PHYL 141 TEST 1,2,3
Genes
"nevels"
Glycocalyx
"sugar coat"
Codons
"words"
Squamous suture
- Articulates temporal bone & parietal bone on each side of skull
Proportion of organic & inorganic substances
- Correct proportion allows optimal functioning - Loss of protein results in brittle bones - Insufficient calcium results in soft bones
False ribs (ribs 8-12)
- Costal cartilages not attached directly to the sternum - Costal cartilage of ribs 8-10 o - Fused to costal cartilage of rib 7 - Indirectly attached to sternum - Floating ribs of 11-12 without a connection to sternum
The hip joint gets its stability from
- Deep bony socket - Strong articular capsule - Supporting ligaments - Muscular padding
Transverse ridges
- Horizontal lines of fusion remaining
Angular motion
- Increases or decreases angle between two bones - Includes specific types Flexion and extension Hyperextension Lateral flexion Abduction and adduction Circumduction
What are the characteristics of nervous tissue?
-only tissue that nerve impulses or electrical signals can travel through -coordinates body activities
Stages of wound healing
1) Cut blood vessels bleed into wound 2) Blood clot forms and leukocytes clean wound - Clot is a temporary barrier for pathogens 3) Blood vessels re-grow and granulation tissue forms - Vascular CT initially forms in wound 4) Epithelium regenerates and CT fibrosis occurs
Effects of Aging
1) Decreased tensile strength of bone ̶ Reduced rate of protein synthesis by osteoblasts ̶ Relative amount of inorganic material increases ̶ Become brittle and susceptible to fracture 2) Bone loss of calcium and other minerals ̶ Bones thinner and weaker ̶ Insufficient ossification, osteopenia - Reduced hormones- Vitamin D, growth hormone, estrogen, and testosterone
Steps of appositional growth
1) Stem cells at edge of perichondrium begin to divide 2) New undifferentiated stem cells and new chondroblasts are formed 3) Chondroblasts push apart and become chondrocytes
Female pubic angle
100 degrees or more
Sacrum
5 fused vertebrae
Bones in cervical vertebrae
7
Atoms Complex Protein Molecules Chemical Level Cellular Level Tissue Level Organ Level Organ system Level Organismal Level
8 levels of organization
false ribs
8-12
Bones of the Axial Skeleton
80 of the 206 bones in the body make up the axial skeleton. it is comprised of the skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum.
Synthesis Reaction (Anabolism)
A + B --> AB
Which purines are bonded to which pyrimidines? How many hydrogen bond hold them together?
A = T (double bond) C --- G (triple bond)
Can be a sign of melanoma
A black stripe on your nail
Axon
A threadlike extension of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body.
What makes up bone tissue?
About 25% of bone tissue is water, another 25% is made up of protein fibers like collagen. The other 50% of bone tissue is a mixture of mineral salts, primarily calcium and phosphorous.
Superior
Above
small intestine, large intestine
After the stomach food enters the ________ ________, and then the ___________ _________
Humerus
Anatomical neck- Groove marking location of former epiphyseal plate Surgical neck- Narrowing immediately distal to the tubercles, fractures easily, Deltoid tuberosity, Deltoid muscle attachment Radial groove- Location of radial nerve and some blood vessels Medial and lateral epicondyles- Provide surfaces for muscle attachment, Palpated on sides of elbow o Ulnar nerve travels posterior to medial epicondyle "Funny bone"
forearm
Antebrachial
dermis
Any injury that hits the ____________ causes scarring
dense connective tissue
Binds organ
abdominal cavity
Cavity housing intestines.
pimples (from accumulated sebum)
Comedones
uses the base A, T, C, G
DNA
What are the nucleotides (chains of nucleic acids) composed of?
DNA and RNA
What are the two major types of nucleic acids?
DNA and RNA
What is transcription?
DNA and RNA
Melanoma
Deadliest form of skin cancer!
falling apart
Decomposition (catabolism)
reticular layer
Deeper layer of the dermis
Epithelial tissue extensive innervation
Detection of changes in environment in a region
The middle (shaft) of long bones
Diaphysis
Mesenchymal cells
Embryonic stem cell, divides to replace damaged cells One replaces mesenchymal cell, other becomes committed cell
Structures of the knee joint - Articular capsule
Encloses only medial, lateral, and posterior knee regions
What is endocytosis/exocytosis?
Endo- food particles taken in Exo- eliminate waste
suture that separates the temporal bone from the parietal bone is called
Ethmoid
Hirsutism - Hair growth
Excessive male pattern hairiness Typically on face, chest, back Excess androgens Caused by medical condition or medication
- Sphenomandibular ligament
Extends anteriorly and inferiorly from sphenoid to mandible
Structures of the knee joint - Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL)
Extends from anteroinferior femur to posterior tibia Prevents hyperflexion and posterior displacement of tibia
Structures of the knee joint - Tibial collateral ligament
Extends from femur to tibia, Reinforces medial surface of joint Prevents hyperabduction
Structures of the knee joint - Patellar ligament
Extends from patella to tibial tuberosity
Structures of the knee joint - Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)
Extends from posterior femur to anterior tibia Prevents hyperextension and anterior displacement of tibia
- Temporomandibular ligament
Extends inferiorly and posteriorly from articular tubercle to mandible
Short, flat & irregular bones differ from long bones
External surface composed of compact bone Interior composed of spongy bone ˗ Diploë—spongy bone in flat bone of skull No medullary cavity
What three atoms are associated with hydrogen bonding?
F.O.N
glycerides
Fatty acid attached to glycerol molecule
when a cell exits the cell cycle, it could divide, but it doesn't want to.
G0/Quiescence
What happens in tissue repair?
Herpes: heat, redness, pain, swelling
What are the two different types of plasma membrane proteins?
Integral and peripheral
Nucleus pulposus and annulus fibrosus make up the ___________. (hint: jelly donut)
Intervertebral discs
Ischiofemoral ligament
Intracapsular ligament posteriorly located
Development and Aging of the Joints
Joints start to form by sixth week of development
brown pigmentation
Lesions with melanin confined to basal cells
Superior (external)
Located outside the body
breast
Mammary glands
Glycoproteins
Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to proteins.
merocrine vs holocrine
Merocrine: cell is lost with the secretion Holocrine: cell detaches with the secretion
ATP
Most chemical reactions in the body require ________ transport
Clinical View: Nail Disorders
Nails are indicative of overall health - Brittle nails are prone to vertical splitting and separation of nail plate layers - Ingrown nails with edge of nail digging into skin - Onchomycosis is a fungal infection - Yellow nail syndrome occurs when growth and thickening slows - Spoon nails outer surface of nail is concave - Beau's lines indicate temporary interference with nail growth - Vertical ridging common and usually harmless
Apex
Narrow, pointed portion of the bone projecting inferiorly
________ is a bone that makes up a portion of the nasal septum. (hint: it is very much in the middle and very much alone).
Nasal bones
_________ are bones that are found on the anterior aspect of the nose (hint: nose nose nose).
Nasal bones
Zone of ̶ resting cartilage
Nearest epiphysis Small chondrocytes distributed throughout matrix Resembles mature hyaline cartilage Secures epiphysis to epiphyseal plate
Flesh eating
Necrotizing Fasciitis
Is cartilage vascular?
No, it is avascular
Epithelial tissue avascular
Nutrients obtained across apical surface or from the basal surface
Pathologic fracture
Occurs in bone weakened by disease
Simple epithelium
One cell layer, all cells in direct contact with basement membrane - Filtration, absorption, or secretion is primary function - E.g., lining of air sacs of lungs, intestines, blood vessels
Compound fracture
One or both ends of the bone pierce overlying skin
Epthelium
One or more layer of closely packed cells, little to no extra cellular matrix, covers body surfaces, lines body cavities, forms majority of glands
Trabeculae- Spongy bone
Open lattice of narrow rods and plates of bones Bone marrow fills spaces Meshwork of crisscrossing bars Resistance to stresses
dissolve the bony matrix through osteolysis
Osteoclasts
(aka: osteoprogenitor cells) differentiate into osteoblasts
Osteogenic cells
What are the 2 major divisions of the dermis?
Papillary and reticular
Compact bone
Perforated by neurovascular canals Cylindrical structures—osteons ˗ Display concentric rings of bone CT called lamellae ˗ Lamellae encircle central canal, location of blood vessels and nerves
macrophages and other white blood cells
Phagocytosis occurs with ...
ATP
Primary active transport
ribosomes on its outer surface and forms transport vesicles
Rough ER
The phase of interphase when DNA replicates
S phase
When is DNA replicated?
S phase
Sacral vertebrae
S1-S5
across chemical gradients
Secondary active transport
If aspirin is a weakly acidic drug, where is it most likely to be absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract? Why?
