Patho

In hormone regulation, which statement best describes the negative feedback loop?​

A reaction that causes a decrease in function to help maintain homeostasis

President John F. Kennedy took steroids for a cortisol and aldosterone deficiency. Which condition is caused by such a deficiency?

Addison's disease

Which statement describes a secondary endocrine disorder?​

An endocrine gland does not secrete enough hormones to stimulate another endocrine gland to secrete a different hormone.

Which finding is the most common cause of hypothyroidism?​

Autoimmune thyroiditis​

Which condition is associated with over secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)?​

Cushing's syndrome​

Hashimoto thyroiditis

Decline in thyroid hormone production

Hashimoto thyroiditis

Decline in thyroid hormone production Hashimoto thyroiditis is a destructive autoimmune disorder affecting the thyroid gland. The disease usually results in a decline in hormone production (hypothyroidism)

Hypothyroidism

Decreased (hypo) thyroid production

Addison's disease

Deficiency of adrenocortical secretions Addison's disease is most often caused by an autoimmune reaction that destroys the gland. This results in decreased cortisol and aldosterone production (deficiency).

If a client has a low dietary intake of iodine (iodide), which hormone would be most profoundly affected and how would it be affected?​

Deficiency of thyroid hormones​

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)

Excess androgens

Cushing syndrome

Excess cortisol and increased secretion of adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH)​ Cushing syndrome is caused by an excess of glucocorticoids. ​The excess may be due to long-term use of steroids, a pituitary tumor, or adrenal adenoma.​

Acromegaly

Excess growth hormone (GH) In most cases, acromegaly is caused by a benign tumor in the pituitary gland.

When hormonal alterations are prolonged, what are possible results? Select all that apply.​​

Frequent urination​ Increased hunger Constipation Increased sensitivity to cold ​ Fatigue Increased thirst​

Which substance is the primary source of energy within the cells?​

Glucose

Which signs or symptoms indicate excessive antidiuretic hormone levels? Select all that apply.​

High antidiuretic hormone levels are suspected in someone with concentrated urine and hyponatremia. Conversely, low ADH levels are suspected in someone with intense thirst, excessive urination, and dilute urine.​

The release of hormones in response to hormones released by other endocrine glands.

Hormonal stimuli

The control of hormonal release in response to changes in extracellular fluid levels or ion levels​.

Humoral stimuli

Which part of the body is the main control center for hormonal regulation?​

Hypothalamus​

Which statement suggests the possibility of hypothyroidism?​

I am always tired, even with 10 or 12 hours of sleep."​

Which signs or symptoms are common and may be seen after someone experiences a traumatic brain injury? Select all that apply.​

In a traumatic brain injury, low ADH levels are suspected, which include symptoms of intense thirst, excessive urination, and dilute urine. This condition is also known as diabetes insipidus. ​

Which hormones alter glucose regulation? Select all that apply.​

Insulin​ It is the only hormone that lowers serum glucose levels​. It is released when serum glucose levels rise​. It binds to insulin receptors on the cell wall, signaling glucose transporter molecules to facilitate glucose entry into cells.​ Insulin suppresses glucagon secretion and increases glycogen storage.​ Glucagon​ One of several hormones released in response to lack of glucose in cells​. It suppresses insulin. It stimulates the liver to convert glycogen to glucose.​ When both glucose and glycogen are depleted, it stimulates gluconeogenesis (creation of glucose from protein or fat)​. "Stress Hormones"​ Additional hormones increase glucose levels, including cortisol, growth hormone (GH), norepinephrine and epinephrine. Because these hormones are released during times of physical and emotional stress, they are often referred to as the "stress hormones." Aldosterone is a mineralocorticoid released from the adrenal cortex that does not impact glucose regulation.​

Hyporthyroidism

Iodine deficiency, thyroid cancer, and Hashimoto's thyroiditis all decrease the production of thyroid hormone and cause hypothyroidism.

Diabetes mellitus

Lack of insulin or insufficient use of insulin

Hypoparathyroidism

Low levels of parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Hypoparathyroidism

Low levels of parathyroid hormone (PTH)​ Hypoparathyroidism may be caused by a congenital anomaly, decreased activity of one or more of the four parathyroid glands, radiation near the glands (in the neck), surgery near the glands, or an autoimmune disease.​

The release of hormones in response to neural stimulation

Neural stimuli

Which is the most common cause of a pituitary disorder?​

Non-cancerous tumor​ Pituitary disorders are the most common complication of a traumatic brain injury. ​ Cancerous tumors are not the most common cause of pituitary disorders. ​ Hemorrhagic strokes do not cause pituitary problems.​

Which hormonal alteration is likely occurring with excess androgens?

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)​ Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is caused by the ovaries producing unusually high levels of hormones called androgens. Excess androgens cause the reproductive hormones to become imbalanced and is characteristic of PCOS. ​

What type of regulation causes insulin to be released after eating a high carbohydrate meal?

Positive feedback loop

Which type of mechanism is occurring during the contraction and laboring process?​

Positive feedback loop

Where is the pituitary gland located?​

Sella turcica of the brain​

Which external factors can affect hormone secretion in all systems? Select all that apply.

Stress, sunlight, pollution, and chemicals are all external factors that can affect various hormone levels, including cortisol, thyroid, testosterone, and more. Cancer, age, and viral infections may or may not affect hormone levels. Also, these are all intrinsic factors, not external factors.

