Period I and II

Causes for promoting Anglicization

Growth of autonomous political communities based on English models, development of commercial ties and legal structures, the emergence of Trans-Atlantic print culture, the the Protestant evangelism, religious toleration and spread of European Enlightenment ideas

Henry Hudson

Hudson (died 1611) was an English sea explorer and navigator in the early 17th century.Hudson made two attempts on behalf of English merchants to find a prospective Northwest Passage to Cathay (today's China) via a route above the Arctic Circle. Hudson explored the region around modern New York metropolitan area while looking for a western route to Asia while in the employment of the Dutch East India Company.[3] He explored the Hudson River (which is named after him), and laid thereby the foundation for Dutch colonization of the region.

Natural resources

A naturally occurring source of wealth. In this case, gold, iron, silver, pearls obtained by the colonies

Columbian exchange

After Columbus' arrival in the Americas, the animal, plant, and bacterial life of these two worlds began to mix. This process was called the Columbian Exchange. the Columbian Exchange had dramatic and lasting effects on the world. New diseases were introduced to American populations that had no prior experience of them. of the Americas, the natives were introduced to American populations that had no prior experience of them. The results were devastating. These populations also were introduced to new weeds and pests, livestock, and pets. New food and fiber crops were introduced to Eurasia and Africa, improving diets and fomenting trade there. In addition, the Columbian Exchange vastly expanded the scope of production of some popular drugs, bringing the pleasures — and consequences — of coffee, sugar, and tobacco use to many millions of people.

Asiento system

As the Indians died from disease and overwork, the Spanish turned to the Asiento System to make up for the labor shortage. Under the Asiento System, African slaves were carried to the Americas and a tax was paid to the Spanish crown for each slave imported. The Asiento System was a forerunner of the Triangular Trade System, and resulted in hundreds of thousands of slaves being brought to the New World.

Chinook

As the Indians died from disease and overwork, the Spanish turned to the Asiento System to make up for the labor shortage. Under the Asiento System, African slaves were carried to the Americas and a tax was paid to the Spanish crown for each slave imported. The Asiento System was a forerunner of the Triangular Trade System, and resulted in hundreds of thousands of slaves being brought to the New World.

Casta system

Because of the result of the conquest of Mexico and other Latin American countries by the Spaniards, a European style caste system was imposed on the culture. The conquest produced four overall racial categories: Europeans (Spaniards), Mestizos (Spanish, african, european), Indians and Slaves. A Spaniard born in Spain had a higher social standing than an individual with Spanish parents born in the New World, they were referred to as Creoles. Eventually, by the 18th Century, the class of mestizo was broke down into as many as 16 different racial categories.

European challenges to American Indian beliefs

Difference in ideas, beliefs, religious beliefs,

Settlers in North America

Different countries invaded, captured areas in the Americas. Some of them were Spain, England, Portugal, Dutch, Etc

Bacon's rebellion

During the 1670s, the administration of veteran Virginia governor Sir William Berkeley became unpopular with small farmers and frontiersmen, because of restrictions on the right to vote — the institution of a new land ownership requirement Higher taxes Low tobacco prices, a pervasive sense of subordination to an aristocratic minority, lack of protection from Native American attacks. rebellion's results were mixed. An unpopular governor had been temporarily removed. Real progress was made toward thwarting the Indian threat. The tribes realized that they stood little chance against the settlers' superior firepower and signed a peace treaty in 1677.

Encomianda system

Encomienda, in colonial Spanish America, legal system by which the Spanish crown attempted to define the status of the Indian population in its American colonies. It was based upon the practice of exacting tribute from Muslims and Jews during the Reconquista("Reconquest") of Muslim Spain. Although the original intent of the encomienda was to reduce the abuses of forced labour (repartimiento) employed shortly after the discovery of the New World, in practice it became a form of enslavement.

King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella

Ferdinand II (10 March 1452 - 23 January 1516), called the Catholic is today best known for his role in inaugurating the discovery of the New World, since he and his wife, Queen Isabella sponsored the first voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492. Isabella I (22 April 1451-26 November 1504) was Queen of Castille. Their marriage became the basis for the political unification of Spain under their grandson, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. After a struggle to claim her right to the throne, she reorganized the governmental system, brought the crime rate to the lowest it had been in years, and unburdened the kingdom of the enormous debt her brother had left behind. Her reforms and those she made with her husband had an influence that extended well beyond the borders of their united kingdoms. Isabella and Ferdinand are known for completing the Reconquista, ordering conversion or exile of their Muslim and Jewish subjects in the Spanish Inquisition, and to the establishment of Spain as the first global power which dominated Europe and much of the world for more than a century. Isabella was granted the title Servant of God by the Catholic Church in 1974.