Small intestines since it has a larger surface area
Mast cells
Small, mobile cells close to blood vessels oSecrete heparin to inhibit blood clotting Secrete histamine to dilate blood vessels
lipid synthesis and detoxification
Smooth ER
Compact bone
Spongy bone Dense or cortical bone Relatively dense CT Appears white, smooth & solid 80% of bone mass
dissolves, solute
Sugar _____________s in water (making it the ________)
Functions of the skelatal system
Support & protection - Bones provide structural support - A framework for the body - Protect many delicate tissues o Rib cage: heart & lungs o Cranial bones: brain o Vertebrae: spinal cord o Pelvis: urinary & reproductive organs & end of GI tract
Bone markings
Surface features that characterize each bone
G1 = Cell growth S = Synthesis G2 = Growth M = Mitosis
The Cell Cycle
What is homeostasis?
The bodies ability to maintain a stable internal environment
Arthrology
The study of joints
Intrinsic ligaments
Thickening of the articular capsule itself Include ligaments outside and within the joint capsule Cruciate
Stress fracture
Thin break caused by increased physical activity Bone experiences repetitive loads (e.g., runners)
Stress fracture
Thin break caused by increased physical activity o Bone experiences repetitive loads (e.g., runners)
chest
Thoracic or Thorax
The bones of the spine that are found in the chest region
Thoracic vertebrae
Dense regular CT
Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers, resemble stacked lasagna noodles o In tendons & ligaments; stress typically applied in a single direction Few blood vessels; takes a long time to heal
adipose tissue
Tissue that stores fat Located beneath the skin and in bone marrow
the extracellular fluid
Tonicity is usually describing ...
Intertrochanteric line
Travels between two trochanters
Pubofemoral ligament
Triangular thickening of capsule's inferior region - Become taut when hip extended
is a large, rough projection
Trochanter
Ribs 1-7, aka _________, attach directly to the sternum via extensions off their own cartilages.
True ribs
Lateral rotation
Turns anterior surface of bone laterally
Medial rotation
Turns anterior surface of bone medially
Stratified epithelium
Two or more layers - In areas subjected to mechanical stress o Better able to resist wear & tear o E.g., skin, lining of the esophagus, lining of urinary bladder - Cells in basal layer continuously regenerate to replace apical cells
Gouty arthritis
Typically seen in middle-aged or older males Due to increased levels of uric acid
The bone of the forearm that is found on the "pinky-side"
Ulna
Collagen fibers
Unbranched, "cable-like" long fibers, appear white in fresh tissue Strong, flexible, and resistant to stretching Numerous in tendons & ligaments
Epithelial tissue high regeneration capacity
Undergoes frequent cell division, regenerates at high rate, necessary due to environmental exposure, continual replacement of plots cells. Cell division of stem cells
The bones of the spine that are found in the hip region (not lower back).
Vertebral arch
Rickets
Vitamin D deficiency
Zone of ̶ ossification
Walls break down between lacunae in columns Spaces invaded by capillaries and osteoprogenitor cells New bone matrix deposited on the calcified cartilage matrix
Eccrine (merocrine)
Watery & salty secretions, located almost everywhere on our bodies (Perspiration)
DNA & RNA
What are the 2 main nucleic acids
goes past the dermis
a burn is 3rd dergree is it...
cavity contain internal organs such as liver, stomach, and kidneys
abdominal cavity
Superior
above
Is household chlorine an example of an acid or a base?
acid
Is lemon juice an example of an acid or a base?
acid
shoulder
acromial
movement of watery material into the cell is
active transport
The term used to describe "a disease of short duration by typically severe"
acute
heavier (1 neutron = 1 amu)
adding neutrons to an atom makes it _________
fat cells
adipocytes
Epigastric region
area right outside the stomach
Supporting CT
bone and cartilage
Articulating surfaces
condyle, facet, head, trochlea
shins
crural
function of calcitonin
decreases blood calcium
What is osmosis?
diffusion of water
The uppermost layer of skin is
epidermis
contains keratinocytes
epidermis
bone deposition
formation of bone, action of osteoblasts
Tissues are
groups of similar cells that act as a functional unit, extra cellular material
interstitial growth
growth in length
Ilium
hip bone
bone of the arm
humerus
The cartilage found at the end of long bones
hyaline
What are the 3 different types of cartilage?
hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
"loves water"
hydrophilic
Dorsal
in back of
aka skin
integument
somatic cells spend majority of their time in
interphase
Patella
kneecap
goblet cells location
lining of organs, such as the intestinal and respiratory tracts
Mandible
lower jaw
Degrees of Severity
mild, moderate, severe, profound
Nuclear division of somatic cells
mitosis
Meiosis vs. Mitosis
mitosis=genetically identical diploid cells meiosis=genetically unique haploid cells
osmosis
movement of H2O across a selectively permeable membrane
Unit of nervous system
neuron
nervous system
neurons are a part of the ________ system
Nasal
nose
What are the four major types of organic compounds?
nucleic acid protein carbohydrates lipids
2 parts of intervertebral discs
nucleus pulposus and anulus fibrosus
Ligaments
o Anchor bone to bone
back of the skull
occipital
solution that causes water to flow out of a cell
osmosis
basic unit of bone
osteon (haversian system)
knee cap
patella
Erythocytes
red blood cells
What is RNA?
ribonucleic acid: controls steps in protein synthesis
Tibia
shin bone
basal layer of epidermis
stratum basale
deepest layer of epidermis
stratum basale
covalent bonds
strong bonds where electrons are shared equally
Collagen
structural protein found in the skin and connective tissue
face up
supine
Functions of bones
support, protection, movement, storage, blood cell formation
calf
sural
Wormian bones are also known as
sutural bones
Types of exocrine glands
sweat and sebaceous
ankle
tarsal
Lucidum
thick skin
Medial malleolus
tibia
What are cilia?
tiny hair-like projections used to move a cell or to move things past a cell
What are burns?
tissue damage and cell death
cartilage function
to support
Divides superior and inferior
transverse
(neutral fats) consist of three fatty acid molecules attached by dehydration synthesis to a molecule of glycerol
triglycerides
small, rounded projection
tubercle
transitional epithelium
urinary bladder
bladder
urine is stored in the _________
Is bone vascular?
