Paradigms

What aspects of science emerge to prominence over the course of his efforts?

1) arbitrary element: personal experience in the field, accident in investigation, and individual makeup. 2) common beliefs serve as a core for the educational initiation that licenses professional practice. 3) scientific methodology is not capable to give a single valid answer to a scientific question.

Why does normal science suppress anomalies?

1) ignore anomalies....continue to work in old paradigm solving old problems. -suppressed to preserve their conception of the world. -"going back to zero" theory NOT cumulative, radical deconstruction of fundamentals. 2)when anomalies prevent solving problems of paradigm that is when normal science goes astray and revolution occurs.

How is a scientific revolution like a political revolution?

1)growing sense of problems/anomolies that current paradigm fails to address. 2)issue of paradigm choice cannot be settle by just logic and experimentation. cannot evaluate new paradigm with facts/theories of old. 3) normal science is cumulative because it matches b/t facts and theory of paradigm. Successful because scientists choose problems that will have solutions w/in paradigm. -new paradigm discloses anomaly, makes it fit. -makes new predictions different from predecessors

What are paradigms?

1. are a set of acquired and shared models 2. are a fundamental unit in investigation of science development 3. characterize mature science

What are two qualities paradigms must have?

1. must be able to attract endearing group of followers 2. open ended

What characterizes the old view of science (textbook)?

1. science is cumulative- it is the sum of facts, theories, and methods. 2. scientific development is a gradual process (not necessarily true as Kuhn points out. In a sense unhistorical representation of scientific development.) 3. historians seek permanent contributions of older science. 4. out of date theories are not principally unscientific.

What is the new view of science (Kuhn?)

1. science is not cumulative. 2. historians should look at past science and its coherence with nature. 3. historians should look at past science and its relationship with its contemporaries.

How do crisis close?

1. sometimes normal science resolves crisis using existing theory. 2. problem is set aside for future generations. 3. crisis may end with emergence of a new candidate for paradigm and the battle over its acceptance.

". . . discoveries . . . are not isolated events, but extended episodes with a regularly recurrent structure." What are the three aspects of such discovery episodes distinguished by Kuhn?

1.awarness of anomaly, that nature has violated paradigm induced expectations, 2. exploration of anomaly 3.Closes when anomaly is part of the expected. Scientists needs to see science in a new way.

How are paradigms different from rules?

1.determination of shared paradigm not determined by shared rules. 2.paradigms not beliefs. beliefs are rules. 3.rules are abstracted from paradigm . for historians rules are generalizations employed to describe community's shared beliefs.

Let's assume crises are a necessary precondition for the emergency of new theories....how do scientists respond?

1.don't reject paradigm that lead them into crisis 2. don't treat anomalies as counter instances.(even though historically they are) 3. scientist does not pause to examine every anomaly they note. 4. add ad hoc hypothesis to modify theory

How does normal science " cause (anomalies) to arise" ?

1.paradigm is initially easy to research within. 2.leads to development of elaborate equipment and vocabulary. creates resistance to paradigm change 3. leads to a detail of information and precision of theory fact match. 4. novelties come from focusing on details of phenomena and using elaborate equipment. 5. novelties only emerge when scientist recognizes them. 6.the fact that normal science is resistant to anomaly means that anomalies that lead to paradigm fundamentally disrupt the field.

What three characteristics of discoveries from which phenomena emerges?

1.previous awareness of anomaly. 2.observational and conceptual recognition. 3.consequent change of paradigm categories and procedures accompanied by resistance.

What are the rules of normal science puzzles?

1.theoretical generalizations (newtons laws, maxwells equations) 2. commitment to instruments of techniques 3. quasi-metaphysical understanding of universe 4. concepts/commitments that delineate scientific work: concern to understand facts at hand.

How is normal science limited?

Aim of normal science is NOT to call for new phenomena but to articulate the old phenomena. Restrictions crucial to development of science because small range of problems can be explored in depth.

