PHIL 1020 FINAL

Conversion

You obtain the converse of an E or I claim by reversing the positions of the subject and predicate terms.

What are truth values?

a statement that is either true or false

explanation vs argument

an explanation tells us why or how something is the case, an argument gives us reasons for believing that something is the case

Enumerative Induction

an inductive argument pattern in which we reason from premises about individual members of a group to conclusions about the group as a whole (from the part to the whole)

false dilemma fallacy

asserting that there are only two alternatives to consider when there are actually more than two

implict bias

associations and connections we make between things. Implicit biases are emotional and unconscious, but not all associations are biases and not all biases are implicit.

Anything that is logically impossible _______ ______

cannot exist

What are the four truth functional connectives?

conjunction, disjunction, negation, conditional

creationism fails to criterion of ________

conservatism

scope

covers other things...diverse

Which rule of inference does the following express? p v q ~p Therefore, q

disjunctive syllogism

The wording of opinion polls can _______

dramatically skew results

t/f: Correlation and causation are the same.

false

creationism is not a ________

fruitful theory

inductive reasoning

gives us most of what we know about the empirical workings of the world, allowing us in science and in ordinary experience to soar reliably from what we know to what we don't. It allows us to reason "beyond the evidence"-- from bits of what is already known to conclusions about what those bits suggest is probably true

some things that are logically possible are physically _____

impossible. Ex: It's logically possible for Vaughn's dog to fly to another galaxy in 60 seconds. This does not violate a principle of logic...but it DOES violate the laws of science pertaining to speed-of-light travel. Therefore it is physically impossible

conservatism

in line with data we already know

Science is not dedicated to scientism because

it is not the only reliable way to acquire knowledge...but it IS the MOST reliable

When wording opinion polls

make sure it is more neutral wording to get the accurate results for the question

simplicity

makes few assumptions

fruitfulness

new insights

"Some" in front of a categorical statement tells us that its a ___________

particular quantifier

A statement that applies to some, but not all members of a class is a ________

particular quantifier

Copernicus

proposed a heliocentric theory in which Earth and the other planets orbit the sun, the true center of the universe. In doing so, he greatly simplified both the picture of the heavens and the calculations required to predict the positions of planets

appeal to the person fallacy

rejecting a claim or argument by criticizing the person who makes it rather than the claim itself. This is also called an ad hominem

What is the focus of propositional logic?

relationships between statements

What are some errors people are often prove to when evaluating weird theories?

resisting contrary evidence, looking for confirming evidence, and preferring available evidence

Copernicus and ptolemy's theories were about even in ________

scope...look at page 374-375 for more

testability

should predict the thing it's trying to explain + other stuff...should be predictive

logical impossibility

something is logically impossible if it violates a principle of logic (involves a logical contradiction)

Logical Possibility

something is logically possible if it does NOT violate a principle of logic

physical impossibility

something is said to be physically impossible if it violates a law of science

What are the five criterias of adequacy?

testability, fruitfulness, scope, conservatism, simplicity

creationism and evolutionism are BOTH _______

testable

what is the most common error in assessing paranormal claims?

the failure to consider alternative explanations

Predicate terms

the second class, or group, named in a standard-form categorical statement

Why should anyone bother to learn weird theories?

they are widely believed

A statement that applies to every member of a class is a ____________

universal quantifier

How do you symbolize disjunctions?

v

DONT mix seems with _____ _____.

what is. just because something SEEMS real doesn't mean that it IS

What is the converse of E statement "No students are sloths"?

"No sloths are students"

How do you symbolize conjuctions?

&, ^

By contraposition, which of the following is true?

(If p then q) is true if and only if (not p and not q)

How do you symbolize negations?

(curvy) N

What are the main objections to relativism?

- Belief not being a determiner of truth - relativism leads to logical inconsistencies

T.E.S.T

- Theory (state) - Asses Evidence - Scrutinize other alternatives - Test

How do you symbolize conditionals?

------>

Contraposition

1) reversing the positions of the subject and predicate terms and 2) substituting complement terms for the subject and predicate terms

How to use TEST to evaluate weird theories

1. state the theory and check for consistency 2. asses the evidence for the theory 3. scrutinize alternate theories 4. test the theories with the criteria of adequacy

Only _____ and _____ statements are equivalent to their contrapositive versions

A and O

Hasty Generalization

A fallacy in which a faulty conclusion is reached because of inadequate evidence

Which of the following describes a disjunction?

