PBL 4: African Wild Dogs
Define monotypic species
"A monotypic species is one that doesn't contain a subspecies or smaller infraspecific taxa". Painted dog is only extant member of Lycaon genus.
Define sympatric predation.
"Sympatry" 2 related species or populations are considered sympatric when they exist in the same geographic area and frequently encounter one another. So other species or becoming so range contracted more territorial overlap with other wild dogs so less prey etc? Other wild dog packs, lions and hyenas mentioned in Dynasties documentary. Jackals also, competition based relationships.
Under what criteria are wild dogs classified as endangered by the IUCN? When were they last assessed?
2012- endangered since 1996- disappearances from range, human conflict, disease. C2a(i)
Define fecundity.
Ability to produce many offspring. Determined by number gametes/young survival?
How does the social structure of wild dog population cause issues in population census?
African wild dogs have huge ranges- difficult to track... Variation between packs 6-20 individuals. Can't generalise total numbers. Dispersals - pack may appear as 2 different.... Need to monitor every pack in detail for breeding individuals/litter 2-20 size varies.
Define hypercarnivorous.
An animal that has a diet which is more than 70% meat- rest consists of non-animal foods. Hypocarnivore- less than 30%. I take this to be different from omnivores in which if a dog was deprived of meat it could still live on non-meat products, but hypercarnivores still need meat to survive.
Describe the social structure of a wild dog packs (including cooperative breeding and reproductive patterns).
Around 20 dogs (although Dynasties documentary showed neighbouring pack [Black tip] had over 30 animals). Large pack sizes vital for hunting style and efficiency, mitigating intraspecific competition from other packs, pup care. Evidence that this hunting style works better than pairs/lone. Usually one dominant pair that breed (although up to 5 have been recorded), suppressing others that are 'babysitters'- obligate co-operative breeders. Alpha female breeds and mates with an unrelated male. Gestation about 70 days. Seasonal breeders, whelping occurs in April to September after a period of 71-73 days (about 2.5 months so mating starting February (end of summer). Pups born in den (southern Africa late May to early June). Pack members feed mother during this time, via regurgitation. Females can whelp every 11 months, 10-11 pups per litter although can be 20+! Pups leave the den at 3-4 weeks old and weaning begins at 2 weeks old. Pups are sexually mature at almost 2 years old and they will start leaving the pack before this time at 1.5 years old- leave as same sex groups that join unrelated, opposite sex groups to form new packs. Males generally disperse later in larger groups and further away than females- avoid inbreeding and mating competition. No dogs will mate with close relatives. https://hesc.co.za/species-hesc/african-wild-dog/
Define attritional hunting.
Attrition is a gradual process of wearing down/weakening/destroying. So wild dogs use their numbers and take it in turns to chase the prey until it tires. Impala faster than dogs- moderate speed can wear down but if ran at full pelt could catch. Chase into rivers etc.
Define generation time.
Average time between two consecutive lineages of a population (humans 22-33 years). Wild dogs 5 years. Time length: Born, reach sexual maturity and reproduce.
What diseases most threaten the wild dog population? Describe their pathogeneses. (shedding)^^
Canine distemper virus- direct contact. Aerosol, nervous and lymphatic tissue- vaccination of high efficacy. Co-infection with other pathogens increases susceptibility Encounters between packs rare, but can spread within a pack. Canine parvovirus- faecal contact. Associated with domestic dogs. Rabies Acute viral encephalitis through saliva. Neurological phase: aggression and biting. Vaccinating domestic dogs most cost effective control (for humans and wild dogs etc) Canine adenovirus, neospora, Domestic dogs reservoir for most of these diseases.
Define edge effects (specifically attributed to wild dogs).
Changes in population/community structure at the edge of 2 habitats. E.g. forest edge to farmland. Often a cause of habitat degradation/change in type.
What measures (if any) are used to control domestic/stray dog populations (at interfaces with wild dog populations)?
Charity clinics. E.g. WVS Increase in vaccination in Sierra Leon after Ebola.
Briefly describe the hunting behaviour of wild dogs.