Maryland toleration act

In 1634, a group of Catholics came to Maryland, there were rich landowners, servants, craftspeople, and farmers who had learned beneficial lessons from the Jamestown settlers. They raised corn, cattle, and pigs, so they would have food to eat and later started growing tobacco for profit. Soon afterwards, even though the Catholics founded Maryland, many Protestants had started to move into the area and there were many religious conflicts between the beliefs of the Catholics and the Protestants. Lord Baltimore created a Toleration Act of 1649, which was also known as the Act Concerning Religion, to attempt to reduce conflicts among the two religious groups. The Toleration Act of 1649 made it a crime to restrict the religious rights of Christians and was the first law supporting religious tolerance passed in the English colonies. The Toleration Act did not stop all religious conflict, but it helped show that the government some religious freedom and protected the rights of minority religious groups.

Iroquois confederacy

Iroquois Confederacy, also called Iroquois League, Five Nations, or (from 1722) Six Nations, confederation of five (later six) Indian tribes across upper New York state that during the 17th and 18th centuries played a strategic role in the struggle between the French and British for mastery of North America. The five Iroquois nations, characterizing themselves as "the people of the longhouse," were the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. After the Tuscarora joined in 1722, the confederacy became known to the English as the Six Nations and was recognized as such at Albany, New York (1722).

Quakers

It is a popular name for a member of the Religious Society of Friends, which is a sect founded by George Fox in England about 1650, opposed to oath-taking and war.

Joint stock company

It is an incorporated business with transferable shares and with shareholders having either limited or unlimited liability for debts of the business.One of the earliest joint-stock companies was the Virginia Company, founded in 1606 to colonize North America. By law, individual shareholders were not responsible for actions undertaken by the company, and, in terms of risk exposure, shareholders could lose only the amount of their initial investment.

Protestant reformation

It was the 16th century religious, political, intellectual, cultural upheaval that splintered Catholic Europe setting in place the structures and beliefs that would define the continent in the modern era. The Central and Northern Europe reformers like Martin Luther, John Calvin and Henry VIII challenged papal authority and questioned the Catholic Church's ability to define Christian practice. They argued a religious and political redistribution of power into the hands of Bible and pamphlet reading pastors and princes the disruption triggered wars, persecutions and the so-called Counter reformation, the Catholic Church's delayed but forceful response to the Protestants

Dominion of New England

James II became apprehensive about the New England colonies' increasingly independent ways; he and other British officials were particularly upset by the open flouting of the Navigation Acts. The continuing military threat posed by the French and their Indian allies in North America was an additional reason to tighten control of the colonies. In 1686, all of New England was joined in an administrative merger, the Dominion of New England; two years later, New York and both New Jerseys were added.

Mercantilism

Mercantilism, also called the mercantile system, was based on the benefits of profitable trading. Countries adopted trade policies that favored the flow of wealth from the colonies to the mother country. Mercantilism began during the Elizabethan Era. Queen Elizabeth I encouraged exploration and developed a fleet of ships that were capable of challenging the Spanish stranglehold on trade in the Americas. Queen Elizabeth promoted Mercantilism and issued laws such as the Trade and Navigation Acts for the protection and promotion of English shipping.

Intermarriage and colonization slavery

Miscegenation is generally defined as an intimate sexual relationship between individuals of different races. In practice, however, it has mostly referred to relationships between whites and people of color. interracial sexual intimacy was a matter for concern soon after the first Europeans and Africans settled permanently in the Americas in the 1500s and 1600s. The growing presence of African slaves, however, generated significant legal questions about status, family, and heredity. In 1662, Virginia's colonial assembly declared that a child's status as slave or free was based on the status of the mother, and in 1691 it passed the first law against sexual relations between free English or other white women and nonwhites (including both Native Americans and "negroes" or "mulattoes"). The 1691 statute also provided for the banishment of any white who contracted a marriage across the racial line. While Virginia was the first colony to act comprehensively to bar interracial marriage and control interracial sex, other colonies followed. Of the thirteen original colonies, nine had laws against interracial marriage in effect at the time of the Revolution.

