and is characterized by the tendency to overanalyze a situation. like to consider more information and alternatives than do directives. are careful decision makers who take longer to make decisions but who also respond well to new or uncertain situations. They can often be autocratic. conceptual high tolerance for ambiguity and tend to focus on the people or social aspects of a work situation. take a broad perspective to problem solving and like to consider many options and future possibilities. adopt a long-term perspective and rely on intuition and discussions with others to acquire information. are willing to take risks and are good at finding creative solutions to problems. On the downside, however, a conceptual style can foster an idealistic and indecisive approach to decision making. behavioral the most people oriented of the four styles. work well with others and enjoy social interactions in which opinions are openly exchanged. are supportive, receptive to suggestions, show warmth, and prefer verbal to written information. like to hold meetings have a tendency to avoid conflict and to be too concerned about others. This can lead behavioral types to adopt a wishy-washy approach to decision making and to have a hard time saying no to others and to have difficulty making difficult decisions.

Team

a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold them teams are task groups that have matured to the performing stage (but not slipped into decay) The essence of a team is common commitment Without it, groups perform as individuals; with it, they become a powerful unit of collective performance When Katzenbach and Smith refer to "a small number of people" in their definition, they mean between 2 and 25 team members. They found effective teams to typically have fewer than 10 members.

Performance management

an organization-wide system whereby managers integrate the activities of goal setting, monitoring and evaluating, providing feedback and coaching, and rewarding employees on a continuous basis Organizational behavior (OB) can shed valuable light on goal setting, feedback and coaching, and rewards and positive reinforcement.

Team viability

defined as team members' satisfaction and continued willingness to contribute.

group cohesiveness

defined as the "we feeling" that binds members of a group together

The Asch Effect

the distortion of individual judgment by a unanimous but incorrect opposition "perception test" Only 20% of Asch's subjects remained entirely independent; 80% yielded to the pressures of group opinion at least once! And 58% knuckled under to the "immoral majority" at least twice. Hence, the Asch effect, the distortion of individual judgment by a unanimous but incorrect opposition, was documented. Internationally, collectivist countries, where the group prevails over the individual, produced higher levels of conformity than individualistic countries. Functional conflict and assertiveness can help employees respond appropriately when they find themselves facing an immoral majority. Ethical codes focused on specific practices also can provide support and guidance.

negotiation - core emotional elements of

Appreciation: acknowledge that each other's thoughts, feelings, and actions have merit. Affiliation: treat each other as colleagues rather than as adversaries to be kept at a distance. Autonomy: respect each other's freedom to make important decisions. Status: recognize each other's standing instead of viewing the other person as inferior. Role: define your roles and activities in a fulfilling way.

Ostracism

Rejection by group members

A Systems Model of Change

Systems Approach -Based on the notion that any change, no matter how large or small, has a cascading effect throughout an organization -Takes a "big picture" perspective of organizational change Mission statement represents the "reason" an organization exists Vision a long-term goal that describes "what" an organization wants to become Strategic plan -outlines an organization's long-term direction and the actions necessary to achieve planned results -based on results from a SWOT analysis Applying the Systems Model of Change Two ways to apply the systems model: -Aid during the strategic planning process -Using the model as a diagnostic framework to determine the causes of an organizational problem and to propose solutions

Relationship between Conflict Intensity and Outcomes

Work groups, departments, or organizations experiencing too little conflict tend to be plagued by apathy, lack of creativity, indecision, and missed deadlines. Excessive conflict, on the other hand, can erode organizational performance because of political infighting, dissatisfaction, lack of teamwork, and turnover. Workplace bullying, reportedly experienced by one-third of the employees in a recent survey,is unhealthy conflict. Workplace aggression and violence also can be manifestations of excessive conflict. Appropriate types and levels of conflict energize people in constructive directions.

Affirmative Action

an artificial intervention aimed at giving management a chance to correct an imbalance, an injustice, a mistake, or outright discrimination that occurred in the past. Affirmative action does not legitimize quotas. Quotas are illegal. They can only be imposed by judges who conclude that a company has engaged in discriminatory practices. It also is important to note that under no circumstances does affirmative action require companies to hire unqualified people. (1) affirmative action plans are perceived more negatively by white males than women and minorities because it is perceived to work against their own self-interests (2) affirmative action plans are viewed more positively by people who are liberals and Democrats than conservatives and Republicans (3) affirmative action plans are not supported by people who possess racist or sexist attitudes

Fiedler's Contingency Model

based on the premise that a leader's effectiveness is contingent on the extent to which a leader's style fits or matches characteristics of the situation at hand. Fiedler believes that leaders have one dominant or natural leadership style that is resistant to change. A leader's style is described as either task-motivated or relationship-motivated. Task-motivated leaders focus on accomplishing goals, whereas relationship-motivated leaders are more interested in developing positive relationships with followers. These basic styles are similar to initiating structure/concern for production and consideration/concern for people that were previously discussed. To determine an individual's leadership style, Fiedler developed the least preferred co-worker (LPC) scale. High scores on the survey (high LPC) indicate that an individual is relationship-motivated, and low scores (low LPC) suggest a task-motivated style. Situational control refers to the amount of control and influence the leader has in his immediate work environment. Three Dimensions of Situational Control: -Leader-member relations the extent to which the leader has the support, loyalty, and trust of the work group most important component of situational control. Good leader-member relations suggest that the leader can depend on the group, thus ensuring that the work group will try to meet the leader's goals and objectives. -Task structure concerned with the amount of structure contained within tasks performed by the work group. For example, a managerial job contains less structure than that of a bank teller. Because structured tasks have guidelines for how the job should be completed, the leader has more control and influence over employees performing such tasks. This dimension is the second most important component of situational control. -Position power the degree to which the leader has formal power to reward, punish, or otherwise obtain compliance from employees

Lewin's Change Model

it is important to highlight the assumptions underlying this model: -The change process involves learning something new, as well as discontinuing current attitudes, behaviors, or organizational practices. -Change will not occur unless there is motivation to change. This is often the most difficult part of the change process. -People are the hub of all organizational changes. Any change, whether in terms of structure, group process, reward systems, or job design, requires individuals to change. -Resistance to change is found even when the goals of change are highly desirable. -Effective change requires reinforcing new behaviors, attitudes, and organizational practices. Unfreezing -Focus is to create the motivation to change -Begin by disconfirming the usefulness or appropriateness of employees' present behaviors or attitudes Benchmarking -the overall process by which a company compares its performance with that of other companies, then learns how the strongest-performing companies achieve their results Changing -providing employees with new information, new behavioral models, new processes or procedures, new equipment, new technology, or new ways of getting the job done -change can be aimed at improvement or growth, or it can focus on solving a problem such as poor customer service or low productivity Refreezing -Change is supported by helping employees integrate the changed behavior or attitude into their normal way of doing things -Giving employees the chance to exhibit new behaviors, which are then reinforced

psychological detachment

not being involved in work-related activities, thoughts, or feelings during nonwork time. These activities can include making phone calls, answering e-mail, thinking about projects and activities that must be completed in the near term, and just plain thinking and talking about people at work. is positively associated with life satisfaction and psychological well-being, and negatively with emotional exhaustion and psychosomatic complaints.

Strategic Plan

outlines an organization's long-term goals and the actions necessary to achieve these goals

Situational theories

propose that the effectiveness of a particular style of leader behavior depends on the situation.

Information/decision-making theory

proposes that diverse groups should outperform homogeneous groups.

Age sterotypes

reinforce age discrimination because of their negative orientation. Long-standing age stereotypes depict older workers as less satisfied, not as involved with their work, less motivated, not as committed

Sample Survey

samples of people from specified populations respond to questionnaires. The researchers then draw conclusions about the relevant population. Generalizability of the results depends on the quality of the sampling and questioning techniques.

Gender and Leadership

(1) Men and women were seen as displaying more task and social leadership, respectively; (2) women used a more democratic or participative style than men, and men used a more autocratic and directive style than women; (3) men and women were equally assertive; and (4) women executives, when rated by their peers, managers, and direct reports, scored higher than their male counterparts on a variety of effectiveness criteria.

Good leaders were perceived as exhibiting the following behaviors:

(1) assigning specific tasks to group members, (2) telling others that they had done well, (3) setting specific goals for the group, (4) letting other group members make decisions, (5) trying to get the group to work as a team, and (6) maintaining definite standards of performance. Another recent study found that good leaders were perceived as those who consistently treated all members of a work unit in a fair manner.

McClelland's Need Theory

*Need for achievement Desire to accomplish something difficult. Achievement-motivated people share three common characteristics: (1) they prefer working on tasks of moderate difficulty; (2) they prefer situations in which performance is due to their efforts rather than to other factors, such as luck; and (3) they desire more feedback on their successes and failures than do low achievers. *Need for affiliation prefer to spend more time maintaining social relationships, joining groups, and wanting to be loved. Individuals high in this need are not the most effective managers or leaders because they tend to avoid conflict, have a hard time making difficult decisions without worrying about being disliked, and avoid giving others negative feedback *Need for power Desire to Influence, coach, teach, or encourage others to achieve. People with a high need for power like to work and are concerned with discipline and self-respect. There are positive and negative sides to this need. The negative face of power is characterized by an "if I win, you lose" mentality. In contrast, people with a positive orientation to power focus on accomplishing group goals and helping employees obtain the feeling of competence. To accomplish something difficult. To master, manipulate, or organize physical objects, human beings, or ideas. To do this as rapidly and as independently as possible. To overcome obstacles and attain a high standard. To excel one's self. To rival and surpass others. To increase self-regard by the successful exercise of talent.

Alderfer's ERG Theory

*existence needs (E)—the desire for physiological and materialistic well-being; *relatedness needs (R)—the desire to have meaningful relationships with significant others; *growth needs (G)—the desire to grow as a human being and to use one's abilities to their fullest potential does not assume needs are related to each other in a stair-step hierarchy as does Maslow. Alderfer believes that more than one need may be activated at a time. Finally, ERG theory contains a frustration-regression component. That is, frustration of higher-order needs can influence the desire for lower-order needs

Clan Culture

-A clan culture has an internal focus and values flexibility rather than stability and control. It resembles a family-type organization in which effectiveness is achieved by encouraging collaboration between employees. This type of culture is very "employee-focused" and strives to instill cohesion through consensus and job satisfaction and commitment through employee involvement. -Clan organizations devote considerable resources to hiring and developing their employees, and they view customers as partners.

Delegation barriers

-Belief in the fallacy, "If you want it done right, do it yourself." -Lack of confidence and trust in lower-level employees. -Low self-confidence. -Fear of being called lazy. -Vague job definition. -Fear of competition from those below. -Reluctance to take the risks involved in depending on others. -Lack of controls that provide early warning of problems with delegated duties. -Poor example set by bosses who do not delegate Greater delegation was associated with the following factors: -Employee was competent. -Employee shared manager's task objectives. -Manager had a long-standing and positive relationship with employee. -The lower-level person also was a supervisor.58

Hierarchy Culture

-Control is the driving force -has an internal focus, which produces a more formalized and structured work environment, and values stability and control over flexibility. -leads to the development of reliable internal processes, extensive measurement, and the implementation of a variety of control mechanisms. Effectiveness in a company with this type of culture is likely to be assessed with measures of efficiency, timeliness, quality, safety, and reliability of producing and delivering products and services.

Principles of TQM

-Do it right the first time to eliminate costly rework and product recalls. -Listen to and learn from customers and employees. -Make continuous improvement an everyday matter. -Build teamwork, trust, and mutual respect. -The organization's culture is defined by and supports the constant attainment of customer satisfaction through an integrated system of tools, techniques, and training. This involves the continuous improvement of organizational processes, resulting in high-quality products and services

Bad Leader Traits

-Incompetent - The leader and at least some followers lack the will or skill (or both) to sustain effective action. With regard to at least one important leadership challenge, they do not create positive change. -Rigid - The leader and at least some followers are stiff and unyielding. Although they may be competent, they are unable or unwilling to adapt to new ideas, new information, or changing times. -Intemperate - he leader lacks self-control and is aided and abetted by followers who are unwilling or unable effectively to intervene. -Callous - The leader and at least some followers are uncaring and unkind. Ignored or discounted are the needs, wants, and desires of most members of the group or organization, especially subordinates. -Corrupt - The leader and at least some followers lie, cheat, or steal. To a degree that exceeds the norm, they put self-interest ahead of the public interest. -Insular - he leader and at least some followers minimize or disregard the health and welfare of "the other," that is, those outside the group or organization for which they are directly responsible. -Evil - Evil leaders such as Adolf Hitler and Saddam Hussein encourage their followers to commit atrocities. They tend to use pain as an instrument of power. The harm done to men, women, and children is severe rather than slight. The harm can be physical, psychological, or both.

Principles for Designing a Horizontal Organization

-Organize around complete workflow processes -Flatten hierarchy and use teams to manage everything -Appoint process team leaders to manage internal team processes -Let supplier and customer contact drive performance -Provide required expertise from outside the team as required Horizontal designs improve coordination and communication Hollow structure organization identifies core competencies and outsources noncore processes to vendors who can do them cheaper or faster Modular structure Outsources parts of a product instead of processes Virtual organization organization identifies partners with the needed talents and negotiates an agreement in which the participants typically work in separate facilities, linked by technology Organizations that become hollow, modular, or virtual can generate superior returns by focusing on what they do best

Practical Lessons from Conflict Research

-People with a high need for affiliation tended to rely on a smoothing (obliging) style while avoiding a forcing (dominating) style. -Disagreement expressed in an arrogant and demeaning manner produced significantly more negative effects than the same sort of disagreement expressed in a reasonable manner. -Threats and punishment, by one party in a disagreement, tended to produce intensifying threats and punishment from the other party. In short, aggression breeds aggression. -As conflict increased, group satisfaction decreased. An integrative style of handling conflict led to higher group satisfaction than did an avoidance style. -the more successful teams were more proactive: The less successful teams tended to reactively make decisions looking backward instead of toward the future. -Companies with mandatory or binding arbitration policies were viewed less favorably than companies without such policies. -Both intradepartmental and interdepartmental conflict decreased as goal difficulty and goal clarity increased. Thus, challenging and clear goals can defuse conflict. -Higher levels of conflict tended to erode job satisfaction and internal work motivation. -Men and women at the same managerial level tended to handle conflict similarly. -Samples of Japanese, German, and American managers who were presented with the same conflict scenario preferred different resolution techniques. Japanese and German managers did not share the Americans' enthusiasm for integrating the interests of all parties. The Japanese tended to look upward to management for direction, whereas the Germans were more bound by rules and regulations. In cross-cultural conflict resolution, there is no one best approach. Culture-specific preferences need to be taken into consideration prior to beginning the conflict resolution process.