Cushing's syndrome​

Symptoms: CNS irritability emotional disturbances, red and round face, hypertension, cardiac hypertrophy, hyperplasia, tumor, obesity (fat deposition on abdomen and back of neck), purple striae, osteoporosis, muscle wasting, skin ulcers; in females: amenorrhea and hirsutism; in males: erectile dysfunction​ Cause: Adrenal glands produce excess cortisol​

Hyperthyroidism​

Symptoms: fine brittle hair and hair loss, bulging eyes, enlarged thyroid, increased perspiration, enlarged liver, abnormal heart rhythms, increased appetite, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of libido amenorrhea, and hand tremors; the person has irritability, hyperactivity, high blood sugar, intolerance to heat, and low serum cholesterol.​ Cause: excessive production of thyroid hormones​

Addison's disease​

Symptoms: skin-related symptoms include hyperpigmentation and vitiligo; and gastrointestinal symptoms include nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, constipation, and abdominal pain. The person has low blood pressure, weakness, and weight loss.​ Adrenal crisis: fever, syncope, convulsions, hypoglycemia, hyponatremia, and severe vomiting and diarrhea​ Cause: The adrenal glands do not produce sufficient steroid hormones.

Hypothyroidism​

Symptoms: thinning hair, hair loss, loss of eyebrow hair, puffy face, enlarged thyroid, dry and coarse skin, poor appetite, constipation, infertility, heavy menstruation, cool extremities and swelling of the limbs, carpal tunnel syndrome, weight gain, poor memory, intolerance to cold, and feeling of tiredness.​ Cause: The thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormone.

Hormones secreted in the anterior pituitary include:

TSH, FSH, LH, GH, PRL, and ACTH.

Thyroid hormones

The anterior pituitary releases thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) which stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroxine, which is converted into triiodothyronine with the help of iodine. Elevated levels of thyroid hormones signal the anterior pituitary to produce less. This is a negative feedback loop.

Thyroid - Radiation​ Cortisol - Sleep schedule​ Glucocorticoids - Arsenic​ Estrogen - BPA Plastic Match each hormone below with the environmental factor that is linked to alterations in hormonal regulation.

Thyroid - Radiation​ Cortisol - Sleep schedule​ Glucocorticoids - Arsenic​ Estrogen - BPA Plastic

An individual has a history of unplanned weight loss despite increased appetite, fatigue, and heart palpitations. The individual observes a palpable mass on the anterior portion of the neck, next to the trachea.​ Which diagnostic test do you anticipate the healthcare provider ordering for this individual? ​

Thyroid function tests

Select the correct response from the drop-down options​.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone is secreted by the anterior pituitary to stimulate the production of T4 in the thyroid. T4 is secreted by the thyroid and converted to T3 (active thyroid). Hypothyroidism is usually measured by a high thyroid-stimulating hormone level.

Which hormone deficiency is the highest priority?​

Thyroid-stimulating hormone​

hyperthyroidism.

Toxic adenoma and Graves' disease

Which are increased risk factors for a pituitary disorder?​ Select that all apply.

Traumatic brain injury and not using a helmet will increase the risk of a pituitary disorder. ​ Being confused and nauseated, having urinary frequency, and low glucose levels are symptoms, not risk factors.

Which hormonal alterations can be considered age related? Select all that apply.​​

Type 2 diabetes can occur as we age due to increased insulin resistance and menopause due to changing levels of estrogen and progesterone. Menopause is a natural part of aging. ​

Hypothyroid

When there is not enough thyroid (hypo), everything is "slowed": constipation, hair loss, fatigue, weight gain, cold sensitivity, and dry skin.

Hyperthyroid

When there is too much thyroid (hyper), everything gets "excited": rapid or irregular heartbeat, high blood pressure, nervousness, unexpected weight loss, feeling of being hot, and diarrhea.

Which situation or condition is likely to result in an increased production of thyroid hormones?​

Which situation or condition is likely to result in an increased production of thyroid hormones?​

A client with hypothyroidism as a result of Hashimoto's thyroiditis asks the nurse how long they will have to take thyroid medication. Which is the best response by the nurse?​

You'll need thyroid replacement therapy for life because the gland function will not return."​

Sources of glucose

dates and other fruits, white potatoes and other simple carbohydrates, and whole-grain bread, a complex carbohydrate.

Signs or symptoms of a pituitary disorder

frequent urination, clear urine, and high sodium levels.

Risk Factors for Altered Glucose Regulation

genetics - over 120 known genetic markers are linked to the risk of type 2 diabetes family history of type 2 diabetes obesity lack of physical activity poor diet high intake of saturated and trans-fatty acids low fiber intake high calorie intake medications - insulin and oral hypoglycemic agents, corticosteroids (prednisone), estrogen, and angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors

Hormone levels are primarily controlled through _________ feedback loops, in which ____________ levels of a hormone inhibit its further release.

negative/rising

During labor, _______________ released from the posterior pituitary gland is an example of a _________________feedback loop.​

oxyctocin/positive

In the posterior pituitary,

the hormones produced include oxytocin and ADH (vasopressin)

Common clinical manifestations affecting both men and women could indicate a hormonal imbalance.

weight gain or loss​ fatigue​ muscle weakness, aches, tenderness, and stiffness​ pain, stiffness, or swelling in the joints​ increased or decreased heart rate​ sweating​ increased sensitivity to cold or heat​ constipation or more frequent bowel movements​ frequent urination​ increased thirst​ increased hunger​ decreased sex drive​ nervousness, anxiety, or irritability​ infertility​ thinning hair or fine, brittle hair​ dry skin​