Cooperative- increases success rate. Expands prey item choice (medium size). Endurance chases- tires and disembowelled. Flush prey to concealed pack members, towards water. (felines use exsanguination, suffocation)
Who runs these vaccination protocols?
Coordinated by wildlife vets international, Zimbabwe PDC. Funding from Chester Zoo. Local NGOs, MSD donate vaccines. Government funding? Disney conservation fund.
How is the high turnover of domestic dogs an obstacle to vaccination programs?
Could be issues with identifying individuals after a year then (marks worn off), ideally to control dog population would need neutering AND vaccination to be most effective- who pays? Programs like WVS which can help where requested, logistics and donations, staff willing (as unpaid!) and if dogs owned by local people, often poor, need education...wildlife reservoirs and close contact/maintenance host status? May mean difficult to keep on top of. Solely eliminating dogs without vaccination has been shown not to work (WHO consultation on rabies). Age a problem if not living long enough to develop immunity and hence prevent spread. All ages should be vaccinated. Parenteral vaccine more virulent, care to human exposure. IM vaccine preferred and better than SC route unless no other option. What are the types of vaccine in use (inactivated etc)? Oral live attenuated- causing deaths of wild dogs? Captive bred- whole killed inactivated vaccines used in wild dogs.
What legislation protects African wild dogs (consider across borders)?
Country where found: Legislation: South Africa Wikipedia: listed as 'specially protected' on red data book Zimbabwe Wikipedia: can only be hunted with a permit, rarely given Malawi Wikipedia: rare, legal protection and only government hunters/citizens with ministerial permits. Mozambique Wikipedia n/a. Zambia Wikipedia: full legal protection, only hunted after purchasing licence (expensive) from the minister of tourism. Botswana (Kalahari desert) Wikipedia: only partial protection, farmers allowed to shoot in defence of livestock. Tanzania Wikipedia: full legal protection. Government moratorium on their hunting. Kenya Wikipedia: only partial legal protection and mainly occurs in unprotected areas! South Sudan Wikipedia: not protected in Sudd where they are thought to be. Sudan " Ethiopia Wikipedia: rare here, total legal protection. Central African Republic Wikipedia: total legal protection Chad Wikipedia: legal status unknown. Nigeria Wikipedia: legally protected Senegal Wikipedia: partially protected Cameroon Wikipedia: n/a Burkina Faso Wikipedia Likely locally extinct but is protected legally. Benin Wikipedia: n/a Unsure (Algeria close to border of Libya, N. Africa) Wikipedia:N/A Ghana, likely locally extinct Wikipedia Legally protected Guinea Wikipedia Legally protected. Ivory coast (sightings 1970s) Legal status noxious Niger Legally protected although still shot as late as 1979 Togo- probably extinct Partial protection- Wikipedia Republic of the congo Total legal protection no sightings since 1970s Rwanda Extinct, but legally protected. Unsuitable for relocation here because of high human population. Somalia Last sighting 1982, legally protected. Uganda Unlikely to be here. 1955 directive to shoot it on sight! Namibia Restricted to Northeast, full legal protection. IUCN distribution: looked at laws as far as possible per country but only 1997 paper most comprehensive review. Hard to find anything via general google search. Information thus could be outdated.
What criteria/parameters are needed to make best predictions through mathematical models?
Data on species of hosts, transmission from dog to dog, dog to other species, other species to other species. Generation time of infection (i.e. reproduction of the infection (from expected number of secondary cases generated from one host). R0 may be calculated or replaced with equivalent/better suited value depending on nature of disease/study.
What life history traits predispose wild dogs to extinction?
Dispersal to prevent inbreeding but due to anthropogenic change... Human wildlife conflict inevitable with large range. Disease- spread through dispersal/competition with other packs. Population fluctuations with large litter size --> increased inbreeding --> increased disease susceptibility. 48% genetic diversity lost without human intervention according to one study.
How are disease models useful in protecting species from disease spread/outbreak?
Epidemiologists look for trends in outbreaks.... How can control to prevent further spread. Helps write DRAs.
Define epizootic- give examples?
Epizootic = equivalent of human epidemic but in animals. E.g. canine distemper outbreak in local domestic dogs near Masai Mara reserve, Kenya caused concurrent local extinction of African wild dogs.