very vascular
arrector pili muscle
what cause chicken skin
spongy bone and is the location where lipids (fats) are stored
yellow bone marrrow
Cheek bone
zygomatic bone
Herniated Discs - Treatment options
- "Wait and see", NSAIDs, Surgery - Microdiscectomy—portion of disc removed - Discectomy—vertebrae and muscles incised before removing portions of disc
Bones of the Upper Limb
- 1 humerus - 1 radius and 1 ulna - 8 carpal bones - 5 metacarpal bones - 14 phalanges
Thoracic vertebrae
- 12 total, each articulating with the ribs - Heart-shaped bodies - Costal facets or demifacets, On lateral side of body and on sides of transverse processes - Head of rib articulates with costal facet or demifacet - Tubercle of rib articulates with costal facets on transverse processes - T11 and T12 lack transverse costal facets
Stratum lucidum
- 2 to 3 cell layers - Translucent, Clear layer - Superficial to stratum granulosum - Found only on thick skin on palms and soles - Cells filled with a translucent protein, eleidin o Intermediate product in keratin maturation o Helps protect from UV light
Vertebral column
- 24 individual vertebrae plus the fused sacrum and coccyx - Each articulates with one superior and one inferior vertebra - Provides vertical support for body - Supports weight of head - Helps maintain an upright body position - Houses and protects spinal cord
Os coxae: (Hip bone)
- 3 bones: Ilium, Ischium, Pubis - Fuse between ages 13 to 15 years - Articulates posteriorly with sacrum at sacroiliac joint - Femur articulation with acetabulum, Deep, curved depression on lateral os coxae o Region where 3 bones have fused - C-shaped smooth surface on acetabulum, lunate surface o Articulates with femoral head
Phalanges
- 3 in 2nd through 5th fingers - 2 phalanges in thumb (pollex) - Proximal phalanx articulate with head of metacarpal - Distal phalanx at tip of finger - Middle phalanx between proximal & distal phalanges
Auditory ossicles
- 3 tiny ear bones - Housed within petrous part of each temporal bone - Malleus, incus, and stapes
Stratum granulosum
- 3 to 5 layers of keratinocytes - Granular layer - Superficial to stratum spinosum - Process begins called keratinization o Keratinocytes fill with keratin o Causes nucleus and organelles to disintegrate o Fully keratinized cell dead but structurally sound o Process not complete until in more superficial layers
Pelvis Girdle and Its Functions • Pelvis
- 4 bones- Sacrum, coccyx, right and left ossa coxae - Supports viscera in inferior part of ventral body cavity • Pelvic girdle - Left and right ossa coxae only - Articulates with trunk - Provides attachment point for lower limbs - Angled slightly anteriorly when standing upright
Vertebral column divisions
- 5 divisions or regions - Identified by capital letter for region followed by numerical subscript Indicates sequence from superior to inferior locations
Synovial joints
- A joint cavity - Most body joints - Diarthrotic (freely mobile) - Basic features: Articular capsule, Synovial fluid, Articular cartilage o Ligaments, nerves & blood vessels
Dysplasia
- Abnormal tissue development - May be precancerous, or revert back to normal - Must be closely monitored by professionals - cervical dysplasia due to exposure to human papillomavirus
Cuboidal cells
- About as tall as they are wide - Edges somewhat rounded - Nucleus spherical and in center of cell
Calcitonin
- Aids in regulating blood calcium levels - Less significant role than PTH or calcitriol - Released from the thyroid gland in response to high blood calcium levels - Also secreted in response to exercise - Inhibits osteoclast activity - Stimulates kidneys to increase loss of calcium in the urine o Reducing blood calcium levels - Greatest effect during greatest bone turnover o E.g., growing children - Therapeutic injections o Not able to provide long-term decrease in blood calcium - Entire function still unclear
Nonkeratinized
- All cells alive, kept moist with secretions (e.g., saliva, mucus) - Lack keratin, protective protein - Microscopically visible cell nuclei - Oral cavity, part of pharynx, esophagus, vagina, anus
Carpals: Wrist bones
- Allow multiple movements at wrist - Arranged in 2 rows of 4 bones each - Proximal row from lateral to medial- Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform - Distal row from lateral to medial- Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate
Extension
- Also in anterior-posterior plane, but opposite of flexion - Increases angle between articulating bones - E.g., straightening your fingers after making a fist
Protraction
- Anterior movement from anatomic position - E.g., jutting jaw anteriorly at temporomandibular joint
Sacrum
- Anteriorly curved, triangular bone - Forms posterior wall of pelvic cavity - Articulates with L5 superiorly Via pair of superior articular processes
Promontory
- Anterosuperior edge of first sacral vertebra - Bulges anteriorly into pelvic cavity
Spinal Curvatures- Secondary curves
- Appear after birth - Help shift trunk weight over the legs - Cervical curve appears when child is able to hold up head (3-4 months) - Lumbar curve appears when child is learning to stand and walk (by first year of life)
Pseudostratifed columnar epithelium
- Appears as multiple cell layers - Not really stratified o All cells in direct contact with basement membrane o Nuclei scattered at different distances o Not all cells reach apical surface
Elbow isvery stable because
- Articular capsule is thick - Bony surfaces of humerus and ulna interlock closely - Multiple, strong ligaments reinforce articular capsule
Planejoint
- Articular surfaces flat, Simplest, least mobile synovial articulation - Uniaxial: limited side-to-side gliding movement in a single plane
What are the main components and functional characteristics of the hip joint?
- Articulation between head of the femur and acetabulum of os coxa - Acetabular labrum—fibrocartilaginous ring that deepens socket - More stable, less mobile than glenohumeral joint
Gomphoses (peg in a socket)
- Articulations of teeth with sockets of mandible and maxillae - Tooth held in place by fibrous periodontal membranes - Function as synarthroses
Plagiocephaly
- Asymmetric head shape ̶ Caused by unilateral craniosynostosis or normal deformational factors
Xiphoidprocess
- At tip of sternum, doesn't ossify until age 40
Endoderm
- Becomes innermost germ layer - Structures derived o Epithelial linings of the tympanic cavity and auditory tube o Epithelial linings of digestive, respiratory, reproductive & urinary tract o Thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, thymus o Portions of palatine tonsils o Most of liver, gallbladder, pancreas
Process of cartilage growth
- Begins during embryologic development - Growth in length through interstitial growth o Occurs within internal regions of cartilage - Growth in width by appositional growth o Occurs on cartilage's outside edge
Endochondral ossification
- Begins w/ a hyaline cartilage model, produces most of skeleton (long bones)
Bone formation
- Begins with secretion of osteoid - Calcification occurs, deposition of hydroxyapatite crystals o Calcium & phosphate ions precipitate out, form crystals - Process requires o Vitamin D—enhances calcium absorption from GI tract oVitamin C—required for collagen formation o Calcium & phosphate for calcification
Tibiofemoral joint
- Between condyles of femur and condyles of tibia
Patellofemoral joint
- Between patella and patellar surface of femur
Axis (C2)
- Body of axis fused here - Produces dens; a pivot for lateral rotation between atlas and skull - Atlantoaxial joint between atlas and axis, Permits shaking the head "no"
Intramembranous ossification
- Bone growth within a membrane; Dermal ossification - Produces flat bones of skull, some of the facial bones, mandible - Begins when mesenchyme thickens with capillaries
Blood supply and innervation of bone
- Bone highly vascularized, e.g., in regions of spongy bone - Vessels enter from periosteum - Nutrient foramen o Small opening or hole in bone o Artery entrance and vein exit here • Nerves that supply bone o Accompany blood vessels through foramen o Innervate bone, periosteum, endosteum, and marrow cavity o Mainly sensory nerves
Bone resorption
- Bone matrix is destroyed by substances released from osteoclasts - Proteolytic enzymes released from lysosomes within osteoclasts o Chemically digest organic matrix components - Calcium and phosphate dissolved by hydrochloric acid - Freed calcium and phosphate ions enter the blood - Occurs when blood calcium levels are low
Pivot joint
- Bone with rounded surface fits into ligament ring - Uniaxial joint: rotation on longitudinal axis
Metacarpals
- Bones in palm of hand - Articulate with distal carpal bones - Support the palm - Roman numerals I-V denote metacarpal bones - Metacarpal I at base of the thumb, V at base of little finger
Synchondroses
- Bones joined by hyaline cartilage - Immobile (synarthroses)
Appendicular skeleton
- Bones of upper and lower limbs ̶ Girdles of bones attach limbs to axial skeleton ̶ Pectoral girdle holds upper limbs in place ̶ Pelvic girdle holds lower limbs in place
Syndesmoses
- Bound by interosseous membrane, broad ligamentous sheet - Found between radius and ulna and between tibia and fibula - Function as amphiarthroses, Provide pivot for two long bones
Components of the upper limb
- Brachium (arm) - Antebrachium (forearm) - Hand
Sternum
- Breastbone; Flat bone forming anterior midline of thoracic wall
Base
- Broad superior surface - 5 fused vertebrae - Completely fused by age 20-30
Structure of hyaline cartilage
