Organizational Behavior (OB) - ORGB 300 - Chapter 6: Motivation

Goal-Setting Theory (graph only)

Goal-Setting Theory:

Define the "Valence" part of the Expectancy Theory.

Valence - the value of the outcomes. Outcomes are positively valenced (attractive) when they satisfy needs (existence, safety, relatedness, esteem, meaning).

Goal Difficulty and Task Performance:

What is a difficult goal?

What are the managerial implications based on McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory?

1. Achievement, affiliation, and power needs can be considered during the selection process, for better placement. 2. Managers should create challenging task assignments or goals. 3. Effective managers have: a. High need for power b. High need for achievement c Low need for affiliation

Why do specific, difficult goals have positive effects?

1. Assignment of a specific and difficult goal shapes people's own "self-set goals" - the internalized goals that people use to monitor their own task progress. 2. Goals trigger the creation of "task strategies" - defined as learning plans and problem-solving approaches used to achieve successful performance.

What are some of the criticisms of Need-Based/Content Theories?

1. Content theories are considered questionable in terms of validity. 2. Content theories failed: a. to account for individual differences b. to link motivation and needs to both satisfaction and performance c. to consider cultural and professional differences

Motivation and Effort

1. Direction of Effort - What are you going to do right now? 2. Intensity of Effort - How hard are you going to work on it? 3. Persistence of Effort - How long are you going to work on it?

Name the three (3) Contemporary Process Theories.

1. Expectancy Theory 2. Goal Setting Theory 3. Equity Theory

Global Implications? Are motivation theories culture-bound?

1. Most were developed for and by the United States 2. Goal-setting and expectancy theories emphasize goal accomplishment and rational individual thought 3. Maslow's Hierarchy may change order 4. McClelland's nAch presupposes acceptance of a moderate degree of risk concern for performance 5. Equity theory closely tied to American pay practices 6. Hertzberg's two-factor theory does seem to work across cultures

Takeaways

1. Motivation: forces that initiate work-related effort. 2. Content theories deal with the question of what determines work motivation. 3. Expectancy theory: describes cognitive process in making choices among voluntary behaviors. a. Includes: expectancy, instrumentality, valence 4. Goal setting theory: suggests specific, difficult goals lead to higher performance. 5. Equity theory: suggests rewards are equitable when a person's outcomes-to-inputs ratio matches those of a comparison other. 6. Motivation has a positive relationship with job performance and organizational commitment.

Name the two (2) parts of Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory.

1. Motivators - job characteristics (content) associated with job satisfaction. Examples: challenging work, recognition for one's achievement, responsibility, opportunity to do something meaningful, involvement in decision making, sense of importance to an organization 2. Hygiene factors - The term "hygiene" is used in the sense that these are maintenance factors. These factors do not give positive satisfaction or lead to higher motivation, though dissatisfaction results from their absence. Hygiene factors are job characteristics (context) associated with job dissatisfaction. Examples: status, job security, salary, fringe benefits, work conditions, good pay, paid insurance, vacations

What are the three (3) categories of acquired needs in McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory?

1. Need for achievement (nAch) - The desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks. 2. Need for affiliation (nAff) - The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with others. 3. Need for power (nPower) - The desire to control others, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for others.

In Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory what are the Higher-Order Needs?

1. Self Actualization - Highest need level; need to fulfill oneself; to grow and use abilities to the fullest and most creative extent. 2. Esteem - Need for esteem of others; respect, prestige, recognition, need for self-esteem, personal sense of competence, mastery.

Define Goal Setting Theory

Goal Setting Theory is a contemporary process theory that views goals as the primary drivers of the intensity and persistence of effort.

Goal Setting Theory

Goals increase performance when goals are: 1. Specific 2. Difficult, but accepted by employees 3. Accompanied by feedback (especially self-generated feedback.

Define Equity Theory

Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities. 1. Employees create a "mental ledger" of their outcomes & inputs. 2. Employees compare their outcomes-to-inputs ratio to the ratio of a "comparison other." This is referred to as "Cognitive calculus."

Define Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory: Need-Based/Content theory that asserts certain needs must be met before other needs can motivate. Maslow's theory also states: 1. Humans are motivated by multiple needs and those needs exist in a hierarchical order. 2. A satisfied need may lose its motivational potential.

Organizational Behavior - Individual Mechanisms - Motivation (Figure)

Organizational Behavior - Individual Mechanisms - Motivation:

What were the three (3) early theories of Motivation?

The three (3) early theories of motivation are "Need Based" theories: 1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory 2. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory 3. McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory

Define Contemporary (Process) Theory.

Theories that explain the process by which internal factors and cognition's influence a person's motivation. In other words, focus on the "thought processes" through which people choose one action over another in the workplace. The three "Process" theories are: 1. Expectancy theory 2. Goal-setting 3. Equity Theory

List the three (3) outcomes of Equity Theory comparisons.