Leadership

-Process between leaders and followers -Involves social influence -Occurs at multiple levels in an organization -Focuses on goal accomplishment

Listening

-Process of actively decoding and interpreting verbal messages. -requires cognitive attention and information processing Listening Styles 1) Appreciative - listens for pleasure, entertainment, or inspiration. He or she tends to tune out speakers who provide no amusement or humor in their communications. 2) Empathetic - interprets messages by focusing on emotions and body language. They also tend to listen without judging. 3) Comprehensive - organizes specific thoughts and actions and integrates this information by focusing on relationships among ideas. makes sense of a message by first organizing specific thoughts and actions and then integrates this information by focusing on relationships among ideas. These listeners prefer logical presentations without interruptions. 4) Discerning - attempt to understand the main message and determine important points. They like to take notes and prefer logical presentations. 5) Evaluative - listen analytically and continually formulate arguments and challenges to what is being said. They tend to accept or reject messages based on personal beliefs, ask a lot of questions, and can become interruptive. we can improve our listening skills by adhering to the following three fundamental recommendations: - Attend closely to what's being said, not to what you want to say next. - Allow others to finish speaking before taking your turn. - Repeat back what you've heard to give the speaker the opportunity to clarify the message.

21st-Century Managers

-Teams are pushing aside the individual as the primary building block of organizations. -Command-and-control management is giving way to participative management and empowerment. -Ego-centered leaders are being replaced by customer-centered leaders. -Employees increasingly are being viewed as internal customers.

Organizational Culture Layers - Espoused Values

-Values possess five key components. "Values (1) are concepts or beliefs, (2) pertain to desirable end-states or behaviors, (3) transcend situations, (4) guide selection or evaluation of behavior and events, and (5) are ordered by relative importance."7 It is important to distinguish between values that are espoused versus those that are enacted. -Espoused values represent the explicitly stated values and norms that are preferred by an organization. They are generally established by the founder of a new or small company and by the top management team in a larger organization. -Because espoused values represent aspirations that are explicitly communicated to employees, managers hope that those values will directly influence employee behavior. -It is important for managers to reduce gaps between espoused and enacted values because they can significantly influence employee attitudes and organizational performance

Organizational Culture Layers - Observable artifacts

-consist of the physical manifestation of an organization's culture. Organizational examples include acronyms, manner of dress, awards, myths and stories told about the organization, published lists of values, observable rituals and ceremonies, special parking spaces, decorations -also includes visible behaviors exhibited by people and groups -Artifacts are easier to change than the less visible aspects of organizational culture

Managing Diversity

-entails enabling people to perform up to their maximum potential -focuses on changing an organization's culture and infrastructure such that people provide the highest productivity possible

Diversity

-represents the multitude of individual differences and similarities that exist among people -pertains to the host of individual differences that make all of us unique and different from others

Delegation

-the process of granting decision-making authority to lower-level employees -amounts to power distribution Delegation has long been the recommended way to lighten the busy manager's load while at the same time developing employees' abilities. Importantly, delegation gives nonmanagerial employees more than simply a voice in decisions. It empowers them to make their own decisions.

telecommuting

allows the work to travel electronically to and from the person's home.

Outcomes Associated with Organizational Culture

1 - Clearly related to measures of organizational effectiveness. 2 - Employees are more satisfied and committed to organizations with clan cultures. 3 - Innovation and quality can be increased by building characteristics associated with clan, adhocracy, and market cultures into the organization. 4 - An organization's financial performance is not very strongly related to organizational culture. 5 - Companies with market cultures tend to have more positive organizational outcomes.

Three Possible Influence Outcomes

1) Commitment - is more likely when people rely on consultation, strong rational persuasion, and inspirational appeals and do not rely on pressure and coalition tactics. Interestingly, in one study, managers were not very effective at downward influence. They relied most heavily on inspiration (an effective tactic), ingratiation (a moderately effective tactic), and pressure (an ineffective tactic). is more likely when the influence attempt involves something important and enjoyable and is based on a friendly relationship. Many studies have found women to be perceived as less competent and less influential in work groups than men. For both women and men, task behavior was associated with perceived competence and effective influence. Dominating behavior was not effective. "The display of task cues is an effective means to enhance one's status in groups and ... the attempt to gain influence in task groups through dominance is an ineffective and poorly received strategy for both men and women. 2) Compliance - reluctant agreement requiring subsequent prodding to satisfy minimum requirements 3) Resistance - stalling, unproductive arguing, or outright rejection

Communication barriers

1) Personal barriers - any individual attribute that hinders communication -Variable skills in communicating effectively -Variations in how information is processed and interpreted -Variations in interpersonal trust -Stereotypes and prejudices -Big egos -Poor listening skills -Natural tendency to evaluate other's messages -Inability to listen with understanding -Nonverbal communication 2) Physical barriers - Time Zone DIfferences - Telephone-line static - Distance from others - Crashed computers - Office design 3) Semantic barriers (Semantics - study of words) - problems w/language in communication - fueled by the growing trend to outsource customer service operations to foreign countries like India - Jargon - represents language or terminology that is specific to a particular profession, group, or company

Nine Generic Influence Tactics

1) Rational persuasion. Trying to convince someone with reason, logic, or facts. 2) Inspirational appeals. Trying to build enthusiasm by appealing to others' emotions, ideals, or values. 3) Consultation. Getting others to participate in planning, making decisions, and changes. 4) Ingratiation. Getting someone in a good mood prior to making a request; being friendly, helpful, and using praise or flattery. 5) Personal appeals. Referring to friendship and loyalty when making a request. 6) Exchange. Making express or implied promises and trading favors. 7) Coalition tactics. Getting others to support your effort to persuade someone. 8) Pressure. Demanding compliance or using intimidation or threats. 9) Legitimating tactics. Basing a request on one's authority or right, organizational rules or policies, or express or implied support from superiors. *Interpersonal influence is culture bound.

Ajzen's Theory of Planned Behavior

Ajzen ultimately developed and refined a model focusing on intentions as the key link between attitudes and planned behavior Importantly, this model only predicts behavior under an individual's control, not behavior due to circumstances beyond one's control. According to this model, changing behavior starts with the recognition that behavior is modified through intentions, which in turn are influenced by three different determinants. Managers can thus influence behavioral change by doing or saying things that affect the three determinants of employees' intentions to exhibit a specific behavior: attitude toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control The first is the attitude toward the behavior and refers to the degree to which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation or appraisal of the behavior in question. The second predictor is a social factor termed subjective norm; it refers to the perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform the behavior. The third antecedent of intention is the degree of perceived behavior control, which ... refers to the perceived ease or difficulty of performing the behavior and it is assumed to reflect past experience as well as anticipated impediments and obstacles

Antecedents of Conflict

Among the situations tending to produce either functional or dysfunctional conflict are: Incompatible personalities or value systems. Overlapping or unclear job boundaries. Interdepartment/intergroup competition. Competition for limited resources. Inadequate communication. Interdependent tasks (e.g., one person cannot complete his or her assignment until others have completed their work). Organizational complexity (conflict tends to increase as the number of hierarchical layers and specialized tasks increase). Unreasonable or unclear policies, standards, or rules. Unreasonable deadlines or extreme time pressure. Collective decision making (the greater the number of people participating in a decision, the greater the potential for conflict). Decision making by consensus. Unmet expectations (employees who have unrealistic expectations about job assignments, pay, or promotions are more prone to conflict). Unresolved or suppressed conflicts.

Stereotype

An individual's set of beliefs about the characteristics or attributes of a group Not always negative May or may not be accurate Stereotyping is a four-step process. 1 - categorizing people into groups according to various criteria, such as gender, age, race, and occupation. 2 - we infer that all people within a particular category possess the same traits or characteristics (e.g., all women are nurturing, older people have more job-related accidents, all African 3 - we form expectations of others and interpret their behavior according to our stereotypes. 4 - stereotypes are maintained by (1) overestimating the frequency of stereotypic behaviors exhibited by others, (2) incorrectly explaining expected and unexpected behaviors, and (3) differentiating minority individuals from oneself.

Intention Determinants of

Attitude toward the behavior the degree to which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation or appraisal of the behavior in question. Subjective norm refers to the perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform the behavior the degree of perceived behavior control, which ... refers to the perceived ease or difficulty of performing the behavior and it is assumed to reflect past experience as well as anticipated impediments and obstacles.

Wiseman's four guidelines for improving your luck:

Be active and involved. Be open to new experiences and networking with others to encounter more lucky chance opportunities. Listen to your hunches about luck. Learn when to listen to your intuitive gut feelings. Meditation and mind-clearing activities can help. Expect to be lucky no matter how bad the situation. Remain optimistic and work to make your expectations a self-fulfilling prophecy. Turn your bad luck into good fortune. Take control of bad situations by remaining calm, positive, and focused on a better future.

Cross-Cultural Conflict

Because of differing assumptions about how to think and act, the potential for cross-cultural conflict is both immediate and huge. Success or failure when conducting business across cultures often hinges on avoiding and minimizing actual or perceived conflict This is not a matter of who is right and who is wrong; rather it is a matter of accommodating cultural differences for a successful business transaction. Awareness of the GLOBE project's cross-cultural dimensions, is an important first step. Stereotypes also need to be identified and neutralized. Beyond that, cross-cultural conflict can be moderated by using international consultants and building cross-cultural relationships.

Performance

Before moving on, we need to say something about a modern-day threat to abilities, skills, and general competence. That threat, according to public health officials, is sleep deprivation. only about four in 10—of the respondents from each ethnic group say they get a good night's sleep on most nights.job-related stress was the number-one response (42%) to the question "What's robbing you of a good night's sleep? Staying awake 24 hours impairs cognitive psychomotor performance to the same degree as having a 0.1 percent blood alcohol level."

work-related value for each of five religious affiliations:

Catholic. Consideration ("Concern that employees be taken seriously, be kept informed, and that their judgments be used.") Protestant. Employer effectiveness ("Desire to work for a company that is efficient, successful, and a technological leader.") Buddhist. Social responsibility ("Concern that the employer be a responsible part of society.") Muslim. Continuity ("Desire for stable environment, job longevity, reduction of uncertainty.") No religious preference. Professional challenge ("Concern with having a job that provides learning opportunities and opportunities to use skills well.")

Levels of Political Action in Organizations

Coalition - an informal group bound together by the active pursuit of a single issue Coalitions may or may not coincide with formal group membership. When the target issue is resolved (a sexual-harassing supervisor is fired, for example), the coalition disbands. Experts note that political coalitions have "fuzzy boundaries," meaning they are fluid in membership, flexible in structure, and temporary in duration. Coalitions are a potent political force in organizations.

Major Trends that Make Organizational Conflict Inevitable

Constant change Greater employee diversity More teams (virtual and self-managed) Less face-to-face communication Global economy with increased cross-cultural dealings

Approaches to Studying Leadership

Contingency approaches focused on identifying the types of leadership behaviors that are most effective in different settings. The transformational approach is the most popular perspective for studying leadership today.

Path-Goal Theory

Describes how leadership effectiveness is influenced by the interaction between four leadership styles - directive, supportive, participative, achievement-oriented Path-goal theory has two groups of contingency variables. They are employee characteristics and environmental factors. Five important employee characteristics are locus of control, task ability, need for achievement, experience, and need for clarity. Two relevant environmental factors are task structure (independent versus interdependent tasks) and work group dynamics. Employees with an internal locus of control are more likely to prefer participative or achievement-oriented leadership because they believe they have control over the work environment. Such individuals are unlikely to be satisfied with directive leader behaviors that exert additional control over their activities. In contrast, employees with an external locus tend to view the environment as uncontrollable, thereby preferring the structure provided by supportive or directive leadership. An employee with high task ability and experience is less apt to need additional direction and thus would respond negatively to directive leadership. This person is more likely to be motivated and satisfied by participative and achievement-oriented leadership. Oppositely, an inexperienced employee would find achievement-oriented leadership overwhelming as he or she confronts challenges associated with learning a new job. Supportive and directive leadership would be helpful in this situation. Finally, directive and supportive leadership should help employees experiencing role ambiguity. However, directive leadership is likely to frustrate employees working on routine and simple tasks. Supportive leadership is most useful in this context. Three key changes: 1) Leadership is more complex and involves a greater variety of leader behavior. 2) The role of intrinsic motivation and empowerment in influencing leadership effectiveness 3) Shared leadership

Informal Communication Channels

Do not follow the chain of command or organizational structure. Grapevine - Unofficial communication system of the informal organization. (1) it is faster than formal channels; (2) it is about 75% accurate; (3) people rely on it when they are insecure, threatened, or faced with organizational changes; and (4) grapevine gossip is not an isolated form of communication, but instead embedded into all organizational sense-making communication. Liaison individuals - Those who consistently pass along grapevine information to others. Organizational moles - Those who use the grapevine to enhance their power and status. Moles prefer to divert attention away from themselves and want to be seen as more competent than others. Managers are advised to create an open, trusting environment that discourages mole behavior because moles can destroy teamwork, create conflict, and impair productivity.

Forces of Change

External forces for change originate outside the organization Demographic characteristics - organizations are changing employment benefits and aspects of the work environment in order to attract, motivate, and retain diverse employees. Organizations also are changing the way in which they design and market their products and services and design their store layouts based on generational differences. persistently higher unemployment levels among young people around the world is creating a strong force for change by governments and organizations alike. Technological advancements - Both manufacturing and service organizations are increasingly using technology as a means to improve productivity, competitiveness, and customer service while also cutting costs. Information technology is enabling more and more forms of self-service, from Internet stores and banks for customers to online help for employees who want to learn about their benefits packages. Telepresence is a good example of a technology that enables organizations to change the way they deliver products, coordinate virtual workers, encourage employee collaboration, improve communication, and increase productivity. It represents an advanced form of videoconferencing and robotics that in combination makes virtual conversations seem like they are taking place in one location. Shareholder, customer and market changes - Shareholders have become more involved with pressing for organizational change in response to ethical lapses from senior management and anger over executives' compensation packages. Increasing customer sophistication is requiring organizations to deliver higher value in their products and services. Customers are simply demanding more now than they did in the past. Social and political pressures - These forces are created by social and political events. For example, widespread concern about the impact of climate change and rising energy costs have been important forces for change in almost every industry around the world. Companies have gone "green," looking for ways to use less energy themselves and to sell products that consume less energy and are safer to use. Internal forces for change originate inside the organization. -Low job satisfaction -Low productivity -Conflict -Strikes

Alternative Dispute Resolution

Facilitation. A third party, usually a manager, informally urges disputing parties to deal directly with each other in a positive and constructive manner. This can be a form of detriangling, as discussed earlier. Conciliation. A neutral third party informally acts as a communication conduit between disputing parties. This is appropriate when conflicting parties refuse to meet face to face. The immediate goal is to establish direct communication, with the broader aim of finding common ground and a constructive solution. Peer review. A panel of trustworthy co-workers, selected for their ability to remain objective, hears both sides of a dispute in an informal and confidential meeting. Any decision by the review panel may or may not be binding, depending on the company's ADR policy. Membership on the peer review panel often is rotated among employees. Ombudsman. Someone who works for the organization, and is widely respected and trusted by his or her co-workers, hears grievances on a confidential basis, and attempts to arrange a solution. This approach, more common in Europe than North America, permits someone to get help from above without relying on the formal hierarchy chain. Mediation. "The mediator—a trained, third-party neutral—actively guides the disputing parties in exploring innovative solutions to the conflict. Although some companies have in-house mediators who have received ADR training, most also use external mediators who have no ties to the company." Unlike an arbitrator, a mediator does not render a decision. It is up to the disputants to reach a mutually acceptable decision. Arbitration. Disputing parties agree ahead of time to accept the decision of a neutral arbitrator in a formal courtlike setting, often complete with evidence and witnesses. Participation in this form of ADR can be voluntary or mandatory, depending on company policy or union contracts.64 Statements are confidential. Decisions are based on legal merits. Trained arbitrators, typically from outside agencies such as the American Arbitration Association, are versed in relevant laws and case precedents.