- Cells scattered through matrix of protein fibers - Embedded in a gel-like ground substance o Includes proteoglycans but not calcium - Resilient & flexible - High percentage of water - Highly compressible & a good shock absorber - Avascular & contains no nerves - Chondroblasts—produce cartilage matrix
Metaplasia
- Change of mature epithelium to a different form - May occur as epithelium adapts to environment - E.g., smokers o Experience metaplastic changes in trachea epithelium o Normal pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium becomes nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium o Will revert back quickly if person quits smoking
Transitional cells
- Change shape, depending on stretch of epithelium o E.g., lining of the bladder, binucleated cells (two nuclei) - Polyhedral when epithelium relaxed, more flat when stretched
Chondrocytes
- Chondroblasts encased within the matrix o Occupy small spaces, lacunae - Maintain the matrix
Ciliated simple columnar epithelium
- Cilia project from apical surface oMove mucus along - Goblet cells interspersed oBronchioles. Uterine tubes
Cells
- Classes of CT have specific cell types - Most cells not in direct contact with each other - Two classes of cells o Resident cells o Wandering cells
Apocrin sweat glands
- Coiled, tubular glands - Discharge secretions into hair follicles located axillae, around nipples, in pubic and anal region - Produce secretion by membrane pinching off - Produce viscous cloudy secretions o Contain proteins and lipids, Produce odor when acted on by bacteria - Start producing secretions during puberty
Axial skeleton
- Composed of bones along central body axis ̶ Skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage ̶ Framework supports and protects organs ̶ Spongy bone contains hemopoietic tissue
Tendons
- Composed of dense regular connective tissue - Not part of the synovial joint itself - Attach muscle to bone - Help stabilize joints
Compact bone
- Composed of small cylindrical structures—osteons Haversian systems o Basic functional and structural unit of mature compact bone o Oriented parallel to bone diaphysis o Appears as bull's-eye target
Cardiac muscle tissue
- Confined to middle layer of heart wall, myocardium - Responsible for heart contraction to pump blood - Visible striations - Cells short and often bifurcating - One or two nuclei - Cells connected by intercalated discs • Strengthen connection between cells • Promote rapid conduction of electrical activity - Involuntary • Cannot be controlled by voluntary nervous system • Pacemaker cells initiate contraction
Cleft palate
- Congenital fissure in palate midline ̶ Left and right maxillary and palatine bones incompletely fused ̶ May have trouble swallowing ̶ Food traveling from oral to nasal cavity ̶ Multifactorial etiology ̶ Sometimes occurs with cleft lip
True ribs (ribs 1-7)
- Connect individually to the sternum by cartilaginous extensions ˗ Termed costal cartilages Smallest true rib is the first
Characteristics of fibrous joints
- Connected by dense regular connective tissue - Have no joint cavity - Immobile to only slightly mobile - Three most common types are Gomphoses, Sutures, Syndesmoses
Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
- Contains cilia on apical surface - Protective functions - Goblet cells secrete mucin o Traps foreign particles moved by cilia - Located in large passageways of respiratory system
Non-ciliated simple columnar epithelium
- Contains microvilli oFuzzy structure—brush border - Unicellular glands—goblet cells oSecrete glycoprotein—mucin oForms mucus when mixed with water - Lines most of digestive tract from stomach to anal canal
Sacral canal
- Continuation of vertebral canal - Continues through sacrum on posterior side - Terminates in inferior opening, sacral hiatus - On either side, bony projections termed sacral cornua
Bone Remodeling
- Continues throughout adulthood - Occurs at periosteal and endosteal surfaces of a bone - Occurs at different rates - distal femur replaced in 4-6 months, diaphysis never completely replaced - 20% of skeleton replaced yearly - Coordinated by activities of osteoblasts, osteocytes & osteoclasts - Influenced by hormones and mechanical stress
Saddlejoint
- Convex and concave surfaces resembling saddle shape, Biaxial
Hingejoint
- Convex surface within concave depression - Uniaxial: like the hinge of a door
• Cutaneous membrane (skin)
- Covers external surface of body - Composed of o Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium o Underlying CT - Protects internal organs and prevents water loss
Shape and structure different in infants and adults
- Cranial sutures almost fully developed by age 5 - Young child's cranium relatively large compared to body - Infant's cranial bones not large enough to surround brain completely
Stratum basale
- Deepest epidermal layer - Stratum germinativum or basal layer - Single layer of cuboidal to low columnar cells - Attached to underlying basement membrane oSeparates epidermis dermis - Three cell types 1.Keratinocytes 2.Melanocytes 3.Tactile cells
Perichondrium
- Dense irregular CT - Covers cartilage and helps maintain its shape
Ligaments
- Dense regular connective tissue - Connect one bone to another - Stabilize, strengthen, and reinforce synovial joints
Lymph
- Derived from blood plasma - No cellular components or fragments - Ultimately returned to bloodstream
Vasodilation
- Diameter of vessels increases, more blood travel through ̶ More blood can travel close to surface ̶ Results in reddish/pink skin, flushed face during exercise • Sensory Reception - Skin has extensive innervation o Distribution of nerve fibers o Monitor stimuli in dermis and epidermis - Touch receptors detect stimuli o Send input to brain
Humerus
- Distal end with 2 curved surfaces - Articulation with bones of forearm - Capitulum located laterally - Articulates with radius Trochlea located medially ˗ Articulates with trochlear notch of ulna
Humerus
- Distal end with 3 depressions—2 on anterior surface, 1 on posterior surface - Radial fossa anterolaterally placed, Accommodates radial head - Coronoid fossa anteromedially placed, Accommodates coronoid process of ulna - Olecranon fossa posteriorly placed- Accommodates olecranon of ulna when elbow is extended
Unicellular glands
- Do not contain a duct - Located close to epithelium surface - Most common type is goblet cell
Special movements
- Do not readily fit other functional categories • Depression • Elevation
Stages of cartilage growth
- During early embryonic development o Interstitial & appositional growth occur simultaneously - As cartilage matures o Interstitial growth declines rapidly o Cartilage becomes semirigid o Future growth primarily appositional - After cartilage is fully mature o New cartilage growth stops o Growth occurs only after injury
Third-Class Levers
- Effort applied between resistance & fulcrum - E.g., forceps - Most common in body - Moves a greater distance - E.g., at elbow joint, Joint is fulcrum; biceps tendon applies effort; weight in hand provides resistance
Properties of cartilaginous joints
- Either hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage between bones - Lack a joint cavity - Immobile to slightly mobile - Synchondroses or symphyses
Irregularbones
- Elaborate, sometimes complex shapes - Do not fit any previous category o E.g., vertebrae, ossa coxae- hip bones, several bones in skull- ethmoid, sphenoid, sutural bones
Ribs
- Elongated, curved, flattened bones - Originate on thoracic vertebrae - End in anterior wall of thorax - 12 pairs of ribs
What is a lever?
- Elongated, rigid object rotates around fixed point, fulcrum - Has ability to change, Speed and distance of movement produced by a force, Direction of applied force, Force strength • Effort applied to one point • Resistance located at some other point • Movement occurs if effort exceeds resistance • Effort arm - Part of lever from fulcrum to point of effort • Resistancearm - Part of lever from fulcrum to point of resistance
Functions of the Integument- immune
- Epidermal dendritic cells o In stratum spinosum o Initiate immune response against pathogens o Attack cancer cells
Sex hormones
- Estrogen and testosterone o Dramatically accelerate bone growth at puberty - Increases cartilage growth & bone formation in epiphyseal plate - Bone formation rate greater than cartilage growth o Eventually cartilage replaced with bone- growth stops
Differences in female and male skulls
- Example of sexual dimorphism - "Female" features more delicate and small - "Male" features larger, bulkier - Features vary among populations - Difficult to determine sex of infant and juvenile remains - Appear female-like until after puberty
Movements of the TMJ
- Exhibits hinge, gliding & some pivot) joint movements - Functions like a hinge during jaw depression & elevation - Glides during protraction for biting, side-to-side grinding
Lambdoidsuture
- Extends across posterior skull surface - Articulates with parietal bones and occipital bone - Named for resembling Greek letter "lambda"
Sagittal suture
- Extends between coronal and lambdoid sutures - Articulates right and left parietal bones
Coronal suture
- Extends laterally across superior surface of skull - Articulation between anterior frontal and posterior parietal bones
Intertrochantericfractures
- Extracapsular fractures - Usually in younger and middle-aged individuals
Tactile cells - Merkel cells
- Few in number - Scattered within stratum basale - Sensitive to touch - When compressed, release chemicals o Stimulate sensory nerve endings
Loose CT (CT proper)
- Fewer cells & protein fibers than dense CT - Protein fibers are sparse & irregularly arranged - Abundant ground substance, body's "packing material", supports structures
What are the structural classes of joints?
