Paper 3

Define back translation. Why would an interviewer use this technique?

Back translation is used only when a researcher has to conduct an interview in a different language. Let's say that I am part of a team interviewing Holocaust survivors from across Eastern Europe to see how they are reflecting back on their adult lives after the Holocaust. If I interview a Czech holocaust survivor in Czech, I would then translate the text into English so that the team could carry out a content analysis. But what if my translation is poor or biased? In back translation I would give the English translation to another researcher who would translate it back into Czech. The translation would then be taken back to the interviewee to see if s/he feels that this represents what s/he said in the interview. This is a way to establish the credibility of the translation.

What would be the advantage of gathering quantitative data for a study instead of qualitative data? Give an example to illustrate your argument.

The advantage is that statistical analysis can be applied and it can be determined to what extent the results may be due to chance. Quantitative research studies can also be more reliable since they can be replicated and the results can be easily compared. For example, to what extent does music assist in one's ability to learn a list of words? When this study is carried out, the average number of words in both conditions - that is, with and without music - can be compared.

Discuss how you would set up and carry out a case-study on your school.

The key to setting up a case study is to first of all determine the aim of the case study. Usually the aim of a case study is quite broad. In the case of HM - it was to study memory and memory loss. In your school it might be to study stress. Once the aim is determined, then how the case study will be carried out has to be determined. The researchers should consider how the data will be triangulated - that is, what will be the sources of the data? How many members of the school will be chosen to be studied/ How will that be decided? Secondly, how will methods be triangulated? Which methods will be used in order to gather data? Data from all these different research methods and sources will need to be interpreted and conclusions drawn.

Explain what is meant by reflexivity - and why it is an important part of qualitative research?

There are two types of reflexivity. The first one is "personal." This is where the researcher reflects on how his or her own biases or personal experiences may have influenced their findings. This is important because it will help to reduce researcher bias. The second type of reflexivity is called "epistemological." This is when the researcher reflects on how they carried out the study and whether their choice of research method or procedure could have influenced the findings. This is important in order to establish the credibility of the findings.

What is the difference between traditional and postmodern transcription methods?

Traditional transcription is verbatim transcription. This simply means that every word that the interviewee says is written down. Post-modern transcription is more inclusive. It includes body language, language tags, sighs, laughter and facial expressions with the goal of giving a richer understanding of the interview data.

What does it mean if we say that a study lacks "credibility?" Why is this important in qualitative research?

Credibility is linked to the concept of validity. Are the findings and/or interpretations in line with the experience of the participants? This is also called "trustworthiness." So, if your interpretation of an interview with me says that I am very "anti-technology", this may not be true, but may be a misunderstanding of my tone, body language or word choice. It could also be a facet of an interview, ignoring other statements that may have shown a more balanced approach to technology. Credibility is important so that we can say that our findings do reflect the experiences of our participants and helps us to ensure an appropriate level of objectivity. Credibility can be established through triangulation or through asking the participant to read the interpretations/results and say whether they agree with the researcher.

What would be the advantage of gathering qualitative data for a study instead of quantitative data? Give an example to illustrate your argument.

Qualitative data is descriptive in nature and describes "how". It is gathered by doing in-depth descriptions. Usually, people are studied in their own environment. For example, how does bullying affect school performance in children? How do IB students cope with stress?

What are two advantages of using a case study approach?

A case study approach is rich in data. It also is able to determine that the research method itself is not the reason for the results. In a typical case study, I may give an individual a questionnaire, carry out an interview and then put the participant into a situation and observe his/her behaviour. If the findings are all the same, then I know that the conclusions that I am drawing about the participant's behaviour are credible and most likely not due to the choice of research method. In addition, case studies are also usually high in ecological validity. If I carry out a case study on an open office environment in the workplace with the goal of assessing the effect on productivity and worker morale, the study is naturalistic and thus has high ecological validity. A final advantage is that because case studies generate a lot of data and are often of unique or specific cases, new theories may be generated from the research.

A case study, in and of itself, is not a method. What is meant by this statement?

A case study by definition is a triangulation of research methods. A typical case study may employ both qualitative (observations, interviews) and quantitative (surveys) research methods in order to get a holistic picture of the behaviour being studied.

What is meant by a "focus group?" Why would a researcher use this method? What would be the strengths and limitations of this interviewing technique?