A proposition with a truth functional connective which is only true if one or more of the atomic propositions is true

A conjunction is which of the following?

A proposition with a truth functional connective which is only true if the connected propositions are all true

Which of the following describes negation?

A proposition with a truth functional connective which switches the truth value from true to false or from false to true

Which fallacy is present in the following? "Kelly says that many women who live in predominantly Muslim countries are discriminated against. But how would she know, she's not a Muslim."

Ad hominem

Which of the following is the correct translation of the statement: "The only honest people are non-politicians."

All honest people are non-politicians

deductive argument

An argument where if the premises are true, the conclusion MUST be true

inductive argument

An argument where if the premises are true, the conclusion is PROBABLY true

Which of the following must be the case for a disjunction to be true?

At least one of the disjuncts must be true

Which of the following describes the ad hominem fallacy?

Attacking the person or their character instead of the argument

Obversion

Based on the idea that by designating a class of things, we are implicitly describing a class consisting of everything that is not in the original class

Why are I and O statements known as subcontraries?

Because both can be true, but both cannot be false

Why are A and O statements together known as contradictories?

Because both cannot be true, and both cannot be false

Why are A and E statements known as contraries?

Because they cannot both be true, but they can both be false

Which of the following is a reason that relativism is considered an obstacle to critical thinking?

Belief is not indicative of truth

Which of the following does NOT need to be considered when analyzing the strength analogical arguments?

Cogency

What is the epistemic cost that results when someone has to report to someone from a group that one has a bias against, and one's performance suffers as a result?

Cognitive depletion

Which of the following is NOT a method used to figure out causality?

Complete a proof for the conclusion

Given the following proof, what is the rule of inference or replacement used for step 9 (conclusion)? 1) E v F Premise 2) ~G v H Premise 3) ~ (E v H) Premise 4) ~E & ~H 5) ~E 6) F 7) ~H 8) ~G 9) F & ~G (conclusion)

Conjunction, 6, 8

What are E and I statements together known as? Why?

Contradictories;because they cannot both be true, and they cannot both be false

What are the A and E statements together known as?

Contraries

who's theory was simpler, copernicus's or ptolemy's?

Copernicus's

Which rule of replacement is expressed by the following? (Note: take the equal sign to be the same as the symbol for equivalence) ~(p & q) = (~p v ~q)

De Morgans Law

Given the following proof, what is the rule of inference or replacement used for step 4? 1) E v F Premise 2) ~G v H Premise 3) ~ (E v H) Premise 4) ~E & ~H 5) ~E 6) F 7) ~H 8) ~G 9) F & ~G (conclusion)

De Morgans Law, 3

What kind of argument is the following? All noble gases are stable, and helium is a noble gas. Therefore helium is stable.

Deductive

Which of the following is NOT a kind of explanation?

Deductive

How can polls' question order effect the results?

Ex: if the economy is bad and the first question is about the economy with the second question being about liking the current president, the results will probably be skewed

T/F Determining which factor is the cause and which is the effect is always easy.

False

T/F: The following is an example of ad hominem: "I have the right to get married. Therefore it's right for me to get married."

False

T/F: A and I statements are not equivalent to their contrapositive versions

False

T/F: Categorical logic is not deductive

False

T/F: Causal arguments are always deductive

False

T/F: Coincidence is rare, so always indicates a cause for an event.

False

T/F: Explanations cannot be parts of arguments.

False

T/F: The following explanation is theoretical: "He broke the lock and pushed open the door - that's how he got in."

False

T/F: The following is an affirmative categorical statement in the standard form Some dogs are not friendly.

False

T/F: The following statements are subcontraries: All musicians are creative people No musicians are creative people

False

T/F: The order in which events occur is sufficient to determine causation. For example, I got sick after I got the shot, so the shot caused the illness.

False

T/F: When using the short method for validity, the first step is to set the conclusion to false.

False

The following is an example of the tu quoque fallacy: 1) The Kennedy family eats a lot of ice cream 2) Jim is part of the Kennedy family 3) Therefore Jim eats a lot of ice cream

False

True or false: The rules of replacement are the same as the rules of inference.

False

True or false: You can set P and nP both as true

False

What of the following are questions we should ask when assessing an argument?

Is it valid, and is it sound?