- Fibrous joint - Cartilaginous joint - Synovial joint
Bursae
- Fibrous, saclike structures containing synovial fluid - Lined internally by synovial membrane - Found in synovial joints where bones, ligaments, muscles, skin, or tendons rub together - Connected to or separate from joint cavity - Alleviate friction
Cartilage
- Firm, semisolid extracellular matrix - Collage and elastic protein fibers - Chondrocytes—mature cells o Occupy small spaces called lacunae - Surrounded by a dense irregular CT covering o Perichondrium ˗ Outer fibrous layer and inner cellular layer - Stronger & more resilient than other CT - More flexible than bone - In areas of body that need support & withstand deformation (e.g., tip of nose) - Avascular in mature state
Mesenchyme
- First type of CT in developing embryo - Star- or spindle-shaped cells - Dispersed in ground substance with immature protein fibers o Larger proportion of ground substance than mesenchymal cells - Source of all other CT cells - Adult CT often has mesenchymal stem cells, All CT derived from mesenchyme o Provide support in repair of tissue
Flat bones
- Flat, thin surfaces, may be slightly curved - Provide surfaces for muscle attachment - Protect underlying soft tissues - Locations: Roof of skull, scapulae, sternum, ribs
Squamous cells
- Flat, wide, irregular in shape - Floor tile arrangement - Nucleus flat
Elastic cartilage
- Flexible, springy cartilage; numerous densely packed elastic fibers oEnsure tissue is resilient and flexible - Resists deformational pressure - Chondrocytes closely packed, Surrounded by a perichondrium - Located in external ear and epiglottis
Movements possible at the hip joint include
- Flexion - Extension - Abduction - Adduction - Rotation - Circumduction
Blood
- Fluid connective tissue with formed elements o Cells o Erythrocytes transport respiratory gases o Leukocytes protect against infectious agents o Cellular fragments, called platelets, help clot blood - Liquid ground substance is called plasma o Dissolved proteins o Transports nutrients, wastes, hormones
Intestinal gangrene
- Follows obstruction of blood supply to intestines ̶ If untreated, leads to death
Cranial bones- 8
- Form the rounded cranium • Surrounds and encloses brain - Roof of the cranium, calvaria • Part of frontal bone, parietal bone, parts of occipital bone - Base of the cranium composed of • Portions of ethmoid, sphenoid, occipital, temporal bones
Ossification (osteogenesis)
- Formation and development of bone CT - Begins in the embryo - Continues through childhood and adolescence - By 8th through 12th weeks of embryonic development o Skeleton begins forming ˗ Fromintramembranousossification ˗ Or endochondral ossification
Sutures (seams)
- Found between some skull bones, Very short fibers - Interlocking, irregular edges, Increase strength and decrease risk of fracture - Function as synarthroses - Allow growth in childhood - Become ossified synostoses in older adults
Breaks in bone
- Fractures - Result of unusual stress or sudden impact - Increased incidence with age o Due to normal thinning and weakening of bone
Decreased bone mass- Mechanical stress
- From removal of mechanical stress - Reduced collagen formation - Demineralization o E.g., decreased strength of unstressed bone in immobilized fracture
Increased bone mass- Mechanical stress
- From weight-bearing activities o E.g., weight lifting, walking, or running - Can increase total bone mass
First-ClassLevers
- Fulcrum is between effort & resistance - E.g., pair of scissors, Effort applied to handle of scissors, Fulcrum along the middle of scissors - E.g., atlanto-occipital joint of the neck
Pubis
- Fuses with ilium & ischium at acetabulum - Ramus of ischium, Fuses anteriorly with inferior pubic ramus Forms ischiopubic ramus - Superior pubic ramus o Originates at anterior margin of acetabulum - Body of pubis o Between the superior and inferior pubic rami - Obturator foramen, space in os coxae o Encircled by pubic and ischial rami - Pubic crest, roughed ridge o On anterosuperior portion of superior pubic ramus o Ends at pubic tubercle - Symphysial surface o Site of articulation between pubic bones - Pectineal line, originating across pubis o Merges with arcuate line
Coccyx
- Fusion of 4 coccygeal vertebrae - Begins about age 25 - Attachment site for several ligaments and muscles
Long bones
- Greater in length than width - Elongated, cylindrical shaft (diaphysis) - Most common bone shape - Found in upper and lower limbs - Vary in size
Glucocorticoids- cortisol, the stress hormone
- Group of steroid hormones - Released from adrenal cortex - Regulate blood glucose level - High amounts increase bone loss o Impairs growth at epiphyseal plate in children
Hair Structures and Follicles
- Hair bulb o Swelling at base where hair originates in dermis o Surrounds hair papilla, composed of CT o Only region containing living epithelial cells - Root o Zone of hair from bulb to skin surface - Shaft o Portion of hair beyond skin surface
Features of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ)
- Head of mandible articulates with temporal bone - Has loose articular capsule, Surrounds joint, Promotes extensive range of motion - Has articular disc, Thick pad of fibrocartilage, Divides synovial cavity into two chambers
Subluxation of the head of the radius
- Head pulled out of anular ligament - Occurs almost exclusively in children (usually < 5 yrs) - Child's anular ligament thin and radial head not fully formed - Doctor may maneuver radial head back into anular ligament
Arches of the Foot
- Help support weight of the body - Ensure blood vessels on sole of foot not pinched when standing - Shape maintained primarily by foot bones themselves - Bones shaped so they can support their weight in an arch - Strong ligaments & tendons also helping maintain arches' shapes
Red bone marrow- myeloid tissue
- Hemopoietic- blood cell forming - Reticular CT, immature blood cells & fat - In children o Located in spongy bone & medullary cavity of long bones - In adults o Located only in selected areas of axial skeleton ˗ Skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, ossa coxae, proximal epiphyses of humerus & femur
Talocrural joint
- Highly modified hinge joint - Permits dorsiflexion and plantar flexion - Includes two articulations within one joint capsule Between distal end of tibia and talus Between distal end of fibula and lateral aspect of talus
Sebaceous glands
- Holocrine glands - Produce oily secretion, sebum o Lubricant for skin and hair o Bactericidal o Discharges into a hair follicle - Secretion stimulated by hormones, especially androgens - Activated during puberty
Stratum corneum
- Hornlike layer - Most superficial layer - What you see when you look at your skin - 20 to 30 layers of dead, interlocking keratinized cells oCells are anucleate (without a nucleus) and tightly packed - Cornified epithelium contains large amount of keratin - Migration of keratinocytes o Originate from stem cells in stratum basale o Migrate through strata to stratum corneum over two weeks o Undergoing structural changes ̶ Remain in stratum corneum another two weeks before shed ̶ Stratum corneum has dry, thickened surface o Unsuitable for microorganism growth o Secretions help protect
Pectoral girdle
- Humerus - Clavicle - Scapulae
Articular cartilage
- Hyaline cartilage on bone surface at joint - Functions, Reduces friction during movement, Acts as a cushion to absorb joint compression, Prevents damage to articulating ends of bones - Lacks a perichondrium - Avascular
Intracapsular ligaments
- Iliofemoral ligament - Ischiofemoral ligament - Pubofemoral ligament
Sutures
- Immovable joints - Form boundaries between cranial bones - Connected by dense regular CT - Often with intricate interlocking forms - Numerous in skull, each with specific name - Named for bones or features they interconnect E.g. occcipitomastoid suture connects occipital bone with mastoid process
Supination
- In anatomic position, palm of hand facing anteriorly - Radius and ulna parallel - Radius on lateral side of forearm - Ulna on medial side
Cleft lip
- Incomplete fusion of upper jaw components of embryo ̶ Split upper lip extending from mouth to side of one nostril ̶ Multifactorial etiology
Hyperplasia
- Increase in number of cells of a tissue
Hypertrophy
- Increase in size of existing cells of a tissue
Depression
- Inferior movement of a body part - E.g., movement of mandible while opening mouth
Costochondritis
- Inflammation of the costochondral joints - Localized chest pain - Cause usually unknown (trauma or infection) - May be mistaken for pain from a myocardial infarction - Treated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
Functions of the Integument- temperature regulation
- Influenced by capillaries and sweat glands in dermis - Dermal blood vessels play important role in body temperature/ blood pressure
Ectoderm
- Initially located on dorsal and external embryo surfaces - Responsible for forming many external structures o E.g., epidermis of skin, hair, nails, exocrine glands - Some, but not all, epithelial tissues derived from ectoderm - Other structures derived o Tooth enamel, eye lens, adrenal medulla, all nervous tissue
Exocrine glands
- Invaginated epithelium in connective tissue - Connected with epithelial surface by duct o Epithelium-lined tube for gland secretion - E.g., sweat glands, mammary glands, salivary glands
Hyperextension
- Joint extended more than 180 degrees - E.g., glancing up at the ceiling while standing
Patella
- Kneecap - Large, triangular sesamoid bone - Housed within tendon of quadriceps femoris muscle - Allows tendon to glide more smoothly - Protects knee joint - Superior broad base - Inferior pointed apex - Articular surface on posterior aspect o Articulates with patella surface of the femur
Osteoclasts
- Large, multinuclear, phagocytic cells, from fused bone marrow cells - Ruffled border increases surface area exposed to bone - Located within/adjacent to a depression/pit on bone surface o Resorption lacuna - Involved in bone resorption
Knee joint
- Largest and most complex diarthrosis - Primarily a hinge joint - Capable of slight rotation and lateral gliding when flexed - Composed of two separate articulations
Lumbar vertebrae
- Largest vertebrae - Thicker, oval body - Have neither transverse foramina nor costal facets - Bear most of the weight of the body
Abduction
- Lateral movement of body part away from midline - E.g., arm or thigh moved laterally from body midline
Short bones
- Length nearly equal to width o E.g., carpal bones- wrist bones, tarsals- foot bones, sesamoid bones- bones along tendons of some muscles, patella- kneecap
Bone functions
- Levers for movement - Supports tissues, Protects vital organs - Stores minerals, e.g., calcium and phosphorus - Houses hemopoietic cells, which make blood cells
Dorsiflexion
- Limited to ankle joint - Talocrural (ankle) joint bent so the dorsum (superior surface) of foot moves toward the leg - E.g., when digging in your heels
Serous membrane
- Lines body cavities that do not open to external environment - Simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium) - Produces thin, watery serous fluid o Derived from blood plasma o Reduces friction between opposing surfaces - Forms parietal and visceral layers - Serous cavity is in between
Mucous membrane - Mucosa
- Lines compartments that open to external environment - Includes: digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts - Performs absorptive, protective, and secretory functions - Formed from epithelium and underlying CT o CT component, lamina propria o Covered with mucus from goblet cells, multicellular glands, or both
Synovial membrane
- Lines some joints in body - Composed of o Areolar CT o Covered by squamous epithelial cells w/o basement membrane - Synovial fluid secreted by epithelial cells o Reduces friction among moving bone parts o Distributes nutrients to cartilage
Nervous tissue
- Located in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves - Cells called neurons o Receive, transmit, and process nerve impulses - Larger number of glial cells o Do not transmit nerve impulses o Instead, are responsible for protection, nourishment, and support of neurons
Sternumbody
- Longest part of sternum, costal cartilages from ribs 2-7 attached here - Articulates with manubrium at sternal angle - Costal cartilages of second ribs attach here - Important landmark for palpation and counting ribs
Femur
- Longest, heaviest, strongest bone in body - Spherical head o Articulates with os coxae at acetabulum - Fovea or fovea capitis o Small depression within head of the femur o Small ligament connects head to acetabulum - Elongated neck joins shaft of femur at an angle o Results in medial angling of the femur - Greater trochanter o Projects laterally from junction of neck and shaft - Lesser trochanter o On femur's posteromedial surface o Both trochanters are insertion sites for gluteal and thigh muscles - Intertrochanteric crest o Thick oblique ridge of bone connecting trochanters !