Discuss the phlogiston crisis

Before Lavioser oxygen combustion theory, phlogiston theory was widely accepted. However it could not be applied consistently in pneumatic chemistry. There were many versions of the phlogiston theory which indicated crisis. Weight was not always taken to be a measure of quantity of matter. The introduction of equipment like the balance made people more aware of anomaly (although not totally convinced)

What does Kuhn mean by not all theories are paradigm theories?

During pre paradigm period and during crisis scientists develop speculative theories than can lead to discovery. Only as experiment and tentative theory are together articulated as a match does discovery emerge and theory become a paradigm. Ex: Leyden Jar.

How are x rays and oxygen discovery similar?

In both cases the perception of anomaly that was not expected under paradigm allowed them to perceive novelty.

Why, when, and how did Kuhn develop the ideas in his essay?

Kuhn was a graduate student in theoretical physics. He was involved in an experimental course and studied science as a non-scientist. His experience with outdated scientific theory and practice undermined his conceptions about nature of science. He studied history of science, philosophy of science, psychology of perception (Gestalt), behavioral sciences. The distinction that natural sciences does not evoke same controversies of fundamentals lead Kuhn to recognize paradigms.

Can counter instances falsify theory?

No because the defenders will make ad hoc modifications to theory when confronted with anomaly. Counter instances only help to create crisis or reinforce an already existing one.

Can research survive without counter instances?

No. Counter instances provide the the puzzles that need to be solved by research. Copernicus saw counter instances in what most saw as puzzle solutions in Ptolemy's system Lavoisier saw counter instances in what Priestly thought was a resolved puzzle solution in Phlogiston theory.

How is normal science connected to paradigms?

Normal Science works out paradigm's promise of success by: 1) facts paradigm deems as important are made more precise. 2) increasing match between facts and predictions 3) further articulation of paradigm itself. -Quantitive laws (Boyle) -Applying paradigm to other areas. -Solution of paradigms pointed out. does not look for new phenomena just forcing nature into conceptual box.

How does Kuhn define normal science in chapter one?

Normal science is the strenuous and devoted attempt to force nature into conceptual boxes (received beliefs) supplied by profession. Predicted on the assumption that the scientific community knows what the world is like.

What do gesalt experiments show?

Only the nature of perceptual transformation. A duck after a gestalt switch is only a rabbit. Can never be both. Googles experiment better: subjects wore inverting googles that initially provoked an acute personal crisis, but eventually became use to new world or "new paradigm"

When do paradigms not come before rules?

Paradigms are prior to rules only when paradigms are secure (have solutions). Anomalies bring about the discussion of rules: aka legitimate methods, problems, standards of solutions.

Discuss example of Leyden Jar

Pre paradigm period: no single paradigm for electrical research. many theories in competition. one school thought Leyden jar was a liquid. Took a while for researchers to that the light fluid was not stored in the jar. First paradigm: Franklin fluid theory.

Discuss the discovery of oxygen.

Priestly collected gas released by oxidized mercury and claimed it was first nitrous oxide, and then air with less phlogiston. Lavoisier discovered a gas he claimed was a distinct species , one of the two main constituents of the atmosphere. This result was not anticipated under phlogiston theory. Discovery is not attributed to a single person (cumulative view of history.) It is a complex event which involves seeing both that something is and what is is. If dephlogisticated air and oxygen were same thing Priestly would have discovered oxygen. Lavosier's oxygen theory of combustion prompted the chemical revolution. Lavoisier sensed phlogiston theory was incorrect as he didn't think burning bodies absorbed atmosphere. This allowed Lavoiser to see something Priestly could not.

What is the difference between crisis and anomaly.

Profound awareness of anomalies leads to crisis.

Discuss the astronomy crisis (Ptolmey vs Copernicus)

Ptolemy theory was accurate about stars but not about earth being at the center of the solar system. Awareness of anomaly was slow due to outsider intervention, absence of printing press, calendar reform, etc.

