Philosophy midterm

Selfish

thinking only about yourself and not caring about other people

According to Rachels, "Almost every important theory of morality includes the idea of..."

impartiality

Midgley's criticism of "moral isolationism" in, "Trying Out One's New Sword," is in essence, a criticism of what moral perspective?

Ethical Relativism

self-interest example

Jared wears a mask to decrease his likelihood of getting COVID

According to Rachels, "First, moral judgments must be backed by...

Reasons

The basic parts of moral arguments often consist of what?

Moral principles and facts

What is the best definition of Emotivism?

A version of Ethical Subjectivism that argues that since moral language is not fact-stating language, morality is just conveying an attitude or emotion.

What is the best definition of Simple Subjectivism?

A version of Ethical Subjectivism that identifies moral value language as nothing more that an expression of an approval or disapproval of an action, behavior, or person.

Being moral, according to the Divine Command Theory of morality, means what?

Acting according to what one believes are God's commands.

Moral principles are a part of the premises in many moral arguments. Which of the following are examples of claims containing a moral principle?

All sentient animals should be given moral consideration. All people should be given moral consideration and respect regardless of their income level.

While the three examples of Baby Theresa, Jodie and Mary, and Tracy Latimer no doubt entail complex moral issues that there will be disagreements over, Rachel's thinks that we can agree on what it means to do moral philosophy and to be a conscientious moral agent. He calls this the Minimum Conception of Morality and it consists of which of the following?

An effort to guide one's conduct by reason. Do what there are the best reasons for doing while taking into consideration how those actions will affect others Carefully considers relevant facts related to moral issues. Practices impartiality by not arbitrarily favoring the interests of one person or one group over another.

Which of the following claims contain the moral principle of the argument?

Anyone who is a cheat, makes fun of people behind their back, and uses people is a bad person.

According to James Rachel's Minimum Conception of Morality, "Morality is, at the very least, (1) the effort to guide one's conduct by reason—that is, to do what there are the best reasons for doing—while (2) giving equal weight to the interests of each individual affected by one's decision. If we fail to do part (2), we are being ____________________________.

Arbitrary Partial

According to the Divine Command Theory, if God commanded you to sacrifice your child as a "burnt offering" (as is reported to have happened in the Book of Genesis, chapter 22 with Abraham and Isaac), what's the moral thing to so?

Be obedient to God's commands and intend to kill your child just as God has requested.

In Midgley's essay, "Trying Out One's New Sword" she's critical of what she calls "moral isolationism." What is the rationale of "moral isolationism?"

Because other cultural practices are so different that we can't really make any moral judgments about them.

According to James Rachel's Minimum Conception of Morality is characterized as a conscientious moral agent. Select all that characterizations that apply to a conscientious moral agent.

Carefully sifts facts and examines their implications. Is willing to "listen to reason" even when it means revising prior beliefs. Is concerned about with everyone interests impartially - without the prejudice of favoring or dismissing one group over another. Accepts principles of conduct only after scrutinizing them to make sure they are justified.

According to Rachels, morality is fundamentally a matter of what?

Consulting reason.

Of the following which is the best definition of Cultural Relativism:

Different cultures have different moral practices.

Which of the following are problems associated with Ethical Egoism

Ethical Egoism arbitrarily identifies my interests as more valuable than your interests. Ethical Egoism entails a structural contradiction. It tells me I should advance my interests, and it tells you not to stand in my way; and this conflicts with what the theory also tells you - namely, that you ought to advance your interests (which may conflict with mine). Ethical Egoism does not provide a way to resolve conflicts of interest.

What does it mean to say that Ethical Relativism is a meta-ethical position?

Ethical Relativism is a meta-ethical position in that it describes the nature of morality as culturally dependent and that there are no objective moral truths.

What's the meta-ethical position that says moral judgments seem like they are based on nothing more than subjective feelings, opinions, tastes, and preferences?

Ethical Subjectivism

What is the name of the dilemma associated with the Divine Command theory of morality that asks: Is an action right because God commanded it? Or is an action commanded by God because it's the right thing to do?

Euthyphro dilemma

Social Contract Theory (or Contractarianism) is defined by which general feature?

Morality consists of a set of rules, governing behavior, that rational people will accept, on the condition that others accept them as well.

Rachels discusses how St. Thomas Aquinas believed that the embryo did not acquire a soul until several weeks into pregnancy. Rachel's point in bringing this historical perspective up in relation to the moral issue of abortion is what?