Connective tissue proper is divided into two categories
- Loose CT - Dense CT
Osteocytes
- Lost bone-forming ability, Maintain bone matrix - Detect mechanical stress on bone, triggering deposition of new bone matrix
Epiphyseal plate
- Maintains thickness during childhood - At maturity, rate of cartilage production slows - Osteoblastic activity increases - Plate narrows until it disappears o Interstitial growth stops - Remnant is an internal thin line of compact bone o Epiphyseal line
Wandering cells in CT
- Mast cells - Plasma cells - Free macrophages - Other leukocytes
Variations in Rib Development - Rudimentary cervical rib
- May form from seventh cervical vertebra ̶ May compress artery and nerves extending toward upper limb ̶ May produce tingling or pain • Some individuals lacking a pair of 12th ribs • Fused ribs
Anatomical features of talocrural joint
- Medial and lateral malleoli of tibia and fibula, Prevent talus from sliding medially or laterally - Articular capsule covers distal tibia, medial malleolus, lateral malleolus, and talus - Deltoid ligament binds tibia to foot on medial side, Prevents overeversion - Lateral ligament binds fibula to foot on lateral side, Prevents overinversion Prone to sprains and tears - Anterior and posterior tibiofibular ligaments
Adduction
- Medial movement of body part toward midline - E.g., thigh brought back to midline
Mesoderm
- Middle primary germ layer - Forms all muscle tissue - Forms epithelial lining of vessels & serous membranes - Becomes mesenchyme o Later forms all CT in body o Dermis, adrenal cortex, heart, spleen, kidneys & ureters, internal reproductive structures
Ceruminous glands
- Modified apocrine sweat glands - Located only in external ear canal - Secretions of waterproof earwax, cerumen o Traps foreign material o Lubricates acoustic meatus and eardrum
Mammary glands
- Modified apocrine sweat glands of breast - Only function in pregnant and lactating females - Produce milk
Hormones
- Molecules released from one cell into the blood - Travel throughout the body to affect or cells - Bind to cellular receptors of specific cells - Initiate specific cellular changes - Some alter rates of chondrocyte, osteoblast, and osteoclast activity - Affect bone composition and growth patterns
Bone
- More solid than cartilage - Greater support, but less flexible - Organic components (collagen and glycoproteins) - Inorganic components (calcium salts) - Bone cells—osteocytes o Housed within spaces in extracellular matrix called lacunae
Keratinocytes
- Most abundant cells in epidermis - Found in all layers - Large stem cells - Divide to regenerate new cells - Replace old cells shed at surface - Named for synthesizing of keratin o Protein that strengthens epidermis o Called cytokeratins in epidermis o Make skin almost waterproof
Hyaline cartilage
- Most common type - Clear, glassy appearance under microscope - Chondrocytes irregularly scattered - Surrounded by perichondrium - In; Nose, trachea, larynx, Costal cartilage, Articular ends of long bones, Most of fetal skeleton
Connective tissue
- Most diverse, abundant, and widely distributed of tissues - Supports, protects, and binds organs - Examples o Tendons, Ligaments, Adipose tissue, Cartilage, Bone, Blood
Cervical vertebrae
- Most superiorly located vertebrae - Kidney-bean-shaped bodies - Support only the weight of the head - Relatively small and light - Distinguished by transverse foramina in transverse processes
Dense CT (CT proper)
- Mostly protein fibers, Less ground substance than loose CT - Collagen fibers predominate
Range of motion at joints
- Motion ranges from no to extensive movement - Structure of each joint determines its mobility & stability - Inverse relationship (tradeoff) between mobility & stability For example, skull sutures are immobile but very stable
Flexion
- Movement in an anterior-posterior plane - Decreases the angle between bones: brings bones closer together - E.g., bending finger
Opposition
- Movement of thumb toward tips of fingers at carpometacarpal joint - Enables the thumb to grasp objects
Stratified squamous epithelium
- Multiple cell layers o Only deepest in direct contact with basement membrane - Basal layers w/ cuboidal shape, apical cells w/ squamous shape - Protects against abrasion & friction - Stem cells in basal layer continuously divide o Replace lost cells at surface
Serotonin
- Neurotransmitter and hormone - Most bones with serotonin receptors - Role in rate and regulation of normal bone remodeling - If levels are too high o Osteoprogenitor cells are prevented from differentiating into osteoblasts o Could be linked to low bone density disorders
Ground substance
- Noncellular material produced by CT cells - Residence of CT cells and protein fibers - Consistency: o Viscous e.g., blood o semisolid e.g., cartilage o Solid e.g., bone - Ground substance + protein fibers = extracellular matrix
Hair loss
- Normally 10 to 100 hairs lost per day o More than that could mean a health problem o Temporary loss could be from drugs, dietary factors, radiation, high fever, stress - Thinning of hair, alopecia o Due to aging - Diffuse hair loss o Hair shed from all parts of scalp o Primarily in women o Due to hormones, drugs, iron deficiency - Male pattern baldness o Loss of hair first from only crown region of scalp o Combination of genetic and hormonal factors o Baldness allele dominant in males and recessive in females o Expressed only in presence of high testosterone
Multi-cellular exocrine glands
- Numerous cells - Acini—cell clusters that produce secretions - Ducts transport secretions to epithelial surface - Surrounded by fibrous capsule o Extensions of capsule—septa, partition gland into lobes
Sensory nerves and blood vessels
- Numerous in synovial joints - Nerves detect painful stimuli, report on movement and stretch - Sends info to cerebellum
Subcapitalfractures
- Occur within hip articular capsule - Usually in elderly people with osteoporosis - May result in tearing of retinacular arteries, May have avascular necrosis in the region
Mechanical stress
- Occurs in weight-bearing movement and exercise - Required for normal bone remodeling - Detected by osteocytes and communicated to osteoblasts o Increase synthesis of osteoid - Causes increase in bone strength - Results from skeletal contraction and gravitational forces
Eversion
- Occurs only at intertarsal joints of foot - Sole turns laterally
Inversion
- Occurs only at intertarsal joints of the foot - Sole turns medially
Osteopenia
- Occurs slightly in all people with age - Begins age 35-40 - Osteoblast activity declines; osteoclast activity at previous levels - Vertebrae, jaw bones, epiphyses loose large amount of mass - Women loose more of their skeletal mass every decade than men
Bone growth in length
- Occurs specifically within o Zone 2 (proliferating cartilage) o Zone 3 (hypertrophic cartilage) - Pushes zone of resting cartilage toward epiphysis - Flexible hyaline cartilage permitting growth - New hyaline cartilage replaced by bone - Similar to endochondral ossification during bone development
Pott fracture
- Occurs with over eversion - Medial malleolus avulsed off of tibia (fracture) - Talus moves laterally and fractures fibula
Appositional Bone Growth
- Occurs within the periosteum - Bone matrix deposited within layers parallel to surface - Layers termed external circumferential lamellae o As they increase in number, structure increases in diameter - Osteoclasts resorb bone matrix along medullary cavity - Transforms infant bone into a larger adult version
Ala
- On each lateral surface of the sacrum
Stages of tissue development
- Oocyte fertilized by a sperm - Forms diploid cell, zygote - After multiple cell divisions, becomes blastocyst - Cells forming embryo, embryoblast - Three primary germ layers formed by 3rd week o Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm - Growing structure now an embryo
Reposition
- Opposite movement
Organic components
- Osteoid produced by osteoblasts, contains o Collagen protein o Semisolid ground substance of proteoglycans & glycoproteins - Gives bone tensile strength by resisting stretching - Contributes to bone flexibility
Condylarjoint
- Oval, convex surface articulating with concave surface, Biaxial
Symphyses
- Pads of fibrocartilage between articulating bones - Resist compression and act as shock absorbers - Allow slight mobility (amphiarthroses)
Anterior and posterior sacral foramina
- Permit passage of nerves to pelvic organs and gluteals
Joints (articulations)
- Places of contact between bones, bones and cartilage, or bones & teeth
Shoulder Joint- Acromioclavicular Joint
- Plane joint - Formed from acromion and lateral end of clavicle - Fibrocartilaginous articular disc within joint cavity - Capsule strengthened superiorly by acromioclavicular ligament - Clavicle bound to coracoid process by coracoclavicular ligament, If torn, acromion and clavicle no longer align (shoulder separation)