A focus group is a group interview. The participants interact with each other, making for a natural conversation. The conversation is not just between the researcher and the participants, but the participants react and respond to each other. A researcher would use this method for several reasons. On a practical level, it allows more interviews to be carried out in a shorter period of time. In addition, it helps to establish the credibility of comments made in the interview as other members of the focus group will confirm or challenge the ideas that are expressed. It can also happen that participants will expand on ideas of other members of the group which they would not have considered speaking about if they had not heard it from another participant. Focus groups also help to build rapport as the members of the group feel support from one another and it is not so important whether the researcher him/herself has a similar life experience. The limitations include that there could be power hierarchies within the group which lead to conformity effects. In addition, there is the question of the anonymity of the responses. Although the researcher may guarantee that each person's identity will remain anonymous, it is difficult to guarantee that other members of the group may not reveal such information. It is also important that the facilitator (researcher) is able to manage the group's discussion without influencing the results. A group interview which is poorly managed may lead to a lot of irrelevant data that is not fit to the purpose of the research.

What is meant by a "narrative interview?" Why would a researcher use this method? What would be the strengths and limitations of this interviewing technique?

A narrative interview asks the interviewee to "tell a story." Holocaust research and criminal psychology have made extensive use of narrative interviews, asking people simply to "tell their story" or "tell me what you saw." Narrative interviews do not have a set of questions to be asked. This eliminates the problem of the questions actually influencing the memory of the participants. It is also a more natural way of communicating between two people. The researcher may ask clarifying questions, but overall uses language tags and body language to communicate interest and empathy. This type of interview is often used for complex human realities where it is important to understand how people construct meaning in their lives. They are also used in criminal investigations in order to avoid memory distortion. The limitations of narrative interviews is that they are very time consuming. They also may be rather unfocused in nature as the researcher's goal is not to interfere once the story is being told. Therefore, a lot of information irrelevant to the goals of the research may be collected. Finally, in the case of victims of trauma, asking them to go into detail of their memories of painful life events has ethical concerns.

Explain what is meant by "purposive sampling." Why is this often used in qualitative research studies?

A purposive sample is one made up of people with specific traits. For example, you may want to study only people who are between 30 and 50. Or, you could have a very specific list of traits that you are looking at - Men between 30 and 50 who have lived overseas for at least five years and have recovered from a drug problem. Obviously, if the sampling is too limited, it may make it difficult to find a large enough sample. However, by limiting the traits of the sample you are not trying to generalize to a universal population; your target population is the sample as you have defined it. Very often, purposive sampling is used in order to address a concern about a certain group of people. So, in a sample of children of refugees to the US in the IB program, the researcher may be looking at how to help this particular population cope with stressors better.

What is meant by a "semi-structured interview?" Why would a researcher use this method? What would be the strengths and limitations of this interviewing technique?

A semi-structured interview uses an interview guide (a set of questions) which are flexible. This means that the researcher may expand questions, alter wording or change the order of the questions that are asked. Semi-structured interviews are used when there are specific things that the researcher wants to know. It is a technique also used when there are a lot of interviews that need to be carried out so that the data collected is in some way standardized, without losing the potential of finding something unexpected. Like all interview techniques, training is essential to make sure that the method is used effectively. Strengths of this method include that the interview process is standardized, but still allows for flexibility. Limitations include that answering questions in this way may be seen as an artificial way to communicate between people and thus have low ecological validity. Also, by deciding on the questions in advance, the researchers may be unintentionally limiting what they are studying. The nature of the questions may also influence the responses from the interviewee - either by inducing demand characteristics (like social desirability effect) or by priming schema that would influence the recall of memories.

Case studies often use an idiographic approach. Explain what is meant by this term.

An idiographic approach is a holistic approach to the study of an individual or group with the goal of helping or understanding that individual or group. The goal of most case studies is not to generalize to a larger population.

Explain how an inductive content analysis would be used to analyze and interpret an interview.

An inductive content analysis would take the following steps. First, the interview would be transcribed. Then the researcher would read through the text looking for data that "emerges" from the text. Then the raw data is organized into themes.The researcher than would write an interpretation of the themes.

What are the key differences between quantitative and qualitative data?

In quantitative research, the data are in the form of "numbers" that are easy to summarize and submit to statistical analysis. Quantitative data are meant for generalization beyond the sample from which the data were drawn. Qualitative data are gathered through direct interaction with participants—for example, through one-to-one or group interviews, or by observations in the field. The data consist of non-numeric data - for example, from transcripts or field notes. Data are open for interpretation. The term used is "rich data", which means that they are rich in their description of the behaviours being observed. Because the data are rich, they are not easy to analyse, and there is no single way to approach analysis.

Why is triangulation important in qualitative research? How does it affect the credibility of the study?

It is important to establish credibility. By using method triangulation and getting the same results, I can conclude that it was not simply my choice of method that led to the results. If more than one researcher comes to the same conclusion, then it is not just my own biases that led to the results.

To what extent can one generalize from qualitative studies? (Be sure to use the terminology that is discussed in this workbook with regard to Guba & Lincoln's vocabulary for discussing qualitative research studies).