Outside of disease, what are the main threats to African wild dogs?
Habitat loss and competition Human-wildlife conflict, disease.
How are African wild dog populations monitored?
Handheld gps- GPS collars- accelerometers. Telemetric-radio transmitters Pelt identification via photos. Camera traps. Tracking- faeces/den/prints. Depends on people doing it- radiotrack daily 'wildlife act'
What factors contribute to African wild dog population fluctuation?
High fecundity, mortality and dispersal. Populations of prey- predator prey relationship.
What proportion of stray dog population ideally needs to be vaccinated to protect the wild dog populations?
Humans 93-95%! Rabies paper stated from modelling of disease transmission, should have 70% of dog population vaccinated for 'effective herd immunity and must be done annually to be most effective.
Which medium size ungulates do wild dogs prey upon?
Impala, warthogs, wildebeest Rodents and birds Sometimes ostriches
What are the pros and cons of using live attenuated vs inactivated vaccines?
Live attenuated more effective as very similar to natural infection- weakened form. Stronger longer immune response, one/two boosters. Immunocompromised individuals not good. Kept cool... Inactivated vaccines- stable in temp etc. less side effects/reactivation. More doses needed. Parvo and distemper
Is there significant human-wildlife conflict with African wild dogs?
Major factor in decline. Humans responsible for majority- RTA/snaretrapping. Killed to protect livestock- poison/shooting. Not on any no kill lists.
Are there any recorded cases of hybridisation between wild dogs and other (domestic) dogs? How may this affect disease transmission?
No evidence that African Wild dog hybridises with other canid species. Disease transmission in hybrids (but disease transmits across similarly related taxonomic groups e.g. canine distemper virus and lions (felids!))
Are there vaccination programs for African wild dogs?
No. 4 per pack estimated for models. High risk packs? Introduction rates so high would have to do all... 49/52 CDV mortality- only vax with 100% mortality? Adults and newborn : distemper/rabies/lepto 2-4 week 3 vax, annual revax in captive individuals. Dr Cleveland- rabies vax not virulent 'pack died of rabies like symptoms months later'
What CITES appendix are African wild dogs listed under?
Not listed under cites as not generally traded. Meetings to inform decisions made about spp. African carnivore initiative- resolutions in decisions about protection. Meeting in 2018. Final list of aims....not found.
Describe wild dog range currently and how has this changed?
Originally throughout Africa excluding 'true rainforest/Congo'. Strongholds in SA, Zimbabwe, Botswana and ... See IUCN map, get other maps from papers....
How are domestic/stray dogs captured for vaccination?
Owners will bring and easy for them to hold- techniques from FAO https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y_V9KYrwJmk Friendly dogs tempted with food and slip lead, or baited with food and netted. Will use muzzles on scared dogs- nylon or improvised with roll bandage/gauze. Dog 'radar' (flight zone) utilised and taught. All volunteers must be rabies vaccinated and aware of prophylaxis treatment if bitten by suspected rabid dog. 4 dog catchers, 1 vaccinator and 1 recorder team! The ninja technique: 1 person baits with food, another comes up behind with net. 2 for 1: when one dog captured, other dogs in area focus attention on captured dog, other catchers come from behind. The escape technique: most teamwork- predict where dog will escape to and cover all exits. Motorbike technique: rider plus catcher- brake at right time. Dangerous and not highly recommended. 2 bikes best for backup. World animal protection humane guidelines developed in conjunction with FAO. Rubber leg hold trap
What NGOs protect African wild dogs (local/international)?
Painted dog conservation, painted wolf foundation, IUCN canids specialist group Cheetah and African wild dog protection Endangered wildlife trust African wildlife foundation
How might models inform vaccination programs (domestic/wild dogs)?
Papers.... 70% target derived from models. Areas to vaccinate/impact on humans.
Can metapopulation theory be applied to wild dogs?
Perfect definition! South Africa now treating as metapopulation and manage as one entity. Minimum of 9 packs in area for them to be fully functioning population. Not always possible with fragmentation. Human intervention to link these.
What is local public opinion of African wild dogs? Are they a flagship species?