Metis

Métis people helped to shape the Canada of today, mainly in terms of the expansion of the west. The first Métis people were born in Eastern Canada as early as the 1600s. They were the children born to European fishermen and their Native wives. However, it was the Red River region, in present day Manitoba, where the Métis Nation was really first established. When the fur trade moved west, in the 1700s and 1800s, many French-Canadian fur traders found Native wives and had children. The children born from these unions formed a new Nation in Canada - the 'Western Métis'. Today there are 350,000-400,000 Métis in Canada.

Pennsylvania founding

Pennsylvania was founded in English North America by William Penn on March 4, 1681 as dictated in a royal charter granted by King Charles II. The name Pennsylvania, which translates roughly as "Penn's Woods",[1] was created by combining the Penn surname (in honor of William's father, Admiral Sir William Penn) with the Latin word sylvania, meaning "forest land." The Province of Pennsylvania was one of the two major restoration colonies, the other being the Province of Carolina. The proprietary colony's charter remained in the hands of the Penn family until the American Revolution, when the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania was created and became one of the original thirteen states.Penn and his fellow Quakers heavily imprinted their religious values on the early Pennsylvanian government. The Charter of Privileges extended religious freedom to everyone monotheists and government was initially open to all Christians

Pueblo revolt

Pueblo Rebellion, (1680), carefully organized revolt of Pueblo Indians (in league with Apaches), who succeeded in overthrowing Spanish rule in New Mexico for 12 years. A traditionally peaceful people, the Pueblos had endured much after New Mexico's colonization in 1598. Catholicism was forced on them by missionaries who burned their ceremonial pits (kivas), masks, and other sacred objects. Indians were tried in Spanish courts and received severe punishments—hanging, whipping, dismemberment (of hands or feet), or condemnation to slavery.From 1645 on there were several abortive revolts, after each of which medicine men were especially singled out for reprisals. One medicine man, Popé of the San Juan pueblo, embittered by imprisonment, believed himself commanded by the tribal ancestor spirits (kachinas) to restore the old customs; on Aug. 10, 1680, he led a full-scale revolt in which almost all the Pueblos participated. On August 21 the Spaniards were forced to flee, leaving 400 dead, including 21 priests. The Indians celebrated their victory by washing off the stains of Christian baptism, annulling Christian marriages, and destroying churches. They remained free until 1692, when New Mexico was reconquered by Gov. Pedro de Vargas.

Enlightenment

The American Enlightenment is a period of intellectual ferment in the thirteen American colonies in the period 1714-1818, which led to the American Revolution, and the creation of the American Republic.

Dutch colonial efforts

The Ditch showed less enterprise in planting colonies in America, and less persistence in sustaining them, than any other of the maritime nations of Europe. Their only settlement in North America was that of New Amsterdam, occupying Manhattan Island, and sending branch hamlets up the Hudson and to the shores of Long Island Sound and the South or Delaware River. This colony was held with very little vigor.

European clash with American Indians

The Europeans clashed several times with the Americans, during King Phillip's War, also known as Metacom's Rebellion, marked the last major effort by the Indians of southern New England to drive out the English settlers. Led by Metacom, the Pokunoket chief called 'King Philip' by the English, the bands known today as Wampanoag Indians joined with the Nipmucks, Pocumtucks, and Narragansetts in a bloody uprising. It lasted fourteen months and destroyed twelve frontier towns, the Indian Wars between the House of Burgesses against Powhatan which les to Virginia becoming a royal colony, loss of several lives and property and several other wars during the colonization period

First Great Awakening

The Great Awakening was an evangelical and revitalization movement that swept Protestant Europe and British America, and especially the American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s, leaving a permanent impact on American Protestantism. It resulted from powerful preaching that gave listeners a sense of deep personal revelation of their need of salvation by Jesus Christ. The Great Awakening pulled away from ritual, ceremony, sacramentalism, and hierarchy, and made Christianity intensely personal to the average person by fostering a deep sense of spiritual conviction and redemption, and by encouraging introspection and a commitment to a new standard of personal morality. The movement was an important social event in New England, which challenged established authority and incited rancor and division between traditionalist Protestants, who insisted on the continuing importance of ritual and doctrine, and the revivalists, who encouraged emotional involvement. It had an impact in reshaping the Congregational church, the Presbyterian church, the Dutch Reformed Church, and the German Reformed denominations, and strengthened the small Baptist and Methodist Anglican denominations. It had little impact on most Anglicans, Lutherans, Quakers, and non-Protestants. Throughout the colonies, especially in the south, the revivalist movement increased the number of African slaves and free blacks who were exposed to and subsequently converted to Christianity.