Work-Family Conflict

Family values involve enduring beliefs about the importance of family and who should play key family roles (e.g., child rearing, housekeeping, and income earning). Work values center on the relative importance of work and career goals in one's life. -Value similarity relates to the degree of consensus among family members about family values. When a housewife launches a business venture despite her husband's desire to be the sole bread winner, lack of family value similarity causes work-family conflict. -Value congruence, on the other hand, involves the amount of value agreement between employee and employer. If, for example, refusing to go on a business trip to stay home for a child's birthday is viewed as disloyalty to the company, lack of value congruence can trigger work-family conflict. -work-family conflict can take two distinct forms: work interference with family and family interference with work -The last two boxes in the model—value attainment and job and life satisfaction—are a package deal. Satisfaction tends to be higher for those who live according to their values and lower for those who do not.

four-step process for followers to use in managing the leader-follower relationship.

First, it is critical for followers to understand their boss. Followers should attempt to gain an appreciation for their manager's leadership style, interpersonal style, goals, expectations, pressures, and strengths and weaknesses. One way of doing this is to ask your manager to answer the following seven questions: 1) How would you describe your leadership style? Does your style change when you are under pressure? 2) When would you like me to approach you with questions or information? Are there any situations that are off-limits (e.g., a social event)? 3) How do you want me to communicate with you? 4) How do you like to work? 5) Are there behaviors or attitudes that you will not tolerate? What are they? 6) What is your approach toward giving feedback? 7) How can I help you? Second, followers need to understand their own style, needs, goals, expectations, and strengths and weaknesses. The next step entails conducting a gap analysis between the understanding a follower has about his or her boss and the understanding the follower has about him- or herself. With this information in mind, followers are ready to proceed to the final step of developing and maintaining a relationship that fits both parties' needs and styles. This final step requires followers to build on mutual strengths and to adjust or accommodate the leader's divergent style, goals, expectations, and weaknesses. a follower may not be able to accommodate a leader's style, expectations, or weaknesses and may have to seek a transfer or quit his or her job to reconcile the discrepancy. we can all enhance our boss's leadership effectiveness and our employer's success by becoming better followers.

The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model of Leadership

Focuses on the quality of relationships between managers and subordinates as opposed to the behaviors or traits of either leaders or followers. Assumes that leaders develop unique one-on-one relationships with direct reports. In-group exchange -Leaders and followers develop a partnership characterized by reciprocal influence, mutual trust, respect and liking, and a sense of common fates. Out-group exchange -Leaders are characterized as overseers who fail to create a sense of mutual trust, respect, or common fate Leaders are encouraged to establish high-performance expectations for all of their direct reports. Managers should be careful that they don't create a homogeneous work environment. **tips for improving the quality of leader-member exchanges. - Stay focused on your department's goals and remain positive about your ability to accomplish your goals. An unsupportive boss is just another obstacle to be overcome -Do not fall prey to feeling powerless, and empower yourself to get things done. - Exercise the power you have by focusing on circumstances you can control and avoid dwelling on circumstances you cannot control. -Work on improving your relationship with your manager. Begin by examining the level of trust between the two of you and then try to improve it by frequently and effectively communicating. You can also increase trust by following through on your commitments and achieving your goals. -Use an authentic, respectful, and assertive approach to resolve differences with your manager. It also is useful to use a problem-solving approach when disagreements arise.

Four Dimensions of Organizational Effectiveness

Goal accomplishment Key organizational results or outputs are compared with previously stated goals or objectives most widely used effectiveness criteria Resource acquisition organization is effective if it acquires necessary factors of production. The resource acquisition approach is appropriate when inputs have a traceable effect on results or output. For example, the amount of money the World Wildlife Fund receives through donations dictates the level of services provided. Internal processes focuses on "what the organization must excel at" to effectively meet its financial objectives and customers' expectations. The internal processes approach is appropriate when organizational performance is strongly influenced by specific processes (e.g., cross-functional teamwork). Strategic constituencies satisfaction Strategic constituency: any group of people with a stake in the organization's operation or success. A stakeholder audit enables management to identify all parties significantly impacted by the organization's performance. Conflicting interests and relative satisfaction among the listed stakeholders can then be dealt with. The strategic constituencies approach is appropriate when powerful stakeholders can significantly benefit or harm the organization.

How to Build Cross-Cultural Relationships

Good listening skills topped the list, followed by sensitivity to others and cooperativeness rather than competitiveness. Interestingly, US managers are culturally characterized as just the opposite: poor listeners, blunt to the point of insensitivity, and excessively competitive. Some managers need to add self-management and cultural intelligence to the list of ways to minimize cross-cultural conflict.

Herzberg's Motivator-Hygiene Model

Herzberg found separate and distinct clusters of factors associated with job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Job satisfaction was more frequently associated with achievement, recognition, characteristics of the work, responsibility, and advancement. These factors were all related to outcomes associated with the content of the task being performed. Herzberg labeled these factors motivators because each was associated with strong effort and good performance. He hypothesized that motivators cause a person to move from a state of no satisfaction to satisfaction job dissatisfaction to be associated primarily with factors in the work context or environment. Specifically, company policy and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relations with one's supervisor, and working conditions were most frequently mentioned by employees expressing job dissatisfaction. Herzberg labeled this second cluster of factors hygiene factors. He further proposed that they were not motivational. At best, Herzberg proposed that individuals will experience no job dissatisfaction when he or she has no grievances about hygiene factors Herzberg concludes that "the opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction, but rather no job satisfaction; and similarly, the opposite of job dissatisfaction is not job satisfaction, but no dissatisfaction." Herzberg thus asserts that the dissatisfaction-satisfaction continuum contains a zero midpoint at which dissatisfaction and satisfaction are absent. Conceivably, an organization member who has good supervision, pay, and working conditions but a tedious and unchallenging task with little chance of advancement would be at the zero midpoint. That person would have no dissatisfaction (because of good hygiene factors) and no satisfaction (because of a lack of motivators).

Job Characteristics Model

In general terms, core job dimensions are common characteristics found to a varying degree in all jobs. Three of the job characteristics shown combine to determine experienced meaningfulness of work: Skill variety. The extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a variety of tasks that require him or her to use different skills and abilities. Task identity. The extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a whole or completely identifiable piece of work. In other words, task identity is high when a person works on a product or project from beginning to end and sees a tangible result. Task significance. The extent to which the job affects the lives of other people within or outside the organization. Experienced responsibility is elicited by the job characteristic of autonomy, defined as follows: Autonomy. The extent to which the job enables an individual to experience freedom, independence, and discretion in both scheduling and determining the procedures used in completing the job. Finally, knowledge of results is fostered by the job characteristic of feedback, defined as follows: Feedback. The extent to which an individual receives direct and clear information about how effectively he or she is performing the job.

Five Conflict Handling Styles

Integrating interested parties confront the issue and cooperatively identify the problem, generate and weigh alternative solutions, and select a solution. appropriate for complex issues plagued by misunderstanding. inappropriate for resolving conflicts rooted in opposing value systems. primary strength is its longer lasting impact because it deals with the underlying problem rather than merely with symptoms. primary weakness of this style is that it is very time consuming. Obliging (Smoothing) "An obliging person neglects his or her own concern to satisfy the concern of the other party." often called smoothing involves playing down differences while emphasizing commonalities. appropriate conflict-handling strategy when it is possible to eventually get something in return. inappropriate for complex or worsening problems. primary strength is that it encourages cooperation. main weakness is that it's a temporary fix that fails to confront the underlying problem. Dominating (Forcing) High concern for self and low concern for others encourages "I win, you lose" tactics. The other party's needs are largely ignored. This style is often called forcing because it relies on formal authority to force compliance. Dominating is appropriate when an unpopular solution must be implemented, the issue is minor, a deadline is near, or a crisis looms. It can be awkward in an open and participative climate. Speed is its primary strength. The primary weakness of this domineering style is that it often breeds resentment. Avoiding This tactic may involve either passive withdrawal from the problem or active suppression of the issue. appropriate for trivial issues or when the costs of confrontation outweigh the benefits of resolving the conflict. inappropriate for difficult and worsening problems. main strength of this style is that it buys time in unfolding or ambiguous situations. primary weakness is that the tactic provides a temporary fix that sidesteps the underlying problem. Compromising This is a give-and-take approach involving moderate concern for both self and others. appropriate when parties have opposite goals or possess equal power. inappropriate when overuse would lead to inconclusive action (e.g., failure to meet important deadlines). primary strength of this tactic is that it has no disgruntled losers, but it's a temporary fix that can stifle creative problem solving.

Deliberate Practice

It is activity designed specifically to improve performance, often with a teacher's help; it can be repeated a lot; feedback on results is continuously available; it's highly demanding mentally, whether the activity is purely intellectual, such as chess or business-related activities, or heavily physical, such as sports; and it isn't much fun.

Is Honesty a Critical Leadership Trait?

James Kouzes and Barry Posner attempted to identify key leadership traits by asking the following open-ended question to more than 20,000 people around the world: "What values (personal traits or characteristics) do you look for and admire in your superiors?" The top four traits included honesty, forward-looking, inspiring, and competent. The researchers concluded that these four traits constitute a leader's credibility. This research suggests that people want their leaders to be credible and to have a sense of direction. That said, our discussion in Chapter 3 revealed that an organization's culture significantly influences the extent to which leaders encourage and reinforce integrity at work.

Learning Organizations

Learning organization one that proactively creates, acquires, and transfers knowledge and that changes its behavior on the basis of new knowledge and insights. Learning organizations actively try to infuse their organizations, and associated team mental models, with new ideas and information. They do this by constantly scanning their external environments, hiring new talent and expertise when needed, and devoting significant resources to train and develop their employees. Next, new knowledge must be transferred throughout the organization. Learning organizations strive to reduce structural, process, and interpersonal barriers to the sharing of information, ideas, and knowledge among organizational members. They also focus on learning from both success and failure. Team mental model represents team members' "shared, organized understanding and mental representation of knowledge about key elements of the team's relevant environment Organizations are said to have humanlike cognitive functions, such as the abilities to perceive and interpret, solve problems, store information, and learn from experience.

Moderators of Occupational Stress

Managers with a working knowledge of important stress moderators can confront employee stress in the following ways: 1) Awareness of moderators helps identify those most likely to experience stress and its negative outcomes. Stress-reduction programs then can be formulated for high-risk employees. 2) Moderators, in and of themselves, suggest possible solutions for reducing negative outcomes of occupational stress.

Managing Organizational Politics

Measurable objectives are management's first line of defense against counterproductive organizational politics. An individual's degree of politicalness is a matter of personal values, ethics, and temperament. People who are either strictly nonpolitical or highly political generally pay a price for their behavior. The former may experience slow promotions and feel left out, while the latter may run the risk of being called self-serving and lose their credibility. People at both ends of the political spectrum may be considered poor team players. A moderate amount of prudent political behavior generally is considered a survival tool in complex organizations. How to Keep Organizational Politics within Reasonable Bounds: -Screen out overly political individuals at hiring time. -Create an open-book management system. -Make sure every employee knows how the business works and has a personal line of sight to key results with corresponding measurable objectives for individual accountability. -Have nonfinancial people interpret periodic financial and accounting statements for all employees. -Establish formal conflict resolution and grievance processes. - As an ethics filter, do only what you would feel comfortable doing on national television. -Publicy recognize and reward people who get real results without political games.

Mechanistic versus Organic Organizations

Mechanistic organizations Rigid bureaucracies with strict rules, narrowly defined tasks, and top-down communication. Organic organizations Flexible networks of multitalented individuals who perform a variety of tasks

Vroom's Expectancy Theory

Motivation boils down to the decision of how much effort to exert in a specific task situation. Generally, expectancy theory can be used to predict motivation and behavior in any situation in which a choice between two or more alternatives must be made. For instance, it can be used to predict whether to quit or stay at a job; whether to exert substantial or minimal effort at a task; and whether to major in management, finance, marketing, psychology, or communication. Expectancy represents an individual's belief that a particular degree of effort will be followed by a particular level of performance. The following factors influence an employee's expectancy perceptions: Self-esteem Self-efficacy Previous success at the task Help received from a supervisor and subordinates Information necessary to complete the task Good materials and equipment to work with Instrumentality A performance outcome perception. It represents a person's belief that a particular outcome is contingent on accomplishing a specific level of performance. Performance is instrumental when it leads to something else. For example, passing exams is instrumental to graduating from college. Valence the positive or negative value people place on outcomes. For example, most employees have a positive valence for receiving additional money or recognition. In contrast, job stress and being laid off would likely result in negative valence for most individuals. In Vroom's expectancy model, outcomes refer to different consequences that are contingent on performance, such as pay, promotions, or recognition. An outcome's valence depends on an individual's needs and can be measured for research purposes with scales ranging from a negative value to a positive value. Outcomes different consequences that are contingent on performance

Job Satisfaction Causes of

Need fulfillment - extent to which the characteristics of a job allow an individual to fulfill his or her needs Discrepancies - satisfaction is a result of met expectations. Met expectations represent the difference between what an individual expects to receive from a job, such as good pay and promotional opportunities, and what he or she actually receives. When expectations are greater than what is received, a person will be dissatisfied. In contrast, this model predicts that an individual will be satisfied when he or she attains outcomes above and beyond expectations. Value attainment - that satisfaction results from the perception that a job allows for fulfillment of an individual's important work values. Equity - satisfaction is a function of how "fairly" an individual is treated at work. Satisfaction results from one's perception that work outcomes, relative to inputs, compare favorably with a significant other's outcomes/inputs. Dispositional/Genetic Components - the belief that job satisfaction is partly a function of both personal traits and genetic factors. As such, this model implies that stable individual differences are just as important in explaining job satisfaction as are characteristics of the work environment. Dispositions had stronger relationships with intrinsic aspects of a job (e.g., having autonomy) than with extrinsic aspects of work (e.g., receipt of rewards). Genetic factors also were found to significantly predict life satisfaction, well-being, and general job satisfaction

Needs

Needs are physiological or psychological deficiencies that arouse behavior. They can be strong or weak and are influenced by environmental factors. Thus, human needs vary over time and place. The general idea behind need theories of motivation is that unmet needs motivate people to satisfy them. Conversely, people are not motivated to pursue a satisfied need. Let us now consider four popular content theories of motivation: Maslow's need hierarchy theory, Alderfer's ERG theory, McClelland's need theory, and Herzberg's motivator-hygiene model.