Every generation reinterprets scripture to support its favored moral views.

According to Rachels, because moral judgments are value judgments and all value involve personal taste, moral judgments are no different from expressions of personal taste.

False

Of the following, which best identifies the (problematic) connection between Cultural Relativism and the meta-ethical position of Ethical Relativism?

From the idea that "different cultures have different values" one concludes that we should never morally judge another culture's practices because morality is completely dependent on cultural norms and nothing else.

The arbitrariness problem associated with the Divine Command Theory refers to what?

God's commands don't come with reasons.

How did Socrates phrase the study of the nature of morality?

How we ought to live.

In the following moral argument, which claim contains the moral principle? P1: If we can benefit others without harming anyone else, then we should do so. P2: Raising the minimum wage benefits some people without harming anyone else. ∴ Therefore, we should raise the minimum wage.

If we can benefit others without harming anyone else, then we should do so.

In the Baby Theresa example, what was the moral principle behind the parent's "benefits argument"?

If we can benefit someone, without harming anyone else, we ought to do so.

Why does Hobbes think that there can be no society without a social contract?

In a State of Nature, one doesn't have the time or resources to do much else other than to gather enough resources and protect oneself to stay alive. In a State of Nature, no one would bother putting their effort into building a farm or running a business since the fruits of their labor would be continuously at risk of theft. With no contract, one must spend most of their energy and resources protecting their life and property, rather than pursuing other interests.

For Thomas Hobbes, what description below best matches the State of Nature.

In the State of Nature people are worse off because there are no rules for anyone.

Which of the following are two positive ideas that come from the insights of Cultural Relativism.

It leads us to be generally"respectful" and "tolerant" so we don't judge a culture's practices simply from our own social norms what counts as proper, appropriate, respectful, polite, etc. Be careful not to automatically equate "different" values with "wrong" values.

According to the Divine Command Theory, what would make the command, "Love your neighbor as yourself" (as found in the New Testament scripture, Mark 12:31) a moral rule?

It would be a moral rule to follow regardless of whether you liked your neighbor, or whether they shared the same political opinions as you, etc. The only thing that would matter is whether you believed God commanded it.

Language that is evaluative can be used for both moral and non-moral judgments. Identify the claims that contain non-moral judgments.

It's a good movie if you watch it all the way through. I don't recommend eating sushi in Arizona, the fish has probably gone bad in transit. The lyrics in country music are bad.

Moral skepticism is best defined as:

It's doubtful that any moral judgment can be true because all moral principles are debatable.

The arbitrariness problem that's associated with the Divine Command Theory is that God's commands don't come with reasons. Which of the following would be an example of an arbitrary moral command?

It's immoral to lie because I declare it immoral.

Identify the normative ethical claims.

It's wrong to evict anyone during a pandemic. It's wrong to lie.

Moral principles are in many moral arguments. Which of the following are examples of claims containing a moral principle?

It's wrong to give more weight to business interests over the health and welfare of people. You should never use people merely as an instrument to achieve a desired result. Being honest is the right thing to do. It is wrong to believe things based upon insufficient evidence. Cruel treatment of animals is wrong.

Selfish

Jared wore a face mask below his chin to be allowed into Walmart

In what way does emotivism makes the mistake of thinking that moral judgments are merely feelings and nothing more.

Just because moral judgments are associated with feelings that doesn't mean moral judgments are only feelings.

Which of the following are arguments in favor of Ethical Egoism? - The idea that we should act in such a way as to maximize our own self-interest.

Looking out for others rarely works. What we want for others is often not what they want for themselves. Altruistic motivations are overly demanding of most people, and are uncommon Ethical egoism provides the best explanation, and unifying principle, for the various moral duties that we think we have, such as the duty to tell the truth and keep our promises.

Mary decides to donate to the global hunger relief charity, Oxfam. How would the Psychological Egoist describe her motivation?

Mary is donating to Oxfam because she doesn't want to feel guilty for having food while others in the world are hungry. Mary is donating to Oxfam because she wants others to think more highly of her.

How is morality defined according to the Social Contract Theory of Morality?

Moral actions are those actions that do not violate the free rational agreements made.

What is the meta-ethical position of Ethical Subjectivism?

Moral judgments are based on individual feelings, sentiments, and personal preference - and nothing more.