Three outcomes of Equity Theory comparisons: 1. Equity: Your ratio is equal to your comparison other's. 2. Under-rewarded: Your ratio is less than your comparison other's. 3. Over-rewarded: Your ratio is greater than your comparison other's.

Under Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory how is Job Enrichment achieved?

To enrich a job, Herzberg argued that attention should be given to the work itself (job content). "If you want people to do a good job, give them a good job to do."

What factors influence the Expectancy Theory Process?

Type of Motivation/What Outcomes are at Work: 1. Extrinsic motivation - comes from external factors e.g. pay, bonuses, promotions 2. Intrinsic motivation - comes from inside the individual e.g. enjoyment, interest, knowledge gained How Much the Person Values Money: 1. Meaning of money - the degree to which money is seen as having symbolic value.

Motivation

1. A set of energetic work forces that determine the direction, intensity, and performance of an employee's work effort. (Category in the OB Model: Individual Mechanisms) 2. Forces that initiate work-related effort. a. Determine direction, intensity, and persistence of the effort. b. Originates within and outside an employee. c. Is critical because performance is a function of motivation and ability.

Two more facts about the Need-Based/Content theories.

1. Although Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory, Herberg's Two-Factor (Motivator-Hygiene) Theory and McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory have been heavily attacked, they are the main basis for contemporary motivation theories. 2. Many practicing managers still use these theories.

In Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory what are the Lower-Order Needs?

1. Social - Need for love, affection, sense of belongingness in one's relationships with other persons. 2. Safety - Need for security, protection, and stability in the physical and interpersonal events of day-to-day life. 3. Physiological - Most basic of all human needs; need for biological maintenance; need for food, water and sustenance.

Define Equity Restoration Behaviors

Any imbalance in ratios triggers "equity distress" Equity Distress — an internal tension that can only be alleviated by restoring balance to the ratios. Equity Restoration Behaviors: 1. Change work inputs (e.g., reduce performance efforts) 2. Change the outcomes received (e.g., ask for a raise) 3. Leave the situation (e.g., quit) 4. Change the comparison person 5. Psychologically distort the comparisons 6. Take actions to change the inputs or outputs of the comparison person

What do the Contemporary (Process) Theories focus on?

Contemporary (Process) Theories focus on explaining "how" and "why" motivation occurs but they do not indicate any specific values or needs. In other words, they focus on people's "thought" or "cognitive" processes e.g. expectancy

Definition of McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory.

David McClelland Acquired Needs Theory is a Needs-Based/Content theory which proposes that an individual's specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by one's life experiences. Most of these needs can be classed as either achievement, affiliation, or power.

What do these modern process theories tell us about compensation systems?

Designing Compensation Systems 1. Provide specific, difficult goals (Goal Setting Theory). a. Lump sum bonuses & gainsharing create goals which increase productivity. 2. Use individual monetary outcomes. a. Employees feel higher instrumentality (Expectancy Theory). b. Employees are likely to feel their ratio is equal to their comparison others' (Equity Theory). 3. Focus on employees' self-efficacy (Expectancy Theory).

Effects of Motivation on Performance and Commitment (graphic only)

Effects of Motivation on Performance and Commitment (graphic only)

Define the "Expectancy" part of the Expectancy Theory.

Expectancy - belief that a high level of effort will result in a successful performance. Effort = Performance Expectancy is influenced by "self-efficacy" or the belief that you have capabilities needed to perform a certain task. Self efficacy is based on the following 4 things: 1. Past accomplishments 2. Vicarious experiences 3. Verbal persuasion 4. Emotional cues

Define Expectancy Theory.

Expectancy Theory is a contemporary, process based theory that: 1. Describes cognitive processes in choosing among voluntary responses. 2. Is based on the idea that behavior is directed toward pleasure and away from pain.

Expectancy Theory in a nutshell (graphic only)

Expectancy Theory:

Define Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory.

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory - Also referred to as Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory, is a Need-Based/Content theory that states: There are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction (Motivators), while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction(Hygiene). "The primary function of any organization should be to implement the needs for man to enjoy a meaningful existence."

Define the "Instrumentality" part of the Expectancy Theory.

Instrumentality - belief that successful performance will result in certain outcomes. Performance = Outcomes

What do the Early (Need-Based) Theories focus on?

The Early (Need-Based) Theories deal with the question of "what" determines work motivation. In other words, they focus on profiling the needs that people seek to fulfill e.g. need for power.

What are the three (3) early theories of motivation sometimes referred to as?

The early theories of motivation are sometimes referred to as "Need-Based" or "Content" theories.

When were the three (3) Need-Based/Content theories formulated?

The three (3) Need-Based/Content theories, Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory, Herberg's Two-Factor (Motivator-Hygiene) Theory and McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory were formulated during the 1950's and 1960's.