Pest species. Folklore...mythology.... Reduce the conflict, help construct livestock enclosures. Engage local communities to protect local wildlife and give them the resources to do so. Less so....own charities.
Why are African wild dogs hunted by humans?
Previous government schemes, mass slaughtering- e.g. Uganda 1955 directive (see legislation). Will go after livestock (cattle and ungulates stocked for photo safari etc), although not as much as other large carnivores. Not hunting but wild dogs debated to be sold off by Zimbabwe when economy hit by droughts and low exports of agricultural products: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2016/05/160512-zimbabwe-selling-wildlife-wild-dogs-conservation-elephants-lions/ Able to be sold off as not on any of their Parks and Wildlife Act of 1975 which protects against hunting/sale (rhinos/pangolins under this)
Define R0.
Pronounced 'R-naught'. Reproduction number, used to describe the intensity of an infectious disease outbreak. The average number of cases that an infected animal will cause during their infectious period. Larger R0 = more infectious. Useful in public health, in that if R0 is less than 1, disease will die out. R0 can be used in 2 different ways: basic reproduction number- represents maximum epidemic potential of a pathogen, i.e. if an infected animal was to enter a fully susceptible population. And effective reproduction number which depends on population's current susceptibility. Lower than basic reproduction number because IRL there will be vaccinated animals, changes in immunity/other factors (in animals, bottle neck). This is a more realistic prediction.
Are vaccination programs for stray dogs ethical?
Pros: public health implications huge so yes! Minute of fear/needle pain for lifetime potentially disease free (dog and humans) Cons: who funds? Welfare if just 'lay' person catching.
Are there any zoonoses between African wild dogs and humans (both directions)?
Rabies. Lepto Captive dog: salmonella/campylobacter Reverse zoonoses --> giardia from people to dogs
What comprises an African wild dog's range (does it include hunting range as well or include territory etc?)
Range encompasses entire area that dogs use. Packs use 650 square km year round. Range measured of 150-2460km squared over 42 packs. Drops 50-260km2 mating range, drops. If put in 5000km enclosure- all can be counted as edge to wild dog.
Describe any vaccination protocol that there may be for domestic/stray dogs.
Rural unlikely to be vaccinated. 29.4-30.8% were vaccinated for rabies. Organisation? 800 dogs in 6 days.
How are wild dogs vs domestic dogs affected by similar disease (e.g. distemper)?
Same susceptibility (unvaccinated domestic vs African wild dog). African wild dogs can recover from distemper but difficult as no supportive treatment. Higher prevalence of distemper in domestic dogs Wild dogs zero exposure to parvo?
How closely related are wild dogs to domestic dogs (phylogenetically)? (jackals, other dogs etc?)
See tree. African wild dog branches off sooner than domestic dog. Dentition specialised to diet 4 toes (no dew claw). Can't interbreed with dogs as too distantly related.
What other welfare issues are associated with vaccination programs?
Side effects to vaccination- risk of death/further illness. Fragmenting packs- wild dog. 4 dogs per pack (African wild dog) need to be vaxed.
Is it ethical to neuter stray dogs vs euthanasia?
Some countries do not permit euthanasia so best option to neuter to control. Depending on method of killing, neutering could be seen as more 'ethical' Anaesthetic risk- some street dogs ill and likely to die anyway- waste of resources? Killing the dogs leads to more disease (rubbish/waste on the streets- Andy's example)
Define sporadic disease outbreak.
Sporadic refers to a disease that occurs infrequently and irregularly. Outbreak limited to localised geographic areas? https://www.cdc.gov/csels/dsepd/ss1978/lesson1/section11.html
Define minimum effective pack size.
Term was used relating to hunting- so minimum effective pack size to carry out a successful hunt. Literature- packs up to 20 adults where most of the time where only 1 alpha pair breeds and other adults suppressed to raise pups. (30 strong dynasties documentary, Zimbabwe)
How has habitat fragmentation affected the wild dogs' range?
Very bad...limits efficacy of inbreeding measures. See previous maps.
Do African wild dogs suffer the consequences of inbreeding?
Yes and no? Disease: lack of genetic variation. Usually avoid mating with kin.... Subordinates more likely to be inbred- self limiting as not breeding? Males disperse further than females?