What is the meta-ethical position of Ethical Relativism?

Moral judgments can only be justified relative to a culture. Cultural norms are moral norms, and there are no absolute right and wrong actions.

Which is the meta-ethical claim associated with the Divine Command Theory of morality?

Morality is the domain of religion and can only be understood in the context of commands believed to have come from a divine being.

Identify all meta-ethical claims.

Morals are a matter of personal preference and taste, nothing more. Morality is the domain of religion and being obedient to God.

Does Socrates' version of the Social Contract mean that we are stuck living with society's laws even if we find them unjust?

No, if we disagree with the way the laws function in society, we can leave or we can try to persuade the society to change.

In Exodus 20:16, it is reported that God commands us to be truthful. What sort of ethical claim is the command: be truthful.

Normative claim

Many people who think that social norms are too flexible to adequately ground a moral theory view the Divine Command Theory as a way to create moral stability and objective rules for a society. What is meant by "objective" in this sense?

Objective in the sense that moral rules transcend Constitutional human rights such as equal treatment under the law, and instead are grounded as commands from God. Objective in the sense that moral rules transcend social trends about justice, and instead are grounded as commands from God. Objective in the sense that moral rules transcend precedent legal rulings, and instead are grounded as commands from God.

Rachel's acknowledges that the cases of Baby Theresa, Jodie, and Mary are emotionally charged and these feelings may cause us to think that we know the truth about what's right and what's wrong. Why does Rachel's think this approach is flawed.

Our feelings may lead us to think we know the truth without even considered the arguments on the other side.

According to Rachels, how does human prejudice affect our ability to use out capacity to reason?

Our preconceptions can make us prone to believing things that aren't factually true. Our preconceptions can make us prone to disbelieving things that are factually true.

Below is the "benefits argument" as applied to the Baby Theresa story. How would we go about evaluating the truth-condition of P1? P1: If we can benefit others without harming anyone else, then we should do so. P2: Transplanting the organs would benefit other children without harming Baby Theresa. ∴ Therefore, we should transplant Baby Theresa's organs.

P1 is a moral principle so we would evaluate its truth according to whether it was an acceptable moral principle.

Below is the "wrongness of killing" argument as applied to the Baby Theresa story. How would we go about evaluating the truth-condition of P2? P1: It is wrong to kill one person to save another. P2: Taking Theresa's organs would be killing her to save others. ∴ Therefore, it is wrong to take Baby Theresa's organs.

P2 is attempting to make a fact-like claim, so we would evaluate it according to whether it is, in fact, true.

How is Ethical Egoism related but different from Psychological Egoism?

Psychological Egoism is a descriptive theory in that it claims people do behave in as to always advance their self-interest whereas Ethical Egoism is a prescriptive theory claiming that people should always act so as to advance their own self-interest.

Even though there are rules and laws within a social contract and those will be enforced, why doesn't Hobbes think people will need to be forced into agreeing to a social contract.

Rational agents will voluntarily give up some freedoms out of self interest when doing so brings about better conditions than living without it.

What concept does Rawls contribute to Social Contract theory?

Rawls's "veil of ignorance" and how it helps ensure the contract's benefits and costs are fair to all.

In Ethical Subjectivism, the "subjectivism" part of the term refers to what?

Refers to how moral judgments and normative claims are subjective because moral claims are not facts. Refers to how moral judgments and normative claims are subjective because they do not refer to object-like things. Refers to how moral judgments and normative claims are subjective because they are not about "things" in the world like trees, cars, and umbrellas.

Altruistic example

Sam drove through the neighborhood slowly to avoid any harm to anyone

Descriptive claims refer to statements that can be verified as facts. Which claims of the following argument are descriptive? P1: Sam regularly cheats when he thinks he can get away with it. P2: Sam makes fun of people behind their back. P3: Sam is only a friend when he wants something in return. P4: Anyone who is a cheat, makes fun of people behind their back, and uses people is a bad person. ∴ Sam is a bad person

Sam regularly cheats when he thinks he can get away with it. Sam makes fun of people behind their back. Sam is only a friend when he wants something in return.

In what sense is the Divine Command Theory a meta-ethical position?

The DCT is a meta-ethical position because it describes the nature of morality as a function of following the commands of God.

What does Rachels mean when he says the Divine Command Theory provides the wrong reasons for moral principles?