Navigation acts

The Navigation Acts were a series of laws passed in the English Parliament in 1651,1660 & 1663 1651 Navigation Act 1660 Navigation Act 1663 Navigation Act aka the Staple Act The Purpose of the Navigation Acts was to encourage British shipping and allow Great Britain to retain the monopoly of British colonial trade for the benefit of British merchants. The 1660 Navigation Act ensured that the importation and exportation of goods from British Colonies were restricted to British ships which were under the control of British mariners. The following Navigation Acts ensured that the highly lucrative profits to be made from the natural resources and industries in the Colonies securing advantages for the products in Great Britain.

Spanish and Portuguese explorers

The Portuguese began systematically exploring the Atlantic coast of Africa from 1418, under the sponsorship of Prince Henry. Under Henry's direction, a new and much lighter ship was developed, the caravel, which could sail further and faster,[3] and, above all, was highly manoeuvrable and could sail much nearer the wind, or into the wind. In 1488 Bartolomeu Dias reached the Indian Ocean by this route.[4] In 1492 the Catholic Monarchs of Castile and Aragon funded Christopher Columbus's plan to sail west to reach the Indies by crossing the Atlantic. He landed on a continent uncharted by Europeans and seen as a new world, the Americas. To prevent conflict between Portugal and Castile (the crown under which Columbus made the voyage), the Treaty of Tordesillas was signed dividing the world into two regions of exploration, where each had exclusive rights to claim newly discovered lands. Rumors of undiscovered islands northwest of Hispaniola had reached Spain by 1511 and king Ferdinand II of Aragon was interested in forestalling further exploration. While Portuguese were making huge gains in the Indian Ocean, the Spanish invested in exploring inland in search of gold and valuable resources.

Puritans

The Puritans were a group of English Reformed Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to "purify" the Church of England from most Roman Catholic practices, maintaining that the Church of England was only partially reformed.

Stono rebellion

The Stono Rebellion also called Cato's Conspiracy or Cato's Rebellion was a slave rebellion that began on 9 September 1739, in the colony of South Carolina. It was the largest slave uprising in the British mainland colonies, with 42-47 whites and 44 blacks killed. The uprising was led by native Africans who were likely from the Central African Kingdom of Kongo. Some of the rebels spoke Portuguese. Their leader Jemmy was a literate slave; in some reports he is referred to as "Cato", and likely was held by the Cato, or Cater, family who lived near the Ashley River and north of the Stono River. He led 20 other enslaved Kongolese, who may have been former soldiers, in an armed march south from the Stono River. They were bound for Spanish Florida. In an effort to destabilize British rule, the Spanish had promised freedom and land at St. Augustine to slaves who escaped from the British colonies

Treaty of Tordesillas

The Treaty of Tordesillas signed at Tordesillas on June 7, 1494, and authenticated at Setúbal, Portugal, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Portugal and the Crown of Castile, along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands, off the west coast of Africa. This line of demarcation was about halfway between the Cape Verde islands (already Portuguese) and the islands entered by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage (claimed for Castile and León), named in the treaty as Cipangu and Antilia (Cuba and Hispaniola). The lands to the east would belong to Portugal and the lands to the west to Castile. The treaty was signed by Spain, 2 July 1494 and by Portugal, 5 September 1494. The other side of the world was divided a few decades later by the Treaty of Zaragoza or Saragossa, signed on 22 April 1529, which specified the antimeridian to the line of demarcation specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas. Originals of both treaties are kept at the Archivo General de Indias in Spain and at the Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo in Portugal. This treaty would be observed fairly well by Spain and Portugal, despite considerable ignorance as to the geography of the New World; however, it omitted all of the other European powers. Those countries generally ignored the treaty, particularly those that became Protestant after the Reformation.

Anglicization

The colonial American desire to emulate English society in all respects example, food, social lifestyle

Mission settlements

The expeditions of Francisco Vázquez de Coronado (1540 -42) and Juan de Oñate (1598) convinced Spanish authorities that no wealthy Indian empires like that of the Aztecs were to be found north of Mexico. Consequently the Spanish came to view the northern frontier of their empire as a defensive barrier and as a place where pagan souls might be saved. In what are now the states of Florida, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California, missions were founded to propagate the doctrines of the Roman Catholic church. To protect these missions as well as the mines and ranches of Mexico from attack from the north, the Spanish established presidios — fortified garrisons of troops.