Creating Change Through Organization Development

Organization Development consists of planned efforts to help persons work and live together more effectively, over time, in their organizations A change agent is someone who is a catalyst in helping organizations to deal with old problems in new ways. Change agents can be external consultants or internal employees. OD Research and Practical Implications -Planned organizational change works -Change programs are more successful when they are geared toward meeting both short-term and long-term results -Organizational change is more likely to succeed when top management is truly committed to the change process -Effectiveness of OD interventions is affected by cross-cultural considerations

Process of Culture Change

Organizational members teach each other about the organization's preferred values, beliefs, expectations, and behaviors four caveats about culture change. First, leaders are the architects and developers of organizational culture, and managing organizational culture is one of the most important functions of leadership. Second, the process of culture change essentially begins with targeting one of the three layers of organizational culture previously discussed—observable artifacts, espoused values, and basic assumptions. That said, culture will not change in a significant way unless managers are able to change basic underlying assumptions. Third, it is important to consider the extent to which the current culture is aligned with the organization's vision and strategic plan before attempting to change any aspect of organizational culture.

PE Fit

PE fit is defined "as the compatibility between an individual and a work environment that occurs when their characteristics are well matched. first must conduct an evaluation of your strengths, weaknesses, and values. Next, do the same for the company or department at hand by doing research about the company on the Internet or talking with current employees. This information will now enable you to prepare a set of diagnostic questions to ask during the interview process. These questions need to focus on determining your level of fit.

Avoiding cultural collisions

People on both sides of the context barrier must be trained to make adjustments. A new employee should be greeted by a group consisting of his or her boss, several colleagues who have similar duties, and an individual located near the newcomer. Background information is essential when explaining anything. Include the history and personalities involved. Do not assume the newcomer is self-reliant. Give explicit instructions not only about objectives, but also about the process involved. High-context workers from abroad need to learn to ask questions outside their department and function. Foreign workers must make an effort to become more self-reliant

Deny

People using this option deny that differences exist. Denial may manifest itself in proclamations that all decisions are color, gender, and age blind and that success is solely determined by merit and performance.

Types of Conflict

Personality conflict interpersonal opposition driven by personal dislike, disagreement, or different styles Workplace incivility rudeness or a lack of regard for another person Day of contemplation A one-time-only day off with pay to allow a problem employee to recommit to the organization's values and mission. also called decision-making leave

How to Deal With Personality Conflicts

Personality traits, by definition, are stable and resistant to change. Employees in the United States suffering from psychological disorders such as depression and mood-altering diseases such as alcoholism are protected from discrimination by the Americans with Disabilities Act. Also, sexual harassment and other forms of discrimination can grow out of apparent personality conflicts. Finally, personality conflicts can spawn workplace aggression and violence.

Job Design

also referred to as job redesign, "refers to any set of activities that involve the alteration of specific jobs or interdependent systems of jobs with the intent of improving the quality of employee job experience and their on the-job productivity

Managing the Goal-Setting Process - Step 3: Provide Support and Feedback

Practical guidelines include the following: Make sure each employee has the necessary skills and information to reach his or her goals. As a pair of goal-setting experts succinctly stated, "Motivation without knowledge is useless."26 Training often is required to help employees achieve difficult goals and build goal ladders. Pay attention to employees' effort→performance expectations, perceived self-efficacy, and reward preferences and adjust accordingly. Be supportive and helpful. Empower employees as they grow. Do not use goals as a threat. Give employees timely and task-specific feedback (knowledge of results) about what they are doing right and wrong. Provide monetary and nonmonetary incentives and reward both significant progress and goal accomplishment.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: The Pygmalion Effect - managers can create positive performance expectations.

Recognize that everyone has the potential to increase his or her performance. Set high performance goals. Positively reinforce employees for a job well done. Provide frequent feedback that conveys a belief in employees' ability to complete their tasks. Give employees the opportunity to experience increasingly challenging tasks and projects. Communicate by using facial expressions, voice intonations, body language, and encouraging comments that reflect high expectations. Provide employees with the input, information, and resources they need to achieve their goals. Introduce new employees as if they have outstanding potential. Encourage employees to stay focused on the present moment and not to worry about negative past events. Help employees master key skills and tasks.

Personality Testing

Researchers, test developers, and organizations that administer personality assessments offer the following suggestions for getting started or for evaluating whether tests already in use are appropriate for forecasting job performance: Determine what you hope to accomplish. If you are looking to find the best fit of job and applicant, analyze the aspects of the position that are most critical for it. Look for outside help to determine if a test exists or can be developed to screen applicants for the traits that best fit the position. Industrial psychologists, professional organizations, and a number of Internet sites provide resources. Insist that any test recommended by a consultant or vendor be validated scientifically for the specific purpose that you have defined. Vendors should be able to cite some independent, credible research supporting a test's correlation with job performance. Ask the test provider to document the legal basis for any assessment: Is it fair? Is it job related? Is it biased against any racial or ethnic group? Does it violate an applicant's right to privacy under state or federal laws? Vendors should provide a lawyer's statement that a test does not adversely affect any protected class, and employers may want to get their own lawyer's opinion, as well. Make sure that every staff member who will be administering tests or analyzing results is educated about how to do so properly and keeps results confidential. Use the scores on personality tests in tandem with other factors that you believe are essential to the job—such as skills and experience—to create a comprehensive evaluation of the merits of each candidate, and apply those criteria identically to each applicant.

A Dynamic Model of Resistance to Change

Resistance to change -An emotional or behavioral response to real or imagined threats to an established work routine Why People Resist Change in the Workplace 1) An individual's predisposition toward change - This predisposition is highly personal and deeply ingrained. It is an outgrowth of how one learns to handle change and ambiguity as a child. While some people are distrustful and suspicious of change, others see change as a situation requiring flexibility, patience, and understanding.36 For example, resilience to change, which represents a composite characteristic reflecting high self-esteem, optimism, and an internal locus of control, was positively associated with recipients' willingness to accommodate or accept a specific organizational change. 2) Surprise and fear of the unknown - When innovative or radically different changes are introduced without warning, affected employees become fearful of the implications. The same is true when managers announce new goals without spelling out specific plans for how the goals will be achieved. 3) Fear of failure - Intimidating changes on the job can cause employees to doubt their capabilities. Self-doubt erodes self-confidence and cripples personal growth and development. 4) Loss of status and/or job security - Administrative and technological changes that threaten to alter power bases or eliminate jobs generally trigger strong resistance. 5) Peer pressure - Someone who is not directly affected by a change may actively resist it to protect the interests of his or her friends and co-workers. 6) Past success - Success can breed complacency. It also can foster a stubbornness to change because people come to believe that what worked in the past will work in the future. Resilience to change represents a composite characteristic reflecting high self-esteem, optimism, and an internal locus of control, was positively associated with recipients' willingness to accommodate or accept a specific organizational change

Warning Signs of Ineffectiveness

Short of illegal conduct, there are early warning signs of organizational decline: 1) Excess personnel. 2) Tolerance of incompetence. 3) Cumbersome administrative procedures. 4) Disproportionate staff power (e.g., technical staff specialists politically overpower line managers, whom they view as unsophisticated and too conventional). 5) Replacement of substance with form (e.g., the planning process becomes more important than the results achieved). 6) Scarcity of clear goals and decision benchmarks. 7) Fear of embarrassment and conflict (e.g., formerly successful executives may resist new ideas for fear of revealing past mistakes). 8) Loss of effective communication. 9) Outdated organizational structure.62 10) Increased scapegoating by leaders. 11) Resistance to change. 12) Low morale. 13) Special interest groups are more vocal. 14) Decreased innovation. 15) Unwillingness to experiment with new ideas. 16) Poor track record of execution.63 Managers who monitor these early warning signs of organizational decline are better able to take corrective action in a timely and effective manner. In companies where there had been little if any turnover among top executives, there was a tendency to attribute organizational problems to external causes (e.g., competition, the government, technology shifts). Oppositely, internal attributions tended to be made by top management teams with many new members. Thus, proverbial "new blood" at the top appears to be a good insurance policy against misperceiving the early-warning signs of organizational decline.

Emotional Labor

Smile, look happy for the customers," employees are told over and over. But what if the employee is having a rotten day can be particularly detrimental to the employee performing the labor and can take its toll both psychologically and physically. Employees ... may bottle up feelings of frustration, resentment, and anger, which are not appropriate to express. These feelings result, in part, from the constant requirement to monitor one's negative emotions and express positive ones. If not given a healthy expressive outlet, this emotional repression can lead to a syndrome of emotional exhaustion and burnout.

Social Support

Social support is the amount of perceived helpfulness derived from social relationships. Importantly, social support is determined by both the quantity and quality of an individual's social relationships. We receive four types of social support from others: Esteem support. Providing information that a person is accepted and respected despite any problems or inadequacies. Informational support. Providing help in defining, understanding, and coping with problems. Social companionship. Spending time with others in leisure and recreational activities. Instrumental support. Providing financial aid, material resources, or needed services.

Cultural Influences on Organizational Behavior

Societal culture is shaped by the various environmental factors listed in the left-hand side Once inside the organization's sphere of influence, the individual is further affected by the organization's culture. Mixing of societal and organizational cultures can produce interesting dynamics in multinational companies.

Challenges of Innovation

The challenges include the following: 1) Find an idea. An idea is needed to create something new, and people can get ideas from many different sources: concentrated thinking, past experience, daydreaming, reading, talking with others, or intuition. 2) Develop a solution. This challenge entails coming up with a model or prototype of a product or a workable solution to a problem. 3) Sponsorship and funding. Innovations require resources and someone to champion whatever organizational changes are needed to develop a new product or service. 4) Reproduction. The company must figure out how to profitably make the new product or deliver a new service. 5) Reach your potential customer. Many innovations fail because the company cannot figure out how to get the new product or service in the hands of consumers. Some experts recommend the use of job mapping. Job mapping "breaks down the task the customer wants done into a series of discrete process steps. By de-constructing a job from beginning to end, a company gains a complete view of all the points at which a customer might desire more help from a product or service—namely, at each step in the job." Job mapping helps companies determine how customers might best use new products and services. 6) Beat your competitors. Remember that other companies may be pursuing the same breakthroughs. It is better to focus on a smaller number of innovations. 7) Timing. Customers must be ready for the new product or service and employees must be prepared to make whatever changes are necessary to turn the innovation into reality. The timing of the innovation needs to be considered. 8) Keep the lights on. Organizations must still make money while they are pursuing innovation. It is important to stay focused on keeping current customers happy while engaging in innovative activities.

Managing Age-Related

The following seven initiatives can help to keep older workers engaged and committed to working.50 -Provide challenging work assignments that make a difference to the firm. -Give the employee considerable autonomy and latitude in completing a task. -Provide equal access to training and learning opportunities when it comes to new technology. -Provide frequent recognition for skills, experience, and wisdom gained over the years. -Provide mentoring opportunities whereby older workers can pass on accumulated knowledge to younger employees. -Ensure that older workers receive sensitive, high-quality supervision. -Design a work environment that is both stimulating and fun.

GLOBE Cultural Dimensions Rankings

The nine cultural dimensions from the GLOBE project are Power distance. How much unequal distribution of power should there be in organizations and society? Uncertainty avoidance. How much should people rely on social norms and rules to avoid uncertainty and limit unpredictability? Institutional collectivism. How much should leaders encourage and reward loyalty to the social unit, as opposed to the pursuit of individual goals? In-group collectivism. How much pride and loyalty should individuals have for their family or organization? Gender egalitarianism. How much effort should be put into minimizing gender discrimination and role inequalities? Assertiveness. How confrontational and dominant should individuals be in social relationships? Future orientation. How much should people delay gratification by planning and saving for the future? Performance orientation. How much should individuals be rewarded for improvement and excellence? Humane orientation. How much should society encourage and reward people for being kind, fair, friendly, and generous?

Interpretation

The reciprocal process of perception

Job Satisfaction - Correlates of

The relationship between job satisfaction and these other variables is either positive or negative. The strength of the relationship ranges from weak (very little relationship) to strong. Strong relationships imply that managers can significantly influence the variable of interest by increasing job satisfaction.

Organizational Culture

The set of shared, taken-for-granted implicit assumptions that a group holds and that determines how it perceives, thinks about, and reacts to its various environments. -passed on to new employees through the process of socialization -operates at different levels -shaped by four key components: the founders' values, the industry and business environment, the national culture, and the senior leaders' vision and behavior (see conceptual framework)

Tips for conducting Town Hall Meetings

The size of the meeting depends on the logistics of your workforce and the message being delivered. If you have good news to tell a number of employees, you can split them into more intimate groups if you like. But if the news is bad, it's better to have everyone hear it at the same time. Consider using speakers other than your senior executives. Broadcast town meetings so employees in other locations can participate. Taping allows absent employees to view the meeting later. When making a presentation, take the educational level of your audience into account. Don't make presentations too technical. Send invitations to all employees who are eligible to attend. Employees should be strongly encouraged to attend meetings, but attendance should not be mandatory. If your meeting is being held after business hours, consider paying employees for their time.

Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory

These needs are Physiological. Most basic need. Entails having enough food, air, and water to survive. Safety. Consists of the need to be safe from physical and psychological harm. Love. The desire to be loved and to love. Contains the needs for affection and belonging. Esteem. Need for reputation, prestige, and recognition from others. Also contains need for self-confidence and strength. Self-actualization. Desire for self-fulfillment—to become the best one is capable of becoming. two key managerial implications of Maslow's theory are worth noting. First, it is important for managers to focus on satisfying employee needs related to self concepts—self-esteem and self-actualization—because their satisfaction is significantly associated with a host of important outcomes such as academic achievement, physical illness, psychological well-being (e.g., anxiety disorders, depression), criminal convictions, drug abuse, marital satisfaction, money and work problems, and performance at work. Second, a satisfied need may lose its motivational potential. Therefore, managers are advised to motivate employees by devising programs or practices aimed at satisfying emerging or unmet needs.

Tolerate

Toleration entails acknowledging differences but not valuing or accepting them. It represents a live-and-let-live approach that superficially allows organizations to give lip service to the issue of managing diversity. Toleration is different from isolation in that it allows for the inclusion of diverse people. However, differences are not really valued or accepted when an organization uses this option.

Leader Trait Theory

Trait theory is the successor to what was called the "great man" theory of leadership. This approach was based on the assumption that leaders such as Abraham Lincoln, Martin Luther King Jr., or Mark Zuckerberg were born with some inborn ability to lead. In contrast, trait theorists believed that leadership traits were not innate but could be developed through experience and learning. Leader Traits are physical or personality characteristic that can be used to differentiate leaders from followers. five traits tended to differentiate leaders from average followers: -Intelligence -Dominance -Self-confidence -Level of Energy & Activity -Task-relevant Knowledge First, organizations may want to include personality and trait assessments into their selection and promotion processes. Second, management development programs can be used to build a pipeline of leadership talent.