Qualitative studies can be generalized, but only to a limited extent. The word often used by researchers is "transferability." In order to determine the level of transferability, the situation that is being studied must be described in detail so that the findings can potentially be applied to a similar situation. For example, if you are studying stress at our school you would not be able to generalize your findings to all schools, but only schools that are similar to ours. You would have to consider the size of the school, the level of economic and cultural diversity, that we run the IB program and the size of classrooms. The list could go on....

Two other types of sampling used are snowball samples and quota samples. Explain why a psychologist may choose to use these samples, and explain one disadvantage of each.

Snowball sampling is also known as network sampling. This type of sample asks participants to recommend other participants. This is usually done when the type of people you are looking to study would not normally respond to an ad in the paper. For example, I am looking to study CEOs who used to have a drug problem. Gay men "in the closet" in a fundamentalist religious home. Women teachers who were abused as children. By using a snowball sample, people that the researcher has studied help him/her to find people. This assumes that people know people who have similar traits - and this is often the case. In addition, it helps with rapport. In studying such sensitive topics, a researcher has to build trust with the participant. However, someone has already shared their story with the researcher and recommends to a friend that the researcher is trustworthy and the research worthwhile, this goes a long way toward establishing rapport, even before the participant meets the researcher. Quota sampling is very similar to a stratified sample. Both types of samples want to have the sample represent the demographic distribution of the larger population. So, for example, if in our school 60% of the students are female and 40% are male, then both samples want to have the same distribution so that it reflects the population. However, the difference is a philosophical one. Stratified sampling is used in quantitative research where random allocation is important. So, if I want to have a sample of 50 students in my sample, I would first get as many volunteers as possible. Let's say that I get 90 girls and 72 boys. Now, I have to randomly choose 30 girls and 20 boys in order to make the percentages work. In quota sampling, I simply accept participants until I have reached the assigned quota. So, the first 30 girls that sign up. The first 20 boys. Random sampling is not important. The advantage of this method is that it is representative of the population. The disadvantage is that since you are only taking the first participants to sign up for the study, you may experience sampling bias.

What ethical considerations must be made when carrying out a case study?

The ethical considerations of a case study are the same as for any research in psychology. However, in many cases related to abnormal psychology, there is the issue of informed consent and whether the person being studied understands what it happening. There is also the concern that the desire to study unique events may actually jeopardize the health and/or recovery of individuals. For example, when a case of severe child abuse/deprivation is in the news, there is a desire to study the individual and determine how they cope with their new life. Is this too invasive? What are the costs and benefits to the individual of being studied? To psychology? In addition, anonymity must be guaranteed and the individual has the right to withdraw from a case study at any time. Finally, the researcher has to keep a "professional relationship" with the participants. In the classic study of Genie, a child who was severely abused by her parents, there was concern that Curtiss was trying to take on the role of parent for Genie and that this relationship was inappropriate and lacking objectivity.

What are two participant effects? How may they affect the findings of a qualitative research study?

The most basic participant effect is called "reactivity." This is when the participants act differently than they usually would because they are aware that they are being studied. Another participant effect is the social desirability effect - this is where information is not disclosed if the participant fears being judged or seen in a negative light. Another effect is a conformity effect. This could happen in a focus group where participants behave in line with the other members of the group. Finally, another participant effect is expectancy effect, where the participant wants to help the researcher and thus gives information that is believed to be what the researcher is looking for. All of these effects may affect the study by distorting the data and providing data that is not credible - in other words, is not reflective of the actual opinions or behaviours of the participant.

What are three disadvantages of using a case study approach?

The most basic problem of a case study is that it cannot be replicated. Because of the idiographic approach that focuses on the unique nature of individuals and groups, it is also difficult to generalize to other situations. However, qualitative psychologists believe that case study findings can be transferred to similar situations - that is, a study of an international school with roughly 200 students who are all studying IB coursework could be applied to a similar school, but not all schools. Another disadvantage is that they generate a lot of data that is difficult to analyse. In long-term case studies of groups, attrition of participants can be a problem - that is, people drop out of the study. Another problem with longitudinal case studies is that the researcher may develop a relationship with the participant(s) which jeopardizes the objectivity of the researcher.

What ethical considerations must be made when carrying out an interview?

There are several ethical considerations that must be made when carrying out an interview. First, the interviewee should give informed consent. They should know the purpose of the interview and how the data will be used. The interviewee should also not feel forced to discuss things that they find distressing or embarrassing. In addition, the identity of the interviewee should remain anonymous. Finally, the interviewee has the right to withdraw at any point during the interview process.

What are some of the difficulties of carrying out a one-on-one interview? A group interview?