• Classes by joint shape surfaces (least to most mobile)
- Plane joints - Hinge joints - Pivot joints - Condylar joints - Saddle joints - Ball-and-socket joints
Clinical View: Acne and Acne Treatments
- Plugged sebaceous ducts - Typically begins during puberty - Increased activity gland secretions may block pores - Treatments o Benzoyl peroxide, salicylic acid, antibiotics, vitamin A-like compounds, systemic retinoinds - May lead to scarring if untreated
Retraction
- Posterior movement from anatomic position - E.g., pulling in jaw posteriorly at temporomandibular joint
Craniosynostosis
- Premature fusion of one or more cranial sutures ̶ If not surgically treated, individual grows up with unusual craniofacial shape ̶ Shape varies, according to which suture closed prematurely
Bones
- Primary organs of the skeletal system - Rigid framework of body - Many other functions
Yellow bone marrow
- Product of red bone marrow degeneration as children mature - Fatty substance - May convert back to red bone marrow o During severe anemia to facilitate production of erythrocytes
Facial bones-14
- Protect entrances to digestive and respiratory systems - Give shape and individuality to the face - Form part of orbit and nasal cavities, support the teeth, provide attachment sites for muscles of facial expression and chewing • Paired zygomatic, lacrimal, nasal, inferior nasal conchae, palatine bones, maxillae, unpaired vomer, mandible
Circumduction
- Proximal end of appendage relatively stationary - Distal end makes a circular motion - Movement makes an imaginary cone shape - E.g., drawing a circle on the blackboard
Humerus
- Proximal end with a hemispherical head, Articulates with glenoid cavity of scapula - Greater tubercle positioned lateral to head, Helps form rounded contour of shoulder - Lesser tubercle smaller and more medial to head - Intertubercular sulcusIs a depression containing tendon of long head of biceps brachii muscle
Pronation of radius and ulna
- Radius and ulna pivoting along interosseous membrane - Palm of hand facing posteriorly - Head of radius still on lateral side of elbow - Distal end of radius has crossed over - More medial structure
Stratified columnar epithelium
- Rare, Columnar cells at apical surface - Protects & secretes o Large ducts of salivary glands, some segments of male urethra
Nonciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
- Rare, lacks cilia, goblet cells - Protective functions - Occurs mainly in male urethra and epididymis
Osteoporosis
- Reduced bone mass sufficient to compromise normal function - Occurs in a significant percentage of older women - Occurs in a smaller percentage of older men
Second-Class Levers
- Resistance is between fulcrum and effort - Small force able to balance larger weight - E.g., wheelbarrow, Fulcrum far from effort - Rare in the body E.g., standing on tiptoes
Transverse arch
- Runs perpendicular to longitudinal arches - Formed from distal row of tarsals and bases of all metatarsals • Footprint illustrates position of longitudinal arches
Shoulder Joint- Sternoclavicular Joint
- Saddle joint - Formed by manubrium & sternal end of clavicle - Articular disc, Partitions joint into two parts forming two synovial cavities - Elevation, depression, circumduction possible - Stability provided by fibers & ligaments, Makes this specific joint very stable and difficult to dislocate
Inorganic components
- Salt crystals, calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2 - Interacts with calcium hydroxide o Forms crystals, hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 - Other substances incorporated into crystals o E.g., calcium carbonate, sodium, magnesium, sulfate, flouride - Crystals deposit around collagen fibers - Harden matrix and account for rigidity of bones
Melanocytes
- Scattered among keratinocytes - Produce & store pigment (melanin) in response to ultraviolet light - Transfer pigment granules (melanosomes) into keratinocytes o Pigment accumulates around nucleus of keratinocytes o Shield nuclear DNA from UV radiation o Responsible for darker tones of skin
Mucous
- Second type of embryonic CT - More numerous immature protein fibers than in mesenchyme - Found in umbilical cord only
Parathyroid hormone- PTH
- Secreted and released by parathyroid glands in response to reduced blood calcium levels - Accelerates conversion to calcitriol by kidney
Thyroid hormone
- Secreted by thyroid gland - Influences basal metabolic rate of bone cells - Regulates normal activity at epiphyseal plates
Supports of the hip joint
- Secured by articular capsule, ligaments, and muscles - Articular capsule Extends from acetabulum to trochanters Encloses femoral head and neck
Stratum spinosum
- Several layers of polygonal keratinocytes - Spiny layer o Named for spiny appearance on microscopy - Daughter cells from stratum basale pushed into this layer - Begin to develop into specialized, non-dividing keratinocytes o Some in deepest level still dividing cells - Nondividing keratinocytes - Attached by intercellular junctions, desmosomes - Epidermal dendritic cells (Langerhans cells) - In stratum spinosum and stratum granulosum - Initiate immune response - Responsive to pathogens and epidermal cancer cells
Atrophy
- Shrinkage of tissue by decrease in cell number or size - Due to normal aging or disuse - E.g., bedridden individual o Skeletal muscle fibers become smaller o Reversible by physical therapy
Osteoblasts
- Side-by-side on bone surfaces - Abundant rough ER & Golgi apparatus - Synthesize and secrete osteoid o Initial semisolid organic form of bone matrix, Osteoid later calcifies - Become entrapped within the matrix - Differentiate into oseotcytes
Fracture healing
- Simple fracture, 2 to 3 months to heal - Compound fracture, longer to heal - Healing slows with age - Some require surgical intervention to heal correctly
Simple columnar epithelium
- Single layer of cells, taller than they are wide - Oval nucleus, lengthwise in basal region - Ideal for secretory and absorptive functions
Simple squamous epithelium
- Single layer of flat cells, spherical to oval nucleus - Thinnest barrier - Allows rapid movement of molecules across surface - Lines air sacs of lungs alveoli - Lines blood and lymph vessel walls endothelium - Serous membrane of cavities mesothelium
Simple cuboidal epithelium
- Single layer, uniformly shaped cells - Centrally located spherical nucleus - Designed for absorption and secretion - Ideal for structural components of glands o Thyroid gland o Surface of ovary o Walls of kidney tubules o Secretory regions/ducts of most glands
Auricular surface
- Site of articulation with os coxae of pelvic girdle - Forms strong sacroiliac joint
Functions of the Integument- absorption
- Skin absorbs certain chemicals & drugs, other materials blocked - Selectively permeable o Some materials pass through, others blocked - Transdermal administration o Some oil-soluble drugs delivered by adhesive patch o Slowly penetrate epidermis, absorbed into blood vessels
Sensory Reception
- Skin has extensive innervation o Distribution of nerve fibers o Monitor stimuli in dermis and epidermis - Touch receptors detect stimuli o Send input to brain
Columnar cells
- Slender and taller than they are wide - Nucleus oval; oriented lengthwise in basal region
Hyoid bone
- Slender, curved bone - Inferior to skull between the mandible and the larynx - Does not articulate with any other bone - Medial body - 2 hornlike processes, greater and lesser cornua Attachment sites for tongue and larynx muscles and ligaments
Ligament of the head of femur (ligamentum teres)
- Small ligament from acetabulum to fovea of head of femur - Provides no strength - Contains artery supplying head of femur
Growth hormone
- Somatotropin - Produced by anterior pituitary gland - Stimulates liver to produce hormone, somatomedin o Both directly stimulate growth of cartilage in epiphyseal plate
Joint cavity
- Space between articulating bones - Lined by synovial membrane secreting synovial fluid Viscous, oily substance, Lubricates articular cartilage on articulating surfaces, Nourishes & removes wastes from chondrocytes, Acts as a shock absorber
Ligaments of the TMJ
- Sphenomandibular ligament - Temporomandibular ligament
Ball-and-socket joint
- Spherical head of one bone fitting into cup-like socket - Multiaxial, permitting movement in three planes, The most freely mobile joint
Common structural features of Vertebral Anatomy
- Spinous process projects posteriorly from laminae junction - Transverse processes- Lateral projections on both sides of vertebral arch - Superior and inferior articular processes- Originate at junction between pedicles and laminae, Each with a smooth surface, articular facet, Inferior facet articulates with superior facet of next inferior vertebra - Stack of vertebral bodies stabilized by ligaments - Intervertebral discs- Pads of fibrocartilage separating vertebral bodies, Outer ring of fibrocartilage, anulus fibrosus, Inner gelatinous region, nucleus pulposus Shock absorbers between vertebral bodies, Allows vertebral to bend