Contrasting High-Context and Low-Context Cultures

True to form, Germany has precise written rules for even the smallest details of daily life.39 In high-context cultures, agreements tend to be made on the basis of someone's word or a handshake, after a prolonged get-acquainted and trust-building period. Low-context Americans and Canadians, at least those with cultural roots in Northern Europe, see the handshake as a signal to get a signature on a detailed, lawyer-approved, ironclad contract. high-context cultures Primary meaning derived from nonverbal situational cues high-context cultures—including China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Mexico, and Arab cultures—rely heavily on situational cues for meaning when perceiving and communicating with others. Nonverbal cues such as one's official position, status, or family connections convey messages more powerfully than do spoken words. low-context cultures written and spoken words carry the burden of shared meanings. Low-context cultures include those found in Germany, Switzerland, Scandinavia, North America, and Great Britain

Percentage Change in US Population by Race

Unfortunately, three additional trends suggest that current-day minority groups are experiencing their own glass ceiling. First, minorities in general are advancing less in the managerial and professional ranks than whites. Second, the number of race-based charges of discrimination that were deemed to show reasonable cause by the US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission increased from 294 in 1995 to 1,061 in 2008. Finally, a number of studies showed that minorities experienced more perceived discrimination, racism-related stress, and less psychological support than whites.

Formal Communication Channels

Upward communication - involves communicating with someone at a higher organizational level. Employees may communicate upward about themselves, problems with co-workers, organizational practices and policies they do not understand or dislike, and results they have or have not achieved. Organizations and managers need vibrant upward communication to foster organizational fairness and ethical conduct, intrinsic motivation, and empowerment (more on empowerment in the next chapter). Upward communication also is a key component of organizational efforts to increase productivity and improve customer service. Frontline employees generally know first-hand what it takes to get the job done. Managers can encourage upward communication via employee attitude and opinion surveys, suggestion systems, formal grievance procedures, open-door policies, informal chats, e-mail and social media, exit interviews, and town hall meetings. Asking open-ended and nonjudgmental questions also is a good way to stimulate productive upward communication. Downward communication - occurs when someone at a higher level in the organization conveys information or a message downward to one or more others. Managers generally provide five types of information through downward communication: strategies/goals, job instructions, job rationale, organizational policies and practices, and feedback about performance. Horizontal communication - flows among co-workers and between different work units, and its main purpose is coordination. During this sideways communication, employees share information and best practices, coordinate work activities and schedules, solve problems, offer advice and coaching, and resolve conflicts. In addition to using team checklists, horizontal communication is facilitated by project meetings, committees, team building social gatherings, and matrix structures. Horizontal communication is impeded in three ways: (1) by specialization that causes people to work alone; (2) by encouraging competition that reduces information sharing; and (3) by an organizational culture that does not promote collaboration and cooperation. External communication - is a two-way flow of information between employees and a variety of stakeholders outside the organization. External stakeholders include customers, suppliers, shareholders/owners, labor unions, government officials, community residents, and so on. Many organizations create formal departments, such as public or community relations, to coordinate their external communications. To protect competitive strategies, trade secrets, and the integrity of nondisclosure agreements, employees need to be fully informed about what they should not communicate to outsiders in everything from casual conversations to blogs and tweets.

Societal culture

a set of beliefs and values about what is desirable and undesirable in a community of people, and a set of formal or informal practices to support the values *Complex and multilayered culture influences organizational behavior in two ways. Employees bring their societal culture to work with them in the form of customs and language. Organizational culture, a by-product of societal culture, in turn affects the individual's values, ethics, attitudes, assumptions, and expectations.

Social power

ability to marshal the human, informational, and material resources to get something done 1) Socialized power - plans, self-doubts, mixed outcomes and concerns for others 2) Personalized power - expressions of power for the sake of personal aggrandizement become paramount. Personalized power is exhibited when managers: -Focus more on satisfying their own needs. -Focus less on the needs of their underlings. -Act like "the rules" others are expected to follow don't apply to them The researchers found that the male and female employees had similar needs for power (n Pwr) and personalized power (p Pwr). But the women had a significantly higher need for socialized power (s Pwr) than did their male counterparts. This bodes well for today's work organizations where women are playing an ever greater administrative role. Unfortunately, as women gain power in the workplace, greater tension between men and women has been observed.

Culture Change in Organization

accomplished by using one or more of the following mechanisms: -Formal statements of organizational philosophy, mission, vision, values, and materials used for recruiting, selection, and socialization. -The design of physical space, work environments, and buildings. -Slogans, language, acronyms, and sayings. -Deliberate role modeling, training programs, teaching, and coaching by managers and supervisors. -Explicit rewards, status symbols (e.g., titles), and promotion criteria. -Stories, legends, or myths about key people and events. -The organizational activities, processes, or outcomes that leaders pay attention to, measure, and control. -Leader reactions to critical incidents and organizational crises. -The workflow and organizational structure. -Organizational systems and procedures. -Organizational goals and the associated criteria used for recruitment, selection, development, promotion, layoffs, and retirement of people.

Stress

an adaptive response, mediated by individual characteristics and/or psychological processes, that is a consequence of any external action, situation, or event that places special physical and/or psychological demands upon a person Stress is not merely nervous tension. Stress can have positive consequences. Stress is not something to be avoided. The complete absence of stress is death Eustress Stress that is good or produces a positive outcome

Job Satisfaction

an affective or emotional response toward various facets of one's job. This definition implies job satisfaction is not a unitary concept. Rather, a person can be relatively satisfied with one aspect of his or her job and dissatisfied with one or more other aspects.

Case Study

an in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or organization, Because of their limited scope, case studies yield realistic but not very generalizable results.

Include/Exclude

an outgrowth of affirmative action programs. Its primary goal is to either increase or decrease the number of diverse people at all levels of the organizations.

Reasonable Religious Accommodation

any adjustment to the work environment that will allow the employee to practice his religion. Examples of reasonable accommodation include: flexible scheduling, voluntary substitutions or swaps, job reassignments and lateral transfers, and modification of grooming requirements.

Stressors

are environmental factors that produce stress. Stated differently, stressors are a prerequisite to experiencing the stress response. he most common examples of individual stressors are job demands, work overload, role conflict, role ambiguity, everyday hassles, perceived control over events occurring in the work environment, and job characteristics. Losing one's job is another important individual-level stressor. Group-level stressors are caused by group dynamics and managerial behavior. Managers create stress for employees by (1) exhibiting inconsistent behaviors, (2) failing to provide support, (3) showing lack of concern, (4) providing inadequate direction, (5) creating a high-productivity environment, and (6) focusing on negatives while ignoring good performance. Sexual harassment experiences and bullying represent other group-level stressors. Stress is higher for people with lower socioeconomic status, which represents a combination of (1) economic status, as measured by income; (2) social status, assessed by education level; and (3) work status, as indexed by occupation.

Implicit leadership theory

based on the idea that people have beliefs about how leaders should behave and what they should do for their followers. These beliefs are summarized in what is called a leadership prototype.

Ethnocentrism

belief that one's native country, culture, language, and behavior are superior to all others. can effectively deal with ethnocentrism through education, greater cross-cultural awareness, international experience, and a conscious effort to value cultural diversity

Micro aggressions

biased thoughts, attitudes, and feelings" that exist at an unconscious level

Contingency approach

calls for using management techniques in a situationally appropriate manner, instead of trying to rely on "one best way" or "one size fits all

Individualistic culture

characterized as "I" and "me" cultures, give priority to individual freedom and choice emphasize personal responsibility for one's affairs. This is no small matter in an aging society:

Hardiness

collection of characteristics, referred to as hardiness, involves the ability to perceptually or behaviorally transform negative stressors into positive challenges. Hardiness embraces the personality dimensions of commitment, locus of control, and challenge. Commitment reflects the extent to which an individual is involved in whatever he or she is doing. Committed people have a sense of purpose and do not give up under pressure because they tend to invest themselves in the situation. individuals with an internal locus of control believe they can influence the events that affect their lives. People possessing this trait are more likely to foresee stressful events, thereby reducing their exposure to anxiety-producing situations. their perception of being in control leads "internals" to use proactive coping strategies. Challenge is represented by the belief that change is a normal part of life. Hence, change is seen as an opportunity for growth and development rather than a threat to security.

emotions

complex, patterned, organismic reactions to how we think we are doing in our lifelong efforts to survive and flourish and to achieve what we wish for ourselves Lazarus's definition of emotions centers on a person's goals. The word organismic is appropriate because emotions involve the whole person—biological, psychological, and social. Importantly, psychologists draw a distinction between felt and displayed emotions. a person might feel angry (felt emotion) at a rude co-worker but not make a nasty remark in return (displayed emotion)

Programmed Conflict

conflict that raises different opinions regardless of the personal feelings of the managers The trick is to get contributors to either defend or criticize ideas based on relevant facts rather than on the basis of personal preference or political interests. This requires disciplined role playing. Two programmed conflict techniques with proven track records are devil's advocacy and the dialectic method. Let us explore these two ways of stimulating functional conflict.

Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs)

consist of employee behaviors that are beyond the call of duty. Examples include "such gestures as constructive statements about the department, expression of personal interest in the work of others, suggestions for improvement, training new people, respect for the spirit as well as the letter of housekeeping rules, care for organizational property, and punctuality and attendance well beyond standard or enforceable levels

control strategy

consists of using behaviors and cognitions to directly anticipate or solve problems. A control strategy has a take-charge tone. Examples include talking to your professor or boss about workload if you feel overwhelmed with your responsibilities, and confronting someone who is spreading negative rumors. control coping was positively related to overall health outcomes. People are more apt to use control coping when they possess high self-esteem, self-efficacy, and problem-solving skills.

symptom management strategy

consists of using methods such as relaxation, meditation, medication, or exercise to manage the symptoms of occupational stress.

Attitude

defined as "a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object While values represent global beliefs that influence behavior across all situations, attitudes relate only to behavior directed toward specific objects, persons, or situations. Values and attitudes generally, but not always, are in harmony. Three factors accounted for middle-age attitude stability: (1) greater personal certainty, (2) perceived abundance of knowledge, and (3) a need for strong attitudes. Affective Component contains the feelings or emotions one has about a given object or situation. How do you feel Cognitive Component reflects the beliefs or ideas one has about an object or situation. What do you think Behavioral Component refers to how one intends or expects to act toward someone or something

Vulnerability

discussing one's weaknesses or limitations When teammates feel free to admit mistakes, ask for help, and acknowledge their own weaknesses, they reduce divisive politics and build a bond of trust more valuable than almost any strategic advantage

developmental personal and organizational implications

five key personal implications to consider. First, it is important to foster a broad developmental network because the number and quality of your contacts will influence your career success. Second, job and career satisfaction are likely to be influenced by the consistency between your career goals and the type of developmental network at your disposal. Third, a developer's willingness to provide career and psychosocial assistance is a function of the protégé/protégée's ability and potential and the quality of the interpersonal relationship Fourth, it is important to become proficient at using social networking tools such as Twitter, LinkedIn, and Facebook Finally, you should develop a mentoring plan. Experts suggest that this plan should include the following components:70 - Identify and prioritize your mentoring goals. These goals should be based on a determination of what you want to learn. - Identify people who are skilled or experienced in areas you want to improve. Don't overlook your peers as they are a good source of functional, technical, and organizational knowledge. - Determine how best to build a relationship with these "targeted" individuals. -Determine how you can provide value to your mentor. Because mentoring is a two-way street, others are more likely to help you if they see some value in assisting you in the pursuit of your career goals. -Determine when it is time to move on. Mentors are not forever. If you believe that your mentor is ineffective, or worse yet, causing more harm than benefit, find a new mentor.

Socialization Mangement

five practical guidelines for managing organizational socialization -effective onboarding programs resulted in increased retention, productivity, and rates of task completion for new hires. - reinforce a culture that promotes ethical behavior. Managers are encouraged to consider how they might best set expectations regarding ethical behavior during all three phases of the socialization process -The type of orientation program used to socialize employees affects their expectations and behavior. -Support for stage models is mixed. Although there are different stages of socialization, they are not identical in order, length, or content for all people or jobs. -Managers should pay attention to the socialization of diverse employees.

Carroll's Global Corporate Social Responsibility Pyramid

from the bottom up, advises organizations in the global economy to: - Make a profit consistent with expectations for international businesses. - Obey the law of host countries as well as international law. - Be ethical in its practices, taking host-country and global standards into consideration. - Be a good corporate citizen, especially as defined by the host country's expectations

Market Culture

has a strong external focus and values stability and control. Organizations with this culture are driven by competition and a strong desire to deliver results and accomplish goals. Because this type of culture is focused on the external environment, customers and profits take precedence over employee development and satisfaction. The major goal of managers is to drive toward productivity, profits, and customer satisfaction.

Management by Walking Around (MBWA)

involves managers literally walking around the organization and informally talking to people from all departments and levels. It is an effective way to communicate because employees prefer to get information directly from their manager. tips for conducting MBWA: -Dedicate a certain amount of time each week for MBWA. -Don't take your cell phone. It is important to stay focused on the person/people you are talking with and to avoid distractions. -Use active listening and don't take the approach that business is the only available topic for discussion. Employees may enjoy some amount of casual conversation. -The experience should be a two-way conversation. Show interest in your employees' issues and concerns -Don't hesitate to take a notepad and record things requiring follow-up. Don't bring formal charts and graphs; the goal is to maintain an informal conversation. -Thank the individual or group for their time and feedback.

Mutuality of interest

involves win-win situations in which one's self-interest is served by cooperating actively and creatively with potential adversaries. The Constant Tug-of-War between Self-Interest and Mutuality of Interest Requires Managerial Action

Type A Behavior Pattern

is an action-emotion complex that can be observed in any person who is aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and if required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or persons. It is not psychosis or a complex of worries or fears or phobias or obsessions, but a socially acceptable—indeed often praised—form of conflict. Persons possessing this pattern also are quite prone to exhibit a free-floating but, extraordinarily well-rationalized hostility. As might be expected, there are degrees in the intensity of this behavior pattern.