Indentured servitude

The growth of tobacco, rice, and indigo and the plantation economy created a tremendous need for labor in Southern English America. Without the aid of modern machinery, human sweat and blood was necessary for the planting, cultivation, and harvesting of these cash crops. While slaves existed in the English colonies throughout the 1600s, indentured servitude was the method of choice employed by many planters before the 1680s. This system provided incentives for both the master and servant to increase the working population of the Chesapeake colonies.

Sextant

The primary use of a sextant is to determine the angle between an astronomical object and the horizon for the purposes of celestial navigation. The determination of this angle, the altitude, is known as sighting (or shooting) the object, or taking a sight.

King Philip's War

The war is named for King Philip, the son of Massasoit and chief of the Wampanoag. His Wampanoag name was Metacom, Upon the death (1662) of his brother, Alexander (Wamsutta), whom the Native Americans suspected the English of murdering, Philip became sachem and maintained peace with the colonists for a number of years. Hostility eventually developed over the steady succession of land sales forced on the Native Americans by their growing dependence on English goods. Suspicious of Philip, the English colonists in 1671 questioned and fined him and demanded that the Wampanoag surrender their arms, which they did. In 1675 a Christian Native American who had been acting as an informer to the English was murdered, probably at Philip's instigation. Three Wampanoags were tried for the murder and executed. Incensed by this act, the Native Americans in June, 1675, made a sudden raid on the border settlement of Swansea. Towns were burned and many whites were slain. Unable to draw the Native Americans into a major battle, the colonists resorted to similar methods of warfare and antagonized other tribes. The Wampanoag were joined by the Nipmuck and by the Narragansett, and soon all New England colonies got involved. Philip's cause began to decline after he made a long unsuccessful journey west to secure aid from the Mohawk. In 1676 the Narragansett were completely defeated and their chief, Canonchet, was killed; the Wampanoag and Nipmuck were gradually subdued. Philip's wife and son were captured, and he was killed (Aug., 1676) by a Native American in the service of Capt. Benjamin Church after his hiding place at Mt. Hope (Bristol, R.I.) was betrayed. His body was drawn and quartered and his head exposed on a pole in Plymouth. The war, which was extremely costly to the colonists in people and money, resulted in the virtual extermination of tribal Native American life in S New England and the disappearance of the fur trade. The New England Confederation then had the way completely clear for white settlement.

Triangular trade

Triangular Trade was a system in which slaves, crops, and manufactured goods were traded between Africa, the Americas, and Europe.

Colonization and interaction among groups

Tribes and colonies interacted among each other by forming alliances for military purposes, commercial ties based on trade, tribute and subjugation of native villages, protestant evangelism, religious tolerance and spread of Enlightenment ideas

Small pox

an acute, highly contagious, febrile disease, caused by the variola virus, and characterized by a pustular eruption that often leaves permanent pits or scars: eradicated worldwide by vaccination programs. During the 1770s, smallpox killed at least 30% of the West Coast Native Americans. The smallpox epidemic of 1780-1782 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians. This epidemic is a classic instance of European immunity and non-European vulnerability.

Mestizo

any person of mixed blood in Central and South America it denotes a person of combined Indian and European extraction. In some countries—e.g., Ecuador—it has acquired social and cultural connotations; a pure-blooded Indian who has adopted European dress and customs is called a mestizo (or cholo). In Mexico the description has been found so variable in meaning that it has been abandoned in census reports. In the Philippines "mestizo" denotes a person of mixed foreign (e.g., Chinese) and native ancestry.

American indians

people of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term "Indian"originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, thought that he had arrived in the East Indies. Eventually, the Americas came to be known as the "West Indies", a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term "Indies" and "Indians" for the indigenous inhabitants, which implied some kind of racial or cultural unity among the indigenous peoples of the Americas. This unifying concept, codified in law, religion, and politics, was not originally accepted by the myriad groups of indigenous peoples themselves, but has since been embraced by many over the last two centuries.

Conquistadors

conquistadors, any of the leaders in the Spanish conquest of America, especially of Mexico and Peru, in the 16th century.They usually supplied their own equipment in exchange for a share in profits, having no direct connection with the royal army, and often no professional military training or experience.[

Mulatto

person of mixed white and black ancestry, especially a person with one white and one black pare

Printing press

the first American-printed book was issued in Mexico in 1536: By order of the Spanish Viceroy Mendoza, Jesuit missionaries printed the "Escala espiritual de San Juan Climaco". In 1638, a printing press was established in Cambridge, Massachusetts Bay colony to provide reading material for the spiritual edification of the colonists. Newspapers were a vital part of colonial life. They provided the only means of spreading of spreading news other than by mere herasay