Organizational Behaviour CH-04
Four sets of behaviours managers can use to build intrinsic rewards for their employees:
1. Leading for choice- Empowering employees and delegating tasks 2. Leading for competence- Supporting and coaching employees 3. Leading for meaningfulness- Inspiring employees and modelling desired behaviours 4. Leading for progress- Monitoring and rewarding employees
Four ways in shaping behaviour
1. Positive reinforcement 2. Negative reinforcement 3. Punishment 4. Extinction
An employee's expectancy is influenced by the following
1. Self-esteem 2. Previous success 3. Help form supervisors and subordinates 4. Information 5. Proper materials and equipment
Four key rewards that increase an individual's intrinsic motivation
1. Sense of choice 2. Sense of competence 3. Sense of meaningfulness 4. Sense of progress
Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behaviour is reinforced often enough to make the behaviour worth repeating, but not every time it is demonstrated
Motivation Hygiene Theory by Frederick Herzberg (Psychologist and Needs Theorist)
A theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction
Extinction
Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behaviour
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Fall into two categories: 1. Needs theories, 2. Process theories
Social
Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship
Self-actualization
Includes growth, achieving one's potential, and self-fulfillment. This is the drive to become what one is capable of becoming.
Physiological
Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs
Esteem
Includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention
Safety
Includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm
Extrinsic motivators
Motivation that comes from outside the person and includes such things as pay, bonuses, and other tangible rewards.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Offering extrinsic rewards (pay) for work effort that was previously rewarding intrinsically will tend to decrease the overall level of a person's motivation.
Goals encourage the development of strategies and action plans
Once goals are set, individuals can develop plans for achieving those goals. For example, a goal to become more fit may include plans like joining a gym membership or working out with friends, or eating healthy
Goals increase persistence
Persistence represents the effort spent on a task over time. When people keep goals in mind, they will work hard on them, even in the face of obstacles.
Lower Order Needs
Physiological and safety needs were described as lower order needs. These needs are mainly satisfied externally.
To Whom Do We Compare Ourselves?
Self-inside: An employee's experiences in a different position inside his or her current organization Self-outside: An employee's experiences in a situation or position outside his or her current organization Other-inside: Another individual or group of individuals inside the employee's organization Other outside: Another individual or group of individuals outside the employee's organization.
Higher Order Needs
Social, esteem, and self-actualization are considered as higher order needs. These needs are satisfied internally
The effects of goal setting
Specific goals increase performance, under certain conditions. Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals. Feedback allows individuals to know how they're doing relative to their goals, thus, feedback encourages individuals to adjust their direction and effort if they're falling short. Goals are equally effective whether participatively set, assigned or self-set Goal commitment and financial incentives affect whether goals are achieved
SMART goals
Specific, Measureable, Attainable, Results-oriented, Time-bound
Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)
The assumption that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility, and will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives.
Need for Achievement
The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.
Need for Power
The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. The desire to have impact, to be influential, and to control others.
1. Expectancy Theory by Victor Vroom
The theory that individuals act depending upon their evaluation of whether their effort will lead to good performance, whether good performance will be followed by a given outcome, and whether that outcome is attractive to them. From a practical perspective, an employee will be motivated to exert high levels of effort when he/she believes the following: 1. That the effort will lead to good performance, 2. that good performance leads to organizational rewards (bonus, salary increase, or promotion), 3. That the rewards will satisfy his/her personal goals.
Valence
The value or importance an individual places on a reward. Refers to the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual's personal goals or needs, and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual.
Theory of Needs by David McClelland
Theory that focuses on three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation
How do some extrinsic rewards affect an individuals' intrinsic motivation?
Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation, whereas tangible rewards (for example money) undermine it. For instance, when people are told that they will receive a tangible reward, they come to count on it and focus more on the reward than on the task.
Goal
What an individual is trying to accomplish; it is the object or aim of an action. Goals tell the employee what needs to be done and how much effort will need to be expended.
Organizational justice
an overall perception of what is fair in the workplace. In other words, under organizational justice, fairness or equity can be subjective, and it resides in the perception of the person. Organizational justice includes: distributive, procedural, and interactional justice
Verbal Persuasion
becoming more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to be successful. Ex: Motivational speakers use this method a lot.
Vicarious Modelling
becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task. Ex: if you see your friend losing weight, then it increases your confidence in losing weight yourself.
PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
focus on the broader picture of how someone can set about motivating another individual. Includes: 1. Expectancy Theory, 2. Goal-setting Theory, 3. Self-Efficacy Theory.
Negative Reinforcement
following a response by the termination or withdrawal of something unpleasant
Positive Reinforcement
following a response with something pleasant
Enactive Mastery
gaining relevant experience with the task or job. Ex: If you've been able to do the job well in the past, then you're more confident that you will be able to do it in the future.
Process theories
help us understand the actual ways in which we and others can be motivated.
Equity Theory
individuals compare their job inputs (effort, experience, education, competence, creativity, etc) and outcomes (salary levels, raises, recognition, challenging assignments, working conditions, etc) with those of others, and then respond so as to eliminate any inequities.