Cross-cultural training

is any type of structured experience designed to help departing employees (and their families) adjust to a foreign culture. The trend is toward more such training in the United States. Easiest. Predeparture training is limited to informational materials, including books, lectures, films, videos, and Internet searches. Moderately difficult. Experiential training is conducted through case studies, role playing, simulations, and introductory language instruction. Most difficult. Departing employees are given some combination of the preceding methods plus comprehensive language instruction and field experience in the target culture. As an example of the latter, PepsiCo transfers "about 25 young foreign managers a year to the US for one-year assignments in bottling plants.

sex-role stereotype

is the belief that differing traits and abilities make men and women particularly well suited to different roles. These stereotypes have been found to influence our perceptions of women as leaders. (1) people often prefer male bosses (2) women have a harder time being perceived as an effective leader (e.g., women were seen as more effective than men only when the organization faced a crisis and turnaround) (3) women of color are more negatively affected by sex-role stereotypes than white women or men in general

Human Capital

is the productive potential of an individual's knowledge and actions

social cognition/social information processing

is the study of how people make sense of other people and themselves. It focuses on how ordinary people think about people and how they think they think about people. Three of the stages in this model—selective attention/comprehension, encoding and simplification, and storage and retention—describe how specific information and environmental stimuli are observed and stored in memory. The fourth and final stage, retrieval and response, involves turning mental representations into real-world judgments and decisions. Stage 1 - Attention - the process of becoming consciously aware of something or someone. Attention can be focused on information either from the environment or from memory. Stage 2 - Encoding - raw information is interpreted or translated into mental representations. To accomplish this, perceivers assign pieces of information to cognitive categories. "By category we mean a number of objects that are considered equivalent. Categories are generally designated by names, e.g., dog, animal." A schema represents a person's mental picture or summary of a particular event or type of stimulus. Stage 3 - Storage and Retention - This phase involves storage of information in long-term memory. long-term memory is made up of three compartments (or wings) containing categories of information about events, semantic materials, and people. Event Memory This compartment is composed of categories containing information about both specific and general events. These memories describe appropriate sequences of events in well-known situations, such as going to a restaurant , going on a job interview, going to a food store, or going to a movie. Semantic Memory Semantic memory refers to general knowledge about the world. In so doing, it functions as a mental dictionary of concepts. Each concept contains a definition (e.g., a good leader) and associated traits (outgoing), emotional states (happy), physical characteristics (tall), and behaviors (works hard). Just as there are schemata for general events, concepts in semantic memory are stored as schemata. Person Memory Categories within this compartment contain information about a single individual (your professor) or groups of people (professors). You are more likely to remember information about a person, event, or an advertisement if it contains characteristics that are similar to something stored in the compartments of memory. Stage 4 - Retrieval and Response - People retrieve information from memory when they make judgments and decisions. Our ultimate judgments and decisions are either based on the process of drawing on, interpreting, and integrating categorical information stored in long-term memory or on retrieving a summary judgment that was already made.

Characteristics of Being a Leader and a Manager

leaders manage and managers lead, but the two activities are not synonymous Broadly speaking, managers typically perform functions associated with planning, investigating, organizing, and control, and leaders deal with the interpersonal aspects of a manager's job. Leaders inspire others, provide emotional support, and try to get employees to rally around a common goal. Leaders also play a key role in creating a vision and strategic plan for an organization. Managers, in turn, are charged with implementing the vision and strategic plan. Good leaders are not necessarily good managers, and good managers are not necessarily good leaders. Effective leadership requires effective managerial skills at some level. Good managerial skills turn a leader's vision into actionable tasks and successful implementation. Organizational success requires a combination of effective leadership and management. This in turn leads to the realization that today's leaders need to be effective at both leading and managing.

Job Design Top Down Approaches

management is responsible for creating efficient and meaningful combinations of work tasks for employees. If done correctly, the theory is that employees will display higher performance, job satisfaction, and employee engagement, and lower absenteeism and turnover. scientific management, job enlargement, job rotation, job enrichment, and the job characteristics model. top-down approaches are constrained by the fact that managers cannot always create changes in task characteristics that are optimum for everyone.

Leadership prototype

mental representations of the traits and behaviors that people believe are possessed by leaders. Although past research demonstrated that people were perceived as leaders when they exhibited masculine-oriented traits and behaviors associated with masculinity, and dominance, more recent studies showed an emphasis on more feminine traits and styles that emphasize empowerment, fairness, and supportiveness. This change in prototypes bodes well for reducing bias and discrimination against women in leadership roles.

secondary appraisal

occurs only in response to a stressful primary appraisal and entails an assessment of what might and can be done to reduce the level of perceived stress. During this evaluation a person considers which coping strategies are available and which ones are most likely to help resolve the situation at hand. Ultimately, the combination of an individual's primary and secondary appraisal influences the choice of coping strategies used to reduce stress.

Whistle-blowing

occurs when an employee reports a perceived unethical and/or illegal activity to a third party such as government agencies, news media, or public-interest groups

Intrinsic motivation

occurs when an individual is "turned on to one's work because of the positive internal feelings that are generated by doing well, rather than being dependent on external factors (such as incentive pay or compliments from the boss) for the motivation to work effectively

Galatea effect

occurs when an individual's high self-expectations for him- or herself lead to high performance.

Intergroup Conflict

priority number one for managers faced with intergroup conflict is to identify and root out specific negative linkages among groups. conflict among work groups, teams, and departments A certain amount of cohesiveness can turn a group of individuals into a smooth-running team. Too much cohesiveness, however, can breed groupthink because a desire to get along pushes aside critical thinking. The study of in-groups by small group researchers has revealed a whole package of changes associated with increased group cohesiveness. Specifically, Members of in-groups view themselves as a collection of unique individuals, while they stereotype members of other groups as being "all alike." In-group members see themselves positively and as morally correct, while they view members of other groups negatively and as immoral. In-groups view outsiders as a threat. In-group members exaggerate the differences between their group and other groups. This typically involves a distorted perception of reality.

Organizational Socialization

process by which a person learns the values, norms, and required behaviors which permit him to participate as a member of the organization -turns outsiders into fully functioning insiders by promoting and reinforcing the organization's core values and beliefs. -Daniel Feldman has proposed a three-phase model of organizational socialization that promotes deeper understanding of this important process. As illustrated in Figure 3-5, the three phases are: (1) anticipatory socialization, occurs before an individual actually joins an organization. It is represented by the information people have learned about different careers, occupations, professions, and organizations. Anticipatory socialization information comes from many sources. An organization's current employees are a powerful source of anticipatory socialization. So are the Internet and social media. -realistic job preview (RJP) involves giving recruits a realistic idea of what lies ahead by presenting both positive and negative aspects of the job. (2) encounter, and This second phase begins when the employment contract has been signed. During the encounter phase employees come to learn what the organization is really like. It is a time for reconciling unmet expectations and making sense of a new work environment. Onboarding is one such technique - programs help employees to integrate, assimilate, and transition to new jobs by making them familiar with corporate policies, procedures, culture, and politics and by clarifying work-role expectations and responsibilities. (3) change and acquisition. requires employees to master important tasks and roles and to adjust to their work group's values and norms. This will only occur when employees have a clear understanding about their roles necessitates that employees have a clear understanding regarding the use of social media

Creativity

process of using intelligence, imagination, and skill to develop a new or novel product, object, process, or thought The Creativity Stages creativity involves "making remote associations" between unconnected events, ideas, information stored in memory or physical objects The preparation stage reflects the notion that creativity starts from a base of knowledge. Experts suggest that creativity involves a convergence between tacit and explicit knowledge. During the concentration stage, an individual focuses on the problem at hand. Creative ideas at work are often triggered by work-related problems, incongruities, or failures. That said, research shows that when you focus too much on trying to come up with creative solutions it can actually block creativity. Incubation is done unconsciously. During this stage, people engage in daily activities while their minds simultaneously mull over information and make remote associations. Associations generated in this stage ultimately come to life in the illumination stage. Finally, verification entails going through the entire process to verify, modify, or try out the new idea. Individual creative behavior is directly affected by a variety of individual characteristics. First off, creativity requires motivation. They are highly motivated individuals who spend considerable time developing both tacit and explicit knowledge about their field of interest or occupation. creative people are not necessarily geniuses or introverted nerds. In addition, they are not adaptors. creative individuals are dissatisfied with the status quo. They look for new and exciting solutions to problems. Creative people tend to be curious. Further, research indicates that male and female managers do not differ in levels of creativity, and there are a host of personality characteristics that are associated with creativity.

Cognitive dissonance

psychological discomfort a person experiences when his or her attitudes or beliefs are incompatible with his or her behavior people will seek to reduce the "dissonance," or psychological tension, through one of three main methods: Change your attitude or behavior, or both. This is the simplest solution when confronted with cognitive dissonance. Returning to our example about needing a blood transfusion, this would amount to either (a) telling yourself that you can't get AIDS through blood and take the transfusion or (b) simply refusing to take the transfusion. Belittle the importance of the inconsistent behavior. This happens all the time. In our example, you could belittle the belief that you can get AIDS from the foreign blood bank. (The doctor said she regularly uses blood from that blood bank.) Find consonant elements that outweigh dissonant ones. This approach entails rationalizing away the dissonance. You can tell yourself that you are taking the transfusion because you have no other options. After all, you could die if you don't get the required surgery.

Motivation

psychological processes that cause the arousal, direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed Content theories of motivation focus on identifying internal factors such as instincts, needs, satisfaction, and job characteristics that energize employee motivation. These theories do not explain how motivation is influenced by the dynamic interaction between an individual and the environment in which he or she works. This limitation led to the creation of process theories of motivation. Process theories of motivation focus on explaining the process by which internal factors and cognitions influence employee motivation.3 Process theories are more dynamic than content theories.

Linguistic style

refers to a person's characteristic speaking pattern. It includes such features as directness or indirectness, pacing and pausing, word choice, and the use of such elements as jokes, figures of speech, stories, questions, and apologies. In other words, linguistic style is a set of culturally learned signals by which we not only communicate what we mean but also interpret others' meaning and evaluate one another as people. Linguistic style not only helps explain communication differences between women and men, it also influences our perceptions of others' confidence, competence, and abilities. Increased awareness of linguistic styles can enhance your communication competence.

Organizational commitment

reflects the extent to which an individual identifies with an organization and is committed to its goals. -Affective commitment refers to the employee's emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization. Employees with a strong affective commitment continue employment with an organization because they want to do so. Affective commitment is enhanced by hiring people whose personal values are consistent with the organization's values. A positive, satisfying work environment also should increase employees' desire to stay. -Continuance commitment refers to an awareness of the costs associated with leaving the organization. Employees whose primary link to the organization is based on continuance commitment remain because they need to do so. Continuance commitment is enhanced by offering employees a variety of progressive benefits and human resource programs. -Finally, normative commitment reflects a feeling of obligation to continue employment. Employees with a high level of normative commitment feel that they ought to remain with the organization normative commitment is influenced by organizational culture and the socialization process. Normative commitment can be increased by making sure that management does not breach its psychological contracts and by trying to enhance the level of trust throughout the organization.

Developmental relationship strength

reflects the quality of relationships among the individual and those involved in his or her developmental network A receptive developmental network is composed of a few weak ties from one social system such as an employer or a professional association. traditional network contains a few strong ties between an employee and developers that all come from one social system.

developmental relationships diversity of

reflects the variety of people within the network an individual uses for developmental assistance. There are two subcomponents associated with network diversity: (1) the number of different people the person is networked with and (2) the various social systems from which the networked relationships stem

interactional justice

relates to the "quality of the interpersonal treatment people receive when procedures are implemented." This form of justice does not pertain to the outcomes or procedures associated with decision making, but rather it focuses on whether or not people feel they are treated fairly when decisions are implemented. Fair interpersonal treatment necessitates that managers communicate truthfully and treat people with courtesy and respect.

Intelligence

represents an individual's capacity for constructive thinking, reasoning, and problem solving Charles Spearman proposed in 1927 that all cognitive performance is determined by two types of abilities. The first can be characterized as a general mental ability needed for all cognitive tasks. The second is unique to the task at hand Howard Gardner concept of multiple intelligences (MI) includes not only cognitive abilities but social and physical abilities and skills as well: Linguistic intelligence: Potential to learn and use spoken and written languages. Logical-mathematical intelligence: Potential for deductive reasoning, problem analysis, and mathematical calculation. Musical intelligence: Potential to appreciate, compose, and perform music. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: Potential to use mind and body to coordinate physical movement. Spatial intelligence: Potential to recognize and use patterns. Interpersonal intelligence: Potential to understand, connect with, and effectively work with others. Intrapersonal intelligence: Potential to understand and regulate oneself. Naturalist intelligence: Potential to live in harmony with one's environment.

Self-Serving Bias

represents one's tendency to take more personal responsibility for success than for failure. The self-serving bias suggests employees will attribute their success to internal factors (high ability or hard work) and their failures to uncontrollable external factors (tough job, bad luck, unproductive co-workers, or an unsympathetic boss). This tendency plays out in all aspects of life.

Organization

system of consciously coordinated activities or sources of two or more people. Embodied in the conscious coordination aspect of this definition are four common denominators of all organizations: 1) coordination of effort - is achieved through formulation and enforcement of policies, rules, and regulations. 2) a common goal 3) division of labor - occurs when the common goal is pursued by individuals performing separate but related tasks. 4) a hierarchy of authority. - also called the chain of command, is a control mechanism dedicated to making sure the right people do the right things at the right time. Historically, managers have maintained the integrity of the hierarchy of authority by adhering to the unity of command principle. The unity of command principle specifies that each employee should report to only one manager. Otherwise, the argument goes, inefficiency would prevail because of conflicting orders and lack of personal accountability. Managers in the hierarchy of authority also administer rewards and punishments. Organization theorists refer to these factors as the organization's structure.

Internal Locus of Control

the belief that one controls the events and consequences affecting one's life Proactive people identify opportunities and act on them, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs. an "internal" tends to attribute positive outcomes, such as getting a passing grade on an exam, to her or his own abilities. Accordingly, an "internal" tends to blame negative events, such as failing an exam, on personal shortcomings—not studying hard enough, perhaps.

Target Elements of Change

the components of an organization that may be changed. A problem exists when managers are not obtaining the results they desire. The target elements of change are used to diagnose problems and to identify change-related solutions. -Organizational arrangements -Social factors -Methods -People

The Role of Followers in the Leadership Process

the success of both leaders and followers is contingent on the dynamic relationship among the people involved. both leaders and followers are closely linked. You cannot lead without having followers, and you cannot follow without having leaders. both leaders and followers to focus on developing a mutually rewarding and beneficial relationship. three types of followers: helpers, independents, and rebels. -Helpers show deference and comply with the leadership; -independents distance themselves from the leadership and show less compliance; and -rebels show divergence from the leader and are at least compliant. Among other types of followers, moderate in compliance, are diplomats, partisans, and counselors. Leaders obviously want followers who are productive, reliable, honest, cooperative, proactive, and flexible. Leaders do not benefit from followers who hide the truth, withhold information, fail to generate ideas, are unwilling to collaborate, provide inaccurate feedback, or are unwilling to take the lead on projects and initiatives. followers seek, admire, and respect leaders who foster three emotional responses in others: Followers want organizational leaders to create feelings of significance (what one does at work is important and meaningful), community (a sense of unity encourages people to treat others with respect and dignity and to work together in pursuit of organizational goals), and excitement (people are engaged and feel energy at work).