Using atomic propositions and proper negation, which of the following is the correct restatement for the proposition, "Jasmine or Josh did not move to Montana."

It is not the case that Jasmine moved to Montana or It is not the case that Josh moved to Montana

What is the state of affairs being explained in the following example? "Why did James say he saw a ghost in the bedroom? Because he drinks to much and has a vivid imagination."

James saying he saw a ghost

How should the cause in the following in this example be described? "Sergio's eagerness to get to the airport caused him to get a speeding ticket."

Neither necessary nor sufficent

Copula

One of four components of a standard-form categorical statement; a linking verb--either are or are not--that joins the subject term and the predicate term.

Which of the following is the major term of the syllogism? All ethicists are philosophers All philosophers are expert readers All ethicists are expert readers

Readers

Science vs technology

Science is a way of searching for truth (the scientific method) while technology is NOT a search for truth (its the production of products)

What is the purpose of science?

Science seeks to acquire knowledge and understanding of reality, and it does so through the formulation, testing, and evaluation of theories

Given the following proof, what is the rule of inference or replacement used for step 5? 1) E v F Premise 2) ~G v H Premise 3) ~ (E v H) Premise 4) ~E & ~H 5) ~E 6) F 7) ~H 8) ~G 9) F & ~G (conclusion)

Simplification, 4

Which of the following are the correct atomic propositions for the statement: "Socrates was a man and a mortal?

Socrates was a man; Socrates was a mortal

An explanation is which of the following?

Statement(s) which assert how or why something is the case

What are the I and O statements together known as ?

Subcontraries

Which of the following defines the "explanandum" of an argument?

That which is to be explained

Which of the following is true of a deductive argument?

The conclusion follows logically from the premises and must be true if the premises are true

Subject term

The first class, or group, named in a standard-form categorical statement.

In categorical logic, which of the following is the main concern?

The relationship between the subject and the predicate of the statement

The rules of inference can be describes as which of the following?

The steps of the proof of validity

What is the begging the question fallacy?

The truth of the conclusion is assumed in the premises

What kind of explanation is offered in the following example? John built himself a solar house so he could thumb his nose at the power company.

Theoretical

T/F: All explanations about the causes of events are theoretical.

True

T/F: Arguments that use inference to the best explanation AND have the best explanations are inductively strong.

True

T/F: Conversion and obversion are both forms of categorical equivalence

True

T/F: If the Venn diagram expresses the conclusion of the categorical syllogism, then the argument is valid.

True

T/F: In Truth-functional (or propositional) logic, the truth value of a compound statement is dependent upon the truth values of the simple statements that make up the compound statement.

True

T/F: The correct categorical translation of, "One of the warehouse workers is lazy." is "Some of the warehouse workers are people who are lazy.

True

T/F: The criteria of adequacy are tools for determining the best explanation.

True

T/F: The following is an "E" statement: No plants are animals.

True

T/F: The following is an example of a slippery slope fallacy: We cannot unlock our child from the closet because if we do, she will want to roam the house. If we let her roam the house, she will want to roam the neighborhood. If she roams the neighborhood, she will get picked up by a stranger in a van, who will sell her in a sex slavery ring in some other country. Therefore, we should keep her locked up in the closet.

True

T/F: The following is an example of false dilemma: You are either a good person or an atheist.

True

T/F: The rules of replacement allow for parts of the original argument to be excluded.

True

True or false: "It is not the case that I have a black car," is a correct interpretation of "I do not have a black car."

True

True or false: Destructive Dilemma is a rule of inference

True

True or false: Given the proposition, "I do not have a black car," the simple proposition being negated is "I have a black car."

True

True or false: Proofs are a method for confirming the validity of an argument.

True

True or false: The double negation of a simple statement is equal to the simple statement.

True

True or false: The sky is blue if and only if :the sky is blue or the sky is blue... is a tautology.

True

Which fallacy occurs in the following example? Carol: You should not be eating that. It has been scientifically proven that eating fatty burgers are not good for your health. Willa: You eat fatty burgers all the time so that can't be true.

Tu quoque

"All" and "no" in front of a categorical statement tell us that its _______

Universal quantifiers

Using modus tollens, what is the missing premise in the following? P1) If euthanasia is wrong, then we do not have the right to end our own lives P2) ??? C) Euthanasia is not wrong

We have the right to end our own lives

An inductive argument described by which of the following?

When the premises are true, the conclusion is probably true