Pygmalion effect AKA Galatea Effect
is a form of a self-fulfilling prophecy in which believing something to be true can make it true. In the pygmalion effect, self efficacy is increased by communicating to an individual's teacher or supervisor that the person is of high ability. For example, teachers spent more time with students they thought were smart, gave them more challenging assignments, and expected more of them, all of which led to higher student self-efficacy and better student grades.
Arousal
leads to an energized state, which drives a person to complete a task. Ex: when a person gets "psyched up" for work and performs better. However, this may hurt performance if tasks requires a steady, lower-key perspective.
3. Self-Efficacy Theory
refers to an individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.
How Does Goal Setting Motivate?
1. Direct attention 2. Regulate effort 3. Increase persistence 4. Encourage the development of strategies and action plans
How can Self-Efficacy be increased?
1. Enactive Mastery 2. Vicarious Modelling 3. Verbal Persuasion 4. Arousal
Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behaviour is reinforced each and every time it is demonstrated
Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory
A hierarchy of five needs- physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization- in which, as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant
Intrinsic motivators
A person's internal desire to do something, due to such things as interest, challenge, and personal satisfaction
ERG Theory by Clayton Alderfer
A theory that posits three groups of core needs: existence, relatedness, and growth
Operant conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behaviour leads to a reward or prevents punishment. In B. F. Skinner's terms, people learn how to behave to get something they want or to avoid something they don't want.
Management by Objectives (MBO)
An approach to goal setting in which specific, tangible, verifiable, and measurable goals are "jointly" set by "managers and employees"; progress on goals is periodically reviewed, and rewards are allocated on the basis of this progress.
Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Rewards
Cognitive evaluation theory suggests that stimulation of intrinsic motivators will affect extrinsic motivators as well. It argues that when extrinsic rewards are used as payoffs for superior performance, the intrinsic rewards, which are derived from individuals doing what they like, are reduced. For example, if extrinsic rewards are given to someone for performing an interesting task, it causes the intrinsic interest in the task itself to decline.
Self Concordance examples
For example, if people pursue goals because of an intrinsic interest, they are more likely to attain their goals and are happy even if they don't attain them. Because the process of striving toward them is fun. In contrast, people who pursue goals for extrinsic reasons (money, status, benefits) are less likely to attain their goals, and are less happy even when they do achieve them. Because the goals are less meaningful to them. OB research suggests that people who pursue work goals for intrinsic reasons are more satisfied with their jobs, they feel they fit into their organizations better and may perform better.
Goals regulate effort
Goals suggest how much effort an individual should put into a given task. For example, placing more effort into achieving a high mark for a class you think is more important than another class with less importance.
Theory X (Douglas McGregor)
The assumption that employees dislike work, will attempt to avoid it, and must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve goals.
Expectancy
The belief that effort is related to performance. It refers to the individual's perception of how probable it is that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to good performance.
Instrumentality AKA Rewards-Personal Goals Relationship
The belief that performance is related to rewards. Refers to the person's perception of whether performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.
Need for Affiliation
The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. Prefer cooperative situations rather than competitive ones, and desire relationships that involve a high degree of mutual understanding.
Sense of competence
The feeling of accomplishment for doing a good job. Individuals are more likely to feel a sense of accomplishment when they carry out challenging tasks.
Sense of Progress
The feeling of accomplishment that one is making progress on a task, and that it is moving forward. Individuals feel that they are spending their time wisely in doing their jobs.
Motivation
The intensity, direction, and persistence of effort a person shows in reaching a goal. Intensity is concerned with how hard a person tries. High intensity, however, is unlikely to lead to favourable job performance outcomes unless the effort is channeled in a "direction" that is beneficial. Finally, effort requires "persistence".
2. Goal Setting Theory
The intentions to work toward a goal are a major source of work motivation.
Sense of meaningfulness
The opportunity to pursue worthwhile tasks. Individuals feel good about what they are doing and believe that what they are doing matters.
Sense of choice
The opportunity to select what one will do and perform the way one thinks best. Individuals can use their own judgment to carry out the task/
Interactional justice
The quality of the interpersonal treatment received from a manager (for instance, being treated with dignity, convern, and respect)
Fixed ratio schedule
The reward is given at fixed amounts of output
Fixed-interval schedule
The reward is given at fixed time intervals
Variable ratio schedule
The reward is given at variable amounts of output
Variable-interval schedule
The reward is given at variable time intervals
Punishment
causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesireable behaviour
Needs theories
describe the types of needs that must be met to motivate individuals
Goals direct attention
goals indicate where individuals should direct their efforts when they are choosing among things to do. For example, prioritizing work that is due in a few days instead of meeting with friends
Self-concordance
the degree to which people's reasons for pursing goals are consistent with their interests and core values.
Distributive justice
the perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals
Procedural justice
the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards (which includes having a voice in a decision and feeling that the outcome is adequately explained)