Communication

the exchange of information between a sender and receiver and the inference (perception) of meaning between the individuals involved Sender - person wanting to communicate information-the message Receiver - person, group, or organization for whom the message is intended Encoding - translates thoughts into code or language that can be understood by others. This forms the foundation of the message. Selecting a Medium - depends on the nature of the message, its intended purpose, the audience, proximity to the audience, time constraints, and personal skills and preferences. Typical media in organizations include face-to-face conversations, phone calls, e-mail, voice mail and text messages, videoconferencing, written memos or letters, photographs or drawings, live or virtual meetings, bulletin boards, computer output, social media exchanges, and charts or graphs. All media have advantages and disadvantages. Face-to-face conversations are useful for communicating about important or emotionally charged issues and those requiring immediate feedback and intensive interaction. Phones are convenient, fast, and sometimes private, but lack nonverbal information. Writing memos or letters is a good medium when it is difficult to meet with the other person, when formality and a written record are important, and when face-to-face interaction is not necessary to enhance understanding. Decoding - occurs when receivers receive a message process of interpreting and making sense of a message Noise - anything that interferes with the transmission and understanding of a message. It can affect any part of the communication process. such as a speech impairment or accent, poor telephone connection, illegible handwriting, bad photocopy, inaccurate statistics, lies, background sounds, poor hearing and eyesight, and physical distance between sender and receiver. Feedback - the sender gets a reaction from the receiver

Self-monitoring

the extent to which a person observes his or her own self-expressive behavior and adapts it to the demands of the situation. - High self-monitors are sometimes called chameleons, who readily adapt their self-presentation to their surroundings. Low self-monitors, on the other hand, often are criticized for being on their own planet and insensitive to others. -Individuals high in self-monitoring are thought to regulate their expressive self-presentation for the sake of desired public appearances, and thus be highly responsive to social and interpersonal cues of situationally appropriate performances. Individuals low in self-monitoring are thought to lack either the ability or the motivation to so regulate their expressive self-presentations. Their expressive behaviors, instead, are thought to functionally reflect their own enduring and momentary inner states, including their attitudes, traits, and feelings For high, moderate, and low self-monitors: Become more consciously aware of your self-image and how it affects others. For high self-monitors: Don't overdo it by evolving from a successful chameleon into someone who is widely perceived as insincere, dishonest, phony, and untrustworthy. You cannot be everything to everyone. For low self-monitors: You can bend without breaking, so try to be a bit more accommodating while being true to your basic beliefs. Don't wear out your welcome when communicating. Practice reading and adjusting to nonverbal cues in various public situations. If your conversation partner is bored or distracted, stop—because they are not really listening.

Contact hypothesis

the more the members of different groups interact, the less intergroup conflict they will experience

job crafting

the physical and cognitive changes individuals make in the task or relational boundaries of their work job crafting is limited by the amount of latitude people have in changing their own jobs.

Impression management

the process by which people attempt to control or manipulate the reactions of others to images of themselves or their ideas Favorable Impression Management Job-focused - manipulating information about one's performance Supervisor-focused - praising and doing favors for one's supervisor Self-focused - presenting oneself as a polite and nice person

Mentoring

the process of forming and maintaining developmental relationships between a mentor and a junior person Mentoring can serve to embed an organization's culture when developers and the protégé/protégée work in the same organization for two reasons. First, mentoring contributes to creating a sense of oneness by promoting the acceptance of the organization's core values throughout the organization. Second, the socialization aspect of mentoring also promotes a sense of membership. two general functions—career and psychosocial—of the mentoring process. Five career functions that enhanced career development were sponsorship, exposure-and-visibility, coaching, protection, and challenging assignments. Four psychosocial functions were role modeling, acceptance-and-confirmation, counseling, and friendship. The psychosocial functions clarified the participants' identities and enhanced their feelings of competence

Management

the process of working with and through others to achieve organizational objectives, efficiently and ethically, in the face of constant change -Dealing effectively with people is what management is all about. -Managers with high skills mastery tend to have better subunit performance and employee morale than managers with low skills mastery -Effective female and male managers do not have significantly different skill profiles,59 contrary to claims in the popular business press in recent years -At all career stages, derailed managers (those who failed to achieve their potential) tended to be the ones who overestimated their skill mastery (rated themselves higher than their employees did)

Participative management

the process whereby employees play a direct role in (1) setting goals, (2) making decisions, (3) solving problems, and (4) making changes in the organization. Participative management includes, but goes beyond, simply asking employees for their ideas or opinions. Participative management helps employees fulfill three basic needs: -Autonomy -Meaningfulness of work -Interpersonal contact

Organizational Culture Layers - Basic Assumptions

unobservable and represent the core of organizational culture. They constitute organizational values that have become so taken for granted over time that they become assumptions that guide organizational behavior. They thus are highly resistant to change

e-business

using the Internet to facilitate every aspect of running a business, including the management of virtual teams

Laboratory Study

variables are manipulated and measured in contrived situations. College students are commonly used as subjects.

Why People Avoid Conflict

we avoid conflict because we fear various combinations of the following things: "harm," "rejection," "loss of relationship," "anger," "being seen as selfish," "saying the wrong thing," "failing," "hurting someone else," "getting what you want," and "intimacy."

Goal

what an individual is trying to accomplish; it is the object or aim of an action -direct attention -regulate effort -increase persistence -foster the development and application of task strategies and action plans

Decision-Making Biases

(1) availability, (2) representativeness, (3) confirmation, (4) anchoring, (5) overconfidence, (6) hindsight, (7) framing, and (8) escalation of commitment.

Simon's Normative Model

Bounded rationality represents the notion that decision makers are "bounded" or restricted by a variety of constraints when making decisions. These constraints include any personal characteristics or internal and external resources that reduce rational decision making. Personal characteristics include the limited capacity of the human mind, personality (a meta-analysis of 150 studies showed that males displayed more risk taking than females),1and time constraints. Examples of internal resources are the organization's human and social capital, financial resources, technology, plant and equipment, and internal processes and systems. External resources include things the organization cannot directly control such as employment levels in the community, capital availability, and government policies. Satisficing choosing a solution that meets some minimum qualifications, one that is "good enough". Satisficing resolves problems by producing solutions that are satisfactory, as opposed to optimal. Most frequent causes of poor decision making: Poorly defined processes and practices Unclear company vision, mission, and goals Unwillingness of leaders to take responsibility Lack of reliable, timely information

Maintenance roles

foster supportive and constructive interpersonal relationships keep the group together

Key Social Skills Managers Need for Building Social Capital

found 15 reasons why managers fail in the face of rapid change. The top two reasons were "ineffective communication skills/practices" and "poor work relationships/interpersonal skills

Performance Outcome Goal

targets a specific end result But for employees who lack the necessary skills, performance outcome goals are more frustrating than motivating. When skills are lacking, a developmental process is needed wherein learning goals precede performance outcome goals.

Four General Types of Work Teams and Their Outputs

(1) advice, (2) production, (3) project, and (4) action. production and action teams carry out management's decisions. Advice Teams Advice teams generally make recommendations for managerial decisions. Less commonly do they actually make final decisions. created to broaden the information base for managerial decisions. have a low degree of technical specialization Coordination also is low because advice teams work pretty much on their own. Ad hoc committees (e.g., the annual picnic committee) have shorter life cycles than standing committees (e.g., the grievance committee). Production Teams responsible for performing day-to-day operations Minimal training for routine tasks accounts for the low degree of technical specialization. But coordination typically is high because work flows from one team to another. Project Teams require creative problem solving, often involving the application of specialized knowledge time is critical projects focus on a specific outcome (e.g., developing a new vaccine, producing a movie, or building a skyscraper) the team may disband upon completion of the project. Project teams also can bring realism into academic settings. Action Teams High specialization is combined with high coordination. A unique challenge for action teams is to exhibit peak performance on demand. So it is with airline cockpit crews, firefighters, hospital surgery teams, mountain-climbing expeditions, rock music groups, labor-contract negotiating teams, and police SWAT teams, among others. Technical specialization is low when the team draws upon members' general experience and problem-solving ability. It is high when team members are required to apply technical skills acquired through higher education or extensive training. The degree of coordination with other work units is determined by the team's relative independence (low coordination) or interdependence (high coordination).

Social Networking Site (SNS)

A Web site that provides a virtual community for people interested in a particular subject or just to "hang out" together. Members create their own online "profile" with biographical data, pictures, likes, dislikes and any other information they choose to post. They communicate with each other by voice, chat, instant message, videoconference and blogs, and the service typically provides a way for members to contact friends of other members. Members of an SNS may or may not know each other on a face-to-face basis and SNS use is dominated by, but not restricted to, young people. According to a Pew Research Center survey, 75% of online users ages 18-24 and 30% of online users ages 35-44 have at least one profile on an SNS.

Integrating Rational and Nonrational Models

A simple context is stable, and clear cause-and-effect relationships can be discerned, so the best answer can be agreed on. This context calls for the rational model, where the decision maker gathers information, categorizes it, and responds in an established way. In a complicated context, there is a clear relationship between cause and effect, but some people may not see it, and more than one solution may be effective. Here, too, the rational model applies, but it requires the investigation of options, along with analysis of them. In a complex context, there is one right answer, but there are so many unknowns that decision makers don't understand cause-and-effect relationships. Decision makers therefore need to start out by experimenting, testing options, and probing to see what might happen as they look for a creative solution. In a chaotic context, cause-and-effect relationships are changing so fast that no pattern emerges. In this context, decision makers have to act first to establish order and then find areas where it is possible to identify patterns so that aspects of the problem can be managed. The use of intuition and evidence-based decision making, both of which are discussed later in this chapter, may be helpful in this situation.

Cooperation versus Competition

A widely held assumption among managers is that "competition brings out the best in people." From an economic standpoint, business survival depends on staying ahead of the competition. But from an interpersonal standpoint, critics contend competition has been overemphasized, primarily at the expense of cooperation women likelier to agree initially that collaboration is important. I found men much more difficult to get to the door of collaboration. Men maybe have a tougher time looking beyond themselves and those like them. They have got to believe that there is value in the "Other," who will by definition have different interests and ways to see the world. Research Support for Cooperation Cooperation is superior to competition in promoting achievement and productivity. Cooperation is superior to individualistic efforts in promoting achievement and productivity. Cooperation without intergroup competition promotes higher achievement and productivity than cooperation with intergroup competition Cooperation can be encouraged by reward systems that reinforce teamwork, along with individual achievement. Interestingly, cooperation can be encouraged by quite literally tearing down walls, or not building them in the first place. the small team, open-office configuration (desks scattered about in a small area with no partitions) to be significantly correlated with superior performance. In addition, they found that the open-office configuration was particularly favored by the youngest employees, who believe open offices provide them greater access to colleagues and the opportunity to learn from their more seasoned senior compatriots. [Helpful] teammates, both black and white, attract greater respect and liking than do teammates who have not helped. This is particularly true when the helping occurs voluntarily."These findings suggest that managers can enhance equal employment opportunity and diversity programs by encouraging voluntary helping behavior in interracial work teams. Accordingly, it is reasonable to conclude that voluntary helping behavior could build cooperation in mixed-gender teams and groups as well.

Group Decay

Groups were observed actually shifting into reverse once Tuckman's "performing" stage was reached, in what the researchers called group decay De-norming As the project evolves, there is a natural erosion of standards of conduct. Group members drift in different directions as their interests and expectations change De-storming This stage of group decay is a mirror opposite of the storming stage. Whereas disagreements and conflicts arise rather suddenly during the storming stage, an undercurrent of discontent slowly comes to the surface during the de-storming stage. Individual resistance increases and cohesiveness declines. De-forming The work group literally falls apart as subgroups battle for control. Those pieces of the project that are not claimed by individuals or subgroups are abandoned. "Group members begin isolating themselves from each other and from their leaders. Performance declines rapidly because the whole job is no longer being done and group members little care what happens beyond their self-imposed borders. group leaders should not become complacent upon reaching the performing stage

Attributes of High-Performance Teams

Participative leadership. Creating an interdependency by empowering, freeing up, and serving others. Shared responsibility. Establishing an environment in which all team members feel as responsible as the manager for the performance of the work unit. Aligned on purpose. Having a sense of common purpose about why the team exists and the function it serves. High communication. Creating a climate of trust and open, honest communication. Future focused. Seeing change as an opportunity for growth. Focused on task. Keeping meetings focused on results. Creative talents. Applying individual talents and creativity. Rapid response. Identifying and acting on opportunities. These eight attributes effectively combine many of today's most progressive ideas on management, among them being participation, empowerment, service ethic, individual responsibility and development, self-management, trust, active listening, and envisioning. But patience and diligence are required. According to a manager familiar with work teams, "high-performance teams may take three to five years to build.

Why Work Teams Fail

The main threats to team effectiveness are unrealistic expectations leading to frustration. Frustration, in turn, encourages people to abandon teams. Both managers and team members can be victimized by unrealistic expectations. On the left side is a list of common management mistakes. These mistakes generally involve doing a poor job of creating a supportive environment for teams and teamwork. Problems for Team Members The lower-right portion lists common problems for team members. Contrary to critics' Theory X contention about employees lacking the motivation and creativity for real teamwork, it is common for teams to take on too much too quickly and to drive themselves too hard for fast results. Important group dynamics and team skills get lost in the rush for results. Consequently, team members' expectations need to be given a reality check by management and team members themselves. Also, teams need to be counseled against quitting when they run into an unanticipated obstacle. Failure is part of the learning process with teams, as it is elsewhere in life. Comprehensive training in interpersonal skills can prevent many common teamwork problems.

Representativeness heuristic

The representativeness heuristic is used when people estimate the probability of an event occurring. It reflects the tendency to assess the likelihood of an event occurring based on one's impressions about similar occurrences. A manager, for example, may hire a graduate from a particular university because the past three people hired from this university turned out to be good performers. In this case, the "school attended" criterion is used to facilitate complex information processing associated with employment interviews. Unfortunately, this shortcut can result in a biased decision. Similarly, an individual may believe that he or she can master a new software package in a short period of time because a different type of software was easy to learn. This estimate may or may not be accurate. For example, it may take the individual a much longer period of time to learn the new software because it involves learning a new programming language.

Symptoms of Groupthink Lead to Defective Decision Making

a mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when members' strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action refers to a deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment that results from in-group pressures. members of groups victimized by groupthink are friendly, tightly knit, and cohesive. Symptoms of Groupthink Invulnerability Inherent morality Rationalization Stereotyped views of opposition Self-censorship Illusion of unanimity Peer pressure Mindguards Groups with a moderate amount of cohesiveness produce better decisions than low- or high-cohesive groups. Highly cohesive groups victimized by groupthink make the poorest decisions, despite high confidence in those decisions preventive measures: 1 - Each member of the group should be assigned the role of critical evaluator. This role involves actively voicing objections and doubts. 2 - Top-level executives should not use policy committees to rubber-stamp decisions that have already been made. 3 - Different groups with different leaders should explore the same policy questions. 4 - Subgroup debates and outside experts should be used to introduce fresh perspectives. 5 - Someone should be given the role of devil's advocate when discussing major alternatives. This person tries to uncover every conceivable negative factor. 6 - Once a consensus has been reached, everyone should be encouraged to rethink their position to check for flaws.