How is puzzle solving like normal science?

Puzzle solving: tests ingenuity or skill in solution. does not need to be intristically important. rules limit nature and acceptable solutions. Normal science research: paradigm lets scientists choose problems that can be assumed to have solutions. scientists must show that results match up with predictions of model.

Discuss the discovery of x rays

Rotgen, interrupted his work with cathode rays because he noticed a barium platino cyanide screen at some distance from his shielded apparatus glowed when discharge was in process. After 7 weeks discovered it wasn't cathode rays but an agent like like.

As Kuhn first introduces it, what is meant by the term anomaly?

Something that is not contained within the paradigm.

Explain the card example.

Subjects were shown deck of cards, some anomalous in increased increments of time. Normal cards were identified, and anomalies cards were almost always identified w/o puzzlement. "Card deck paradigm" was suppressing/distorting anomaly. Further acquaintance with anomaly results in the anomaly becoming part of the anticipated. This is the completion of discovery.

What definition of paradigm does Kuhn introduce in chapter 4?

The concrete puzzle-solutions which, employed as models or examples, can replace explicitly rules as a basis for the solution of the remaining puzzles of norma l science.

What is the decision to reject one paradigm over another?

The decision to reject one paradigm is the decision accept another, and the judgment leading to that decision involves the comparison of both paradigms with nature and with each other.

What is the first definition of paradigm?

Universally recognized scientific achievements that for a time provide model problems and solutions to a community of practitioners.

Discuss Hershel example

Uranus was considered a star by the finest astronomers. However, Hershel using his own telescope, noticed a disk shaped figure in Uranus's place. He thought it was a comment and later Lexell said it was planetary. This shift in vision allowed other astronomers to identify minor planets and asteroids.

What is the purpose of Kuhn's book?

Urge change in the perception and evaluation of familiar data by analyzing history in the non cumulative view point.

Describe the pre paradigm stage.

When a discipline lacks a paradigm, a number of competing 'schools' (theories) exist based on a different world view of phenomena. All facts seem equally relevant. Data can only be collected at hand. Before Newton's paradigm on optics there were three different schools/theories - Epicurean theory, Aristotelian theory, and Platonic theory

What is the main argument of chapter 10

When paradigms change, the world itself changes with them. Scientists see the world differently.

Why did the discovery of x rays require a paradigm shift?

X-rays violated peoples expectations of lab procedures. It changed fields that already existed.

Do paradigms come before rules?

Yes. 1.difficulty of historian isolating rules of normal scientific practice. 2. normal scientists study new theories knowing concrete application of phenomena , not characteristics. 3. because paradigms have solutions, don't need to understand rules. 4.explicit rules common to broad scientific group, but each group has own paradigm.

How do all crisis begin?

blurring of paradigm and loosing of rules for normal research. It resembles research during pre paradigm period.

What is prerequisite for emergence of new paradigm?

breakdown of normal science puzzle solving activity

How are paradigm changes destructive? constructive?

disregards previously held beliefs and simultaneously picks up others. account for phenomena in greater precision or a wider range of phenomena.

What is the logical positivist approach to revolutions?

epistemological, cumulative revolution. Example, Newton extension of Einstein

What is a scientific revolution?

extraordinary episode where shift to new paradigm occurs. 3 things must happen: 1)rejection of old theory in favor of competitive new one. 2)provides shift in problems available. 3) transforms world in which scientist works in.

What happens when field establishes first paradigm?

field becomes a science no longer has to start from first principles to justify all concepts. audience is narrower, communication more specialized, books more standardized.

What is another definition for a scientific revolution?

non-cummulative developmental episodes in which paradigm is replaced with a new one.

What is normal science?

research, firmly based upon one or more past scientific achievements that some particular scientific community acknowledges for a time as supplying foundation for further practice. (research w/ in a paradigm)

What is the conclusion of chapter 4?

scientific puzzle solving determined by paradigm. rules derived from paradigm.