There are several problems with carrying out a one-on-one interview. First, it is important to establish rapport with the interviewee so that s/he feels comfortable. The one-on-one nature may seem very formal and unnatural to the interviewee. One-on-one interviews also take a lot of time and require scheduling many individual appointments. A group interview can be difficult because it is important that the researcher keep some control over the group without influencing their behaviour. This is a difficult balance. In addition, the researcher has to try to make sure that the discussion is inclusive and not just limited to one or two dominant members of the group. Finally, the data collection for a focus group can be difficult to collect. Even in the case of recording the conversation, if there is a lot of emotion in the discussion, it may be difficult to determine who and how many people agree with an idea that is said.

What are three things that a researcher should do when setting up or planning to conduct an interview?

There are several things that a researcher should consider when setting up an interview. What type of interview will be used? Will a team need to be trained? Which questions should be asked - and then, pilot the questions to make sure that they are good questions. How will the sample be obtained? How will data be recorded? How will data be transcribed? What are the ethical considerations for this study and how will we address them?

How could an interviewer increase the credibility of his findings?

There are three ways that an interviewer can establish credibility. First, there should be inter-coder reliability - that is, other researchers come to the same conclusions about the same interview. Secondly, credibility can be established through method triangulation. If I carry out an interview on how someone handles a stressful situation, I may then carry out an observation to see if the person responds as they said in the interview. Finally, I can also take my interpretation back to the person who was interviewed in order to see if they agree with what I have concluded.

To what extent could you generalize the findings from the case study that you planned out for question 6?

Transferability is the term used by qualitative researchers with regard to the generalizability of case studies. The researchers would have to clearly document the characteristics of the school so that readers of the study would be able to determine whether they could potentially draw similar conclusions in their own school. Characteristics which may be important include the size of the school, the level of diversity, is it public or private, is there a rigid admissions procedure, the socio-economic make-up of the student body, the philosophy of the school, the competitiveness of the student body, etc. Since there are so many variables which could affect the nature of this school community, it is very difficult to generalize from a single case study. However, if there are several case studies of similar schools that yield similar results, then these trends will lead researchers to generate hypotheses.

Define triangulation, giving two examples of how it works.

Triangulation is a "cross-checking" of data with the attempt of reaching the same conclusion by other means. One type is "method triangulation", where different methods are used to study the same behaviour. So, to determine how stress affects an individual, I may give them a questionnaire, carry out an observation and have a focus group. A second form of triangulation is researcher triangulation, where more than one researcher is carrying out an observation and the data can then be compared. Finally, there is theory triangulation, where a behaviour is studied by researchers of different theoretical backgrounds - for example, a biological, cognitive and sociocultural psychologist.

In general, what are the ethical considerations that must be made when carrying out qualitative research? Is this in any way different from the ethical considerations that must be followed when carrying out experimental research?

Unlike much quantitative experimental research, no IV is manipulated. However, sometimes the situation is manipulated to see how people will respond. So, in that sense the same ethical standards apply as in quantitative research. Very often qualitative research is long term and personal. The participants may develop a relationship with the researcher and disclose personal information. It is important that the anonymity of the participants is protected and that their trust is not violated. It is also important that the researcher not become too close to the participants and thus lose a sense of objectivity.

What are three things that a researcher should remember when carrying out an interview?

When carrying out an interview, rapport is important. The researcher needs to be careful with body language and the way that he/she interacts with the interviewee. If the interviewee feels that s/he can trust the interviewer, then the interviewee is more likely to disclose personal information and speak freely. It is also important that the researcher does not interpret or include his/her own thoughts on the subject being discussed. Finally, ethics must be followed. If an interviewee feels uncomfortable, it is important to remind them that they don't have to answer the questions and that the interview can be stopped. The interviewer also has to be careful not to ask invasive questions which are disturbing to the interviewee.

What is researcher bias? How can a researcher try to minimize its effect on research?

When the researcher's own beliefs influence the research process. One way that this could be reduced is to train others to carry out the research who are not aware of the actual goals or expectations of the study. Another way is to have more than one researcher collect and/or analyse the data and compare the findings to see if the same interpretations are made. This can also be done by asking the participants whether they agree with the findings. Finally, the researcher can reflect on how their own biases may have influenced the study as part of the discussion of their findings.

In order to achieve a purposive sample, researchers often use self-selected samples. What is one strength and one limitation of this type of sampling?

When trying to find a purposive sample, often researchers make use of social media, newspaper ads or even bulletin boards in the student lounge at the university. As a result, the volunteers come to the researcher. This is a self-selected sample. The main strength of this type of sampling is that the participants are usually motivated to take part in the study. The main limitation is that you may only get a certain type of person replying to the ads - resulting in a sampling bias. For example, you only get students who hang out in the student lounge - eliminating introverts. Or, you only get people who use Facebook - which says something about the way they interact with technology.