The DCT makes morality a matter of following commands rather than about how the action has moral worth on it's own.

The Psychological Egoist thinks that because a person may get pleasure from helping others, this indicates that even volunteer or charitable work is ultimately self-interested - done really for the benefit of the moral agent themselves. How is this mistaken?

The Psychological Egoist is mistaken because the fact that a person feels good from doing the right thing doesn't mean the reason they did it was only for the pleasure. The Psychological Egoist is mistaken because there is no inherent conflict between being moral and feeling pleasure. Just because one might feels good after a shift volunteering at a animal shelter, for instance, the good feeling takes nothing away from what's motivating that behavior. The motivation could still be to care for scared, abandoned, or sick domestic animals. The Psychological Egoist is mistaken because just because our successful moral actions may be accompanied by feelings of pleasure had by the moral agent, it does not follow that the reason one acted was for the pleasure.

Value language is pervasive and exists in both moral and non-moral contexts. What's the best explanation for why the claim, "eating octopus is disgusting," is not a moral claim?

The claim is just an expression of taste and not meant to be persuasive about eating octopus.

What's the best explanation for why the claim, "Strawberry ice-cream is gross," is not a moral claim?

The claim is just an expression of taste and not meant to be persuasive to get people to eat strawberry ice-cream.

What, according to Socrates, obligates him to follow the laws of Athens and not escape jail even though his friend, Crito thinks he should?

The fact that Socrates has benefited from the laws, he had an obligation to follow the laws even when they did not benefit his immediate self-interest.

Ethical Egoism

The normative ethical theory that all people ought to pursue their selfish desires

The two conditions by which we evaluate arguments including moral arguments are the truth-condition and the logic-condition. What does it mean to evaluate the truth-condition of moral argument?

The truth-condition of a moral argument is evaluated according to whether the premises are true, acceptable, and relevant.

While it's true that moral judgments share some similar aspects related to opinions, tastes, and preferences, Ethical Subjectivism is flawed by jumping to the conclusion that moral judgments are merely opinions, tastes, and personal preferences. How could it be said that moral judgments aren't merely opinions, tastes, and personal preferences?

The way moral judgments are different in the way they attempt to be persuasive -- a built in "you should" or "you shouldn't" -- supports the idea that moral judgments are not merely opinions, tastes, and personal preferences. The way moral judgments are different in the way they can be a function of reason-based arguments supports the idea that moral judgments are not merely opinions, tastes, and personal preferences.

Ethical Relativism is best defined as:

There are no objective moral truths; an action is right or wrong depending on the moral norms of the society in which it is practiced.

How could it be said that the Divine Command Theory of morality suffers from some of the same problem of moral instability as Ethical Relativism?

There are no universal interpretations as to what all the commandments mean when applied to human conduct, and so what counts as morally right behavior even among followers of the same religious texts varies according to cultural beliefs. What God's commands mean in terms of describing correct moral behavior depend on interpretations which are always done from an historical and cultural point of view. There is no universal independent standard as to what counts as the true word of God (e.g. Qur'an, Gospels, Torah, Vedas, Book of Mormon, etc.), and so what counts as God's commands vary according to cultural beliefs.

Dr. Smith is irresponsible. She bases her diagnoses on superficial considerations; she gets drunk before performing delicate surgery; she refuses to listen to other doctors' advice. If an Ethical Relativist said in response, "You can't say that the Dr. Smith is irresponsible because in some cultures those types of behavior might be considered responsible," how is the Ethical Relativist mistaken?

They mistakenly think the truth about whether "Dr. Smith is irresponsible" is dependent on cultural values rather than a logical conclusion of this moral argument.

The Psychological Egoist thinks that all motivations are a matter of self-interest. They might say: "Well, since all actions are based on a person's desire to achieve some outcome -- whether it be volunteering at a woman's shelter, a food bank, or an animal shelter -- they are satisfying some desire *they* have. That means their motivation is one of self-interest." How is this mistaken?

To say that every action is motivated by interests or desires this fails to distinguish those that aim to benefit others and those that aim to benefit ourselves. What matters is the "purpose" of the action and what it aims for; not that the motive comes from a self. Where else would a motive come from other than a "self" after all, thin air? Just because a person has a desire to help others, that doesn't mean the desire is self-interested.

Ethics is sometimes called, moral philosophy. Which branch of the academic subject of philosophy does ethics belong to?