A Role Episode

consists of a snapshot of the ongoing interaction between two people. In any given role episode, there is a role sender and a focal person who is expected to act out the role. Within a broader social context, one may be simultaneously a role sender and a focal person. begin with the role sender's perception of the relevant organization's or group's behavioral requirements. Those requirements serve as a standard for formulating expectations for the focal person's behavior. The role sender then cognitively evaluates the focal person's actual behavior against those expectations. Appropriate verbal and behavioral messages are then sent to the focal person to pressure him or her into behaving as expected. On the receiving end of the role episode, the focal person accurately or inaccurately perceives the communicated role expectations and modeled behavior. The focal person then responds constructively by engaging in problem solving, for example, or destructively because of undue tension, stress, and strain. positive and negative peer pressure powerfully influence role performance. Significant productivity improvement could be achieved if organizations did a better job of communicating and enforcing role expectations

Garbage Can Model

decision making is sloppy and haphazard decisions result from complex interaction of four independent streams of events: problems, solutions, participants and choice opportunities attempts to explain how problems, solutions, participants, and choice opportunities interact and lead to a decision. creates "a collection of choices looking for problems, issues and feelings looking for decision situations in which they might be aired, solutions looking for issues to which they might be the answer, and decision makers looking for work." 4 practical implications: 1 - this model of decision making is more pronounced in industries that rely on science-based innovations such as pharmaceutical companies. Managers in these industries thus need to be more alert for the potential of haphazard decision making. 2 - many decisions are made by oversight or by the presence of a salient opportunity. 3 - political motives frequently guide the process by which participants make decisions. It thus is important for you to consider the political ramifications of your decisions. 4 - important problems are more likely to be solved than unimportant ones because they are more salient to organizational participants. More pronounced in industries that rely on science-based innovations Many decisions are made by oversight Political motives frequently influence decision makers Important decisions are more likely to be solved

Tolerance for ambiguity

extent to which a person has a high need for structure or control in his life This individual difference indicates the extent to which a person has a high need for structure or control in his or her life. Some people desire a lot of structure in their lives (a low tolerance for ambiguity) and find ambiguous situations stressful and psychologically uncomfortable. In contrast, others do not have a high need for structure and can thrive in uncertain situations (a high tolerance for ambiguity). Ambiguous situations can energize people with a high tolerance for ambiguity.

Decision tree

graphical representation of the process underlying decisions and it shows the resulting consequences of making various choices the decision tree does provide a framework for considering the trade-offs between managerial and corporate actions and managerial and corporate ethics. can be applied to any type of decision or action that an individual manager or corporation is contemplating. A decision maximizes shareholder value when it results in a more favorable financial position (e.g., increased profits) for an organization. shows that managers still need to consider the ethical implications of the decision or action. According to the decision tree framework, managers should make the decision to engage in an action if the benefits to the shareholders exceed the benefits to the other key constituents. Managers should not engage in the action if the other key constituents would benefit more from the action than shareholders.

Nominal Group Technique

helps groups generate ideas and evaluate and select solutions. NGT is a structured group meeting that follows this format: -A group is convened. After the problem is understood, individuals silently generate ideas in writing. Each individual, in round-robin fashion, then offers one idea from his or her list. Ideas are recorded on a blackboard or flip chart; they are not discussed at this stage of the process. Once all ideas are elicited, the group discusses them. During this step, clarification is provided as well as general agreement or disagreement with the idea. The "30-second soap box" technique, which entails giving each participant a maximum of 30 seconds to argue for or against any of the ideas under consideration, can be used to facilitate this discussion. Alternatively, groups can create an effort/benefit matrix to facilitate this discussion. This is done by identifying the amount of effort and the costs required to implement each idea and comparing these to the potential benefits associated with each idea. Finally, group members anonymously vote for their top choices. The group leader then adds the votes to determine the group's choice. Prior to making a final decision, the group may decide to discuss the top-ranked items and conduct a second round of voting. The nominal group technique reduces the roadblocks to group decision making by (1) separating brainstorming from evaluation, (2) promoting balanced participation among group members, and (3) incorporating mathematical voting techniques in order to reach consensus.

Group versus Individual Performance

here are five important issues to consider when using groups to make decisions: 1 - Groups were less efficient than individuals. It thus is important to consider time constraints when determining whether to involve groups in decision making. 2 - Groups were more confident about their judgments and choices than individuals. Because group confidence is not a surrogate for group decision quality, this overconfidence can fuel groupthink and a resistance to consider alternative solutions proposed by individuals outside the group. 3 - Groups tend to make more moderate decisions. It appears that the need to reach consensus or compromise leads to less extreme decisions.58 4 - Decision-making accuracy was higher when (a) groups knew a great deal about the issues at hand and (b) group leaders possessed the ability to effectively evaluate the group members' opinions and judgments. Groups need to give more weight to relevant and accurate judgments while downplaying irrelevant or inaccurate judgments made by its members. 5 - The composition of a group affects its decision-making processes and ultimately performance. For example, groups of familiar people are more likely to make better decisions when members share a lot of unique information. In contrast, unacquainted group members should outperform groups of friends when most group members possess common knowledge.

360-degree feedback

involves letting individuals compare their own perceived performance with behaviorally specific (and usually anonymous) performance information from their manager, subordinates, and peers. Even outsiders may be involved in what is sometimes called full-circle feedback. Trust is at the core of using 360-degree feedback to enhance productivity. Trust determines how much an individual is willing to contribute for an employer. Using 360 confidentially, for developmental purposes, builds trust; using it to trigger pay and personnel decisions puts trust at risk.

Behavioral Categories of Sexual Harassment

out of seven female veterans of Afghanistan or Iraq who visit a Veterans Affairs center for medical care report being a victim of sexual assault or harassment during military duty sexual harassment compounded by ethnic discrimination. Women experienced more sexual harassment than men, minorities experienced more ethnic harassment than whites, and minority women experienced more harassment overall than majority men, minority men, and majority women. On-the-job harassment is persistent because it is rooted in widespread abusive behavior among teenagers (both face-to-face and electronically) increased social contact between women and men in work groups and organizations has led to increased sexualization (e.g., flirting and romance) in the workplace.

Rational Model

proposes that managers use a rational four-step approach to decision making. the rational model is based on the notion that managers optimize when making decisions. Stage 1 - Identify the Problem or Opportunity Problem - exists when the actual situation and the desired situation differ Opportunity - represents a situation in which there are possibilities to do things that lead to results that exceed goals and expectations Stage 2 - Generate Alternative Solutions For routine decisions alternatives are readily available through decision rules Stage 3 - Evaluate Alternatives and Select a Solution Is the potential solution ethical? Is it feasible? Will it remove the causes and solve the problem? Stage 4 - Implement and Evaluate the Solution After solution is implemented, the evaluation phase is used to evaluate its effectiveness Optimizing - producing the best possible solution 3 benefits: -The quality of decisions may be enhanced, in the sense that they follow more logically from all available knowledge and expertise. -It makes the reasoning behind a decision transparent -If made public, it discourages the decider from acting on suspect considerations (such as personal advancement or avoiding bureaucratic embarrassment)

Intuition

represents judgments, insights, or decisions that "come to mind on their own, without explicit awareness of the evoking cues and of course without explicit evaluation of the validity of these cues". Holistic hunch judgment that is based on a subconscious integration of information stored in memory. People using this form of intuition may not be able to explain why they want to make a certain decision, except that the choice "feels right." Automated experiences choice based on a familiar situation and a partially subconscious application of previously learned information related to that situation. For example, when you have years of experience driving a car, you react to a variety of situations without conscious analysis. On the positive side, intuition can speed up the decision-making process. Intuition thus can be valuable in our complex and ever-changing world. Intuition may be a practical approach when resources are limited and deadlines are tight. On the downside, intuition is subject to the same types of biases associated with rational decision making. It is particularly susceptible to the availability and representativeness heuristics, as well as the anchoring, overconfidence, and hindsight biases. In addition, the decision maker may have difficulty convincing others that the intuitive decision makes sense, so a good idea may be ignored.

Social Loafing

tendency for individual effort to decline as group size increases Reasons for Social Loafing -Equity of effort -Loss of personal accountability -Motivational loss due to sharing of rewards -Coordination loss as more people perform the task Social Loafing Theory and Research Among the theoretical explanations for the social loafing effect are (1) equity of effort ("Everyone else is goofing off, so why shouldn't I?"), (2) loss of personal accountability ("I'm lost in the crowd, so who cares?"), (3) motivational loss due to the sharing of rewards ("Why should I work harder than the others when everyone gets the same reward?"), and (4) coordination loss as more people perform the task ("We're getting in each other's way"). Social loafing occurred when: -The task was perceived to be unimportant, simple, or not interesting. -Group members thought their individual output was not identifiable. -Group members expected their co-workers to loaf. But social loafing did not occur when group members in two laboratory studies expected to be evaluated. Also, research suggests that self-reliant "individualists" are more prone to social loafing than are group-oriented "collectivists." But individualists can be made more cooperative by keeping the group small and holding each member personally accountable for results. Social loafing also was reduced in a recent study when a hybrid combination of individual and shared rewards were employed.

Reward Distribution Criteria

three general criteria for the distribution of rewards are as follows: Performance: results. Tangible outcomes such as individual, group, or organization performance; quantity and quality of performance. Performance: actions and behaviors. Such as teamwork, cooperation, risk taking, creativity. Nonperformance considerations. Customary or contractual, where the type of job, nature of the work, equity, tenure, level in hierarchy, and so forth are rewarded.

Basic Distinctions between Virtual Teams and Self-Managed Teams

two types of teams are distinct but not totally unique. Overlaps exist. For instance, computer-networked virtual teams may or may not have volunteer members and may or may not be self-managed. Another point of overlap involves the fifth variable in Table 11-6: relationship to organization structure. Teams are called parallel structures when they exist outside normal channels of authority and communication. Self-managed teams, on the other hand, are integrated into the basic organizational structure. Virtual teams vary in this regard, although they tend to be parallel because they are made up of functional specialists (engineers, accountants, marketers, etc.) who team up on temporary projects.

Norms - How they are Developed

1 - Explicit statements by supervisors or co-workers. For instance, a group leader might explicitly set norms about not drinking (alcohol) at lunch. (See Real World/Real People.) 2 - Critical events in the group's history. At times there is a critical event in the group's history that establishes an important precedent. (For example, a key recruit may have decided to work elsewhere because a group member said too many negative things about the organization. Hence, a norm against such "sour grapes" behavior might evolve.) 3 - Primacy. The first behavior pattern that emerges in a group often sets group expectations. If the first group meeting is marked by very formal interaction between supervisors and employees, then the group often expects future meetings to be conducted in the same way. 4 - Carryover behaviors from past situations. Such carryover of individual behaviors from past situations can increase the predictability of group members' behaviors in new settings and facilitate task accomplishment.

Group Problem Solving Techniques

Consensus reached when all members can say they either agree with the decision or have had their 'day in court' and were unable to convince the others of their viewpoint. Everyone agrees to support the outcome. Brainstorming process to generate a quantity of ideas Nominal Group Technique process to generate ideas and evaluate solutions Delphi technique process to autonomously generate ideas from physically dispersed experts Computer-aided decision making a variety of computer, software, and electronic devices to improve decision making allows managers to quickly obtain larger amounts of information from employees, customers, or suppliers around the world Chauffeur-driven systems, group-driven electronic meetings

How to Build Trust

Communication. Keep team members and employees informed by explaining policies and decisions and providing accurate feedback. Be candid about one's own problems and limitations. Tell the truth. Support. Be available and approachable. Provide help, advice, coaching, and support for team members' ideas. Respect. Delegation, in the form of real decision-making authority, is the most important expression of managerial respect. Actively listening to the ideas of others is a close second. Fairness. Be quick to give credit and recognition to those who deserve it. Make sure all performance appraisals and evaluations are objective and impartial. Predictability. Be consistent and predictable in your daily affairs. Keep both expressed and implied promises. Competence. Enhance your credibility by demonstrating good business sense, technical ability, and professionalism.

Role conflict

Experienced when "different members of the role set expect different things of the focal person also may be experienced when internalized values, ethics, or personal standards collide with others' expectations. role conflict and role ambiguity were associated with job dissatisfaction, tension and anxiety, lack of organizational commitment, intentions to quit, and, to a lesser extent, poor job performance.

Trust

Reciprocal faith in others' intentions and behavior The more employees trust management, the more engaged and productive they will be—and vice versa. Trust involves "a cognitive 'leap' beyond the expectations that reason and experience alone would warrant" Trust needs to be earned; it cannot be demanded. Trust is anchored to credibility — "developing the integrity, intent, capabilities, and results that make you believable , both to yourself and to others."

Extrinsic Rewards

Financial, material, and social rewards qualify as extrinsic rewards because they come from the environment. An employee who works to obtain extrinsic rewards, such as money or praise, is said to be extrinsically motivated.

Brainstorming

Defer judgment. Don't criticize during the initial stage of idea generation. Phrases such as "We've never done it that way," "It won't work," "It's too expensive," and "Our manager will never agree" should not be used. Build on the ideas of others. Encourage participants to extend others' ideas by avoiding "buts" and using "ands." Encourage wild ideas. Encourage out-of-the-box thinking. The wilder and more outrageous the ideas, the better. Go for quantity over quality. Participants should try to generate and write down as many new ideas as possible. Focusing on quantity encourages people to think beyond their favorite ideas. Be visual. Use different colored pens (e.g., red, purple, blue) to write on big sheets of flip chart paper, white boards, or poster board that are put on the wall. Stay focused on the topic. A facilitator should be used for keeping the discussion on target. One conversation at a time. The ground rules are that no one interrupts another person, no dismissing of someone's ideas, no disrespect, and no rudeness. Brainstorming is an effective technique for generating new ideas/alternatives, and research reveals that people can be trained to improve their brainstorming skills. Brainstorming is not appropriate for evaluating alternatives or selecting solutions.

Norms

an attitude, opinion, feeling, or action—shared by two or more people— that guides their behavior help organizational members determine right from wrong and good from bad groups where the norm was to express prejudices, condone discrimination, and laugh at hostile jokes tended to engage in these undesirable behaviors. Conversely, subjects tended to disapprove of prejudicial and discriminatory conduct when exposed to groups with more socially acceptable norms

Formal Group

group is formed by a manager to help the organization accomplish its goals Formal groups typically wear such labels as work group, project team, committee, corporate board, or task force.

Value orientation

reflects the extent to which an individual focuses on either task and technical concerns or people and social concerns when making decisions Some people, for instance, are very task focused at work and do not pay much attention to people issues, whereas others are just the opposite.

Women Face an Uphill Battle in Mixed-Gender Task Groups

women overcome the effects of weaker handshakes, such that on average they do not receive lower interview performance ratings from interviewers, and that women may actually benefit more than do men if they present a strong and complete grip when they shake hands. gender inequality was found in the way group members interrupted each other. Men interrupted women significantly more often than they did other men. Women, who tended to interrupt less frequently and less successfully than men, interrupted men and women equally. "both men and women exhibiting higher levels of interruption behavior in male-dominated groups. The attitude of the male majority changes from neutral to resistant, whereas the attitude of the female majority changes from favorable to neutral. In other words, men increasingly want to keep their domain for themselves, while women remain willing to share their domain with men

Effective Work Teams

work teams require a team-friendly organization if they are to be effective. Work teams need a support system. They have a much greater chance of success if they are nurtured and facilitated by the organization. The team's purpose needs to be in concert with the organization's strategy. Similarly, team participation and autonomy require an organizational culture that values those processes. Team members also need appropriate technological tools, reasonable schedules, and training. Teamwork needs to be rewarded by the organizational reward system.18 Such is not the case when pay and bonuses are tied solely to individual output.