Value Theory

Moral philosophy and ethics are a part of which branch of the academic subject of philosophy?

Value theory

Which of the following is closest in meaning to the perspective of "moral isolationism" that Mary Midgley is critical of in her essay, "Trying Out One's New Sword"?

We can't make moral judgments about other cultural practices because they are different.

Socrates' version of the Social Contract provides some options if one disagrees with the laws. What's not an option?

We can't stay, and break the laws because we also have an obligation to our friends and family since they count on us for friendship and support - that for Socrates would be both morally wrong and irrational. We can't stay, break the laws and try to escape punishment by bribing the guards because that unfairly implicates a moral citizen into an immoral action - that for Socrates would be both morally wrong and irrational. We can't stay, break the laws and try to escape punishment - that for Socrates would be both morally wrong and irrational.

Currently, no Christian organizations publicly endorse torture as a morally permissible response for not following Divine commands. But for several hundred years after Pope Gregory IX initiated the Inquisition in 1231 CE, Dominican monks were tasked with investigating suspected acts of heresy, and torturing suspected heretics to get them to recant their heresy. Considering the critiques of the Divine Command as a moral theory, what's the most likely answer for why torture was morally permissible by Christians in the past but morally prohibited by Christians today?

What counts as moral -- even from objective sources such as religious scripture -- is heavily influenced by cultural norms during the time, rather than a function of what the religious scripture itself says.

Catechism of the Catholic church states that the death penalty is morally permissible, but Pope Francis and the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops oppose it as immoral. With this example, how could it be said that the Divine Command Theory is similar to Ethical Relativism?

What counts as moral varies according to how communities interpret what the scripture means rather than by some objective command found in scripture itself.

Phrased as a question, moral philosophy is centered around which question?

What's the right thing to do?

What does the Veil of Ignorance thought experiment imply for the Social Contract Theory?

When it comes to creating the rules for society, we all have a natural propensity to favor the laws, rules, and policies in society that favor our particular circumstantial interests.

To many, an initial appeal of the Divine Command Theory is that it seems provides objective and absolute rules of conduct. Why would objective and absolute rules seem like appealing traits of a moral theory?

When there are no absolute standards of morality societies deteriorate. When moral rules are dependent on social norms and personal opinions, morality becomes flexible and loses clarity on what's right and wrong.

Reliance on the Divine Command Theory might initially seem to attractive in that it communicates clear rules of right and wrong. Why, then, is there disagreement within Christian religions on the moral permissibility of something as simple as drinking alcohol?

Where the issue comes up in biblical scripture, there's no objective interpretation on the morality of drinking alcohol.

In the moral argument above, the truth of the moral judgment that "Sam is a bad person" is based upon which factors?

Whether the claim, "Sam makes fun of people behind their back" is factually true. Whether the claim, "Sam regularly cheats when he thinks he can get away with it" is factually true. Whether the claim, "Sam is only a friend when he wants something in return" is factually true. Whether the moral principle is factually true. Whether the moral principle is acceptable.

Self-sacrificing example

While driving home, Sam stopped so the ducks could cross safely across the road

According to the Divine Command Theory, why should you rid yourselves of immorality, impurity, lust, and greed, and transform yourself through compassion, kindness, humility, gentleness and patience as Paul discusses in his letter to Colossians?

You should be this way if you believe that God has commanded this of you.

Psychological Egoism

descriptive theory that argues that humans naturally pursue whatever aligns with their best self-interest

A central criticism of Ethical Relativism is that being tolerant of cultural differences does NOT mean that...

all cultural practices are equally morally justifiable. we should accept any and all cultural practices as equally valuable. all moral principles are equally justifiable.

altruism

an action that benefits a group but does not directly benefit the individual performing the action

According to Rachels, when the Divine Command Theory is taken to mean "right conduct is right because God commands it," this makes morality what?

arbitrary

Moral judgments are the ____________ of moral arguments.

conclusions

Ethical Relativism uses __________________________ as a reason for concluding that there are no objective moral truths, and right or wrong depend on the moral norms of the society in which it is practiced.

cultural relativism

Midgley is critical of moral isolationism (i.e. Ethical Relativism) because it effectively restricts____________.

moral reasoning altogether.

According to Divine Command Theory, one is moral to the extent that one is __________.

obedient to the commands of God (aka, the Divine).

self-interest

one's own personal gain