Variations in Rib Development - Bifid ribs
- Splits into two portions when it reaches the sternum
Radial collateral ligament
- Stabilizes joint at lateral surface - Extends around head of radius
Ulnar collateral ligament
- Stabilizes medial side of the joint - Extends from medial epicondyle of humerus to coronoid and olecranon of ulna
Osteoprogenitorcells
- Stem cells derived from mesenchyme, Located in periosteum & endosteum - Cellular division yields another stem cell and a "committed cell" osteoblast
Types of fractures
- Stress fracture - Pathologic fracture - Simple fracture - Compound fracture
Sprain
- Stretching or tearing of ligaments without fracture or dislocation - Results from twisting foot, usually overinversion - Fibers of lateral ligament stretched or torn - Localized swelling and tenderness anteroinferior to lateral malleolus
Skeletal muscle tissue
- Striated or voluntary muscle tissue - Moves skeleton - Long cylindrical cells o Skeletal muscle fibers - Arranged in parallel bundles that run length of entire muscle - Multinucleated - Alternating light and dark bands, striations - Does not contract unless stimulated by somatic nervous system o Voluntary
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
- Superficial cells cuboidal in shape - Forms tubes & coverings, protection & secretion - Forms walls of ducts in most exocrine glands oSweat glands, parts of male urethra, ovarian follicle periphery
Keratinized
- Superficial layers of dead cells - Cells lack nuclei, filled with keratin (fill with keratin & die) - Cells in basal region migrate toward apical surface - Found in epidermis
Elevation
- Superior movement of a body part - E.g., movement of mandible when closing mouth
Atlas (C1)
- Supports the head - Articulates with occipital condyles at the atlanto-occipital joint ˗ Permits nodding "yes" - Lacks body and spinous process - Lateral masses connected by anterior and posterior arches o Slight protuberances, anterior and posterior tubercles - Superior and inferior articular facets ˗ Articulate with occipital condyles and the axis o Articular facet for dens on its anterior arch
Anular ligament
- Surrounds the neck of the radius - Binds head of the radius to the ulna
What are the functional classes of joints?
- Synarthroses - Amphiarthroses - Diarthroses
Types of Vertebrae- Coccyx
- Tailbone Formed from 4 coccygeal vertebrae; Co1-Co4 - Start to unite during puberty Co1 articulates with inferior end of sacrum - May ultimately fuse to sacrum
Plantarflexion
- Talocrural joint bent so dorsum pointed inferiorly - E.g., ballerina on tiptoes in full plantar flexion
Other accessory structures
- Tendon sheaths, elongated bursae, Wrap around tendons where friction is excessive Common in wrist and ankle - Fat pads, Act as protective packing material in joint periphery Can fill spaces when joint shape changes
Thick versus thin skin
- Thick skin o Palms of hands, soles of feet o Occurs in all five layers of epidermal strata o Houses sweat glands o No hair follicles or sebaceous glands o From 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick - Thin skin o Covers most of body o Lacks a stratum lucidum o Sweat glands, hair follicles, and sebaceous glands oFrom 0.075 to 0.150 mm thick
Spinal Curvatures- Primary curves
- Thoracic and sacral curvatures - Present at birth - Result C-shape of column
Necrosis
- Tissue death - Due to irreversible tissue damage - Inflammatory response to tissue damage - E.g., gangrene • Necrosis of soft tissues of a body part • Due to diminished arterial blood supply • Most common in limbs, fingers, toes • Major complications of diabetes
Neoplasia
- Tissue growth is out of control - Tumor of abnormal tissue develops o Benign: Localized growth, does not spread o Malignant, Cancer: Metastasizes (spreads to other tissues) ˗ Can interfere with normal functioning, leading to death
Lateralflexion
- Trunk of body moving in coronal plane laterally - Occurs between vertebrae in the cervical and lumbar region
Gliding
- Two opposing surfaces sliding back-and-forth or side-to-side - Only limited movement possible in any direction - Typically occurs along plane joints E.g., between carpals or tarsals
Sutures during the lifespan
- Typically closed as adjoining bones fuse - Coronal usually in late 20s to early 30s - Sagittal suture in 30s or later - Lambdoid suture in 40s - Squamous suture in 60+ years, or not at all - Approximate age at death can be estimated from the extent of an individual's suture closure
Ribs
- Vertebral end of rib, Articulates with vertebral column at the head - Head divided into superior & inferior articular facets, Articulate with facets or demifacets on thoracic bodies, Divided by interarticular crest - Neck of the ribs, Lies between head and tubercle - Tubercle of the rib, Articular facet for transverse process of thoracic vertebra - Angle of the rib, Site where tubular shaft begins to curve - Costal groove along inferior internal border, Marks the path of nerves and blood
Smooth muscle tissue
- Visceral or involuntary muscle tissue - Lacks striations; appears smooth - Cells are spindle-shaped - Cells short with one central oval nucleus - Found in walls of intestines, stomach, airways, bladder, uterus, blood vessels - Helps propel movement through these organs - No voluntary control over the muscle
Metabolic regulation
- Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) - Synthesized from a steroid precursor by keratinocytes - Occurs upon UV exposure D3 released into blood and transported to liver - Converted to another intermediate molecule (calcidiol) - Transported to kidney and converted to calcitriol o Active form of vitamin D o Considered a hormone - Increases absorption of calcium and phosphate - Role in regulating blood levels of calcium and phosphate - 10 to 15 minutes of sunlight daily is adequate
Functions of the Integument- secretion
- Waste products secreted onto skin surface during sweating o Urea, salts, water o Amounts adjustable o Role in electrolyte homeostasis - Sebum of sebaceous glands lubricates skin surface and hair o Helps make integument water resistant
Fibrocartilage
- Weight-bearing cartilage, resists compression - Protein fibers in irregular bundles between chondrocytes - Sparse ground substance - No perichondrium - In; Intervertebral discs, Pubic symphysis, Menisci of knee joint
Manubrium
- Widest and most superior portion of sternum - Two clavicular notches Articulate sternum with left and right clavicles - Suprasternal notch: shallow superior indentation b/n the clavicular notches - Costal notches: Articulations for first ribs' costal cartilages
Carrying angle of radius and ulna
- With upper limbs extended & forearms supinated - Bones of forearm angle laterally from elbow joint - Positioned so forearms clear hips during walking - Wider in females
Sutural bones
- Wormian bones - Represent independent bone ossification centers - Most common and numerous in lambdoid suture
Regions of a long bone
-Diaphysis -Medullary cavity -Epiphysis -Metaphysis -Epiphyseal plate
Functions of hair include:
-help maintain warmth -alerting the body to presence of insects on the skin -guarding the scalp against physical trauma, heat loss, and sunlight
Four steps of bone fracture repair
1) Fracture hematoma forms from clotted blood • Blood vessels torn within periosteum 2) Fibrocartilaginous callus forms • Regenerated blood capillaries infiltrate hematoma • Fracture hematoma reorganized into a CT procallus • Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers • Chondroblasts form dense regular CT • Procallus becomes fibrocartilaginous (soft) callus 3). Hard (bony) callus forms • Osteoblasts adjacent to callus produce trabeculae • Replaces callus • Forms a hard (bony) callus • Continues to grow and thicken 4) Bone is remodeled • Final phase of fracture repair • Osteoclasts remove excess bony material • Compact bone replaces primary bone • Usually leaves a slight thickening of bone
Intramembranous ossification
1) Ossification centers form within thickened mesenchyme - Cells become osteoprogenitors or osteoblasts (secrete osteoid) 2) Osteoid undergoes calcification - Ca++ salts crystallizes osteoid, entrapped cells become osteocytes 3) Woven bone and surrounding periosteum form - Woven bone (primary bone), immature and poorly organized - Mesenchyme surrounding woven bone forms periosteum 4) Lamellar bone (secondary bone) replaces woven bone - Compact and spongy bone form from trabeculae - Two external compact bone layers w/ spongy bone in between !4
Activation of Vitamin D to Calcitriol
1) UV light converts 7-dehydrocholesterol to vitamin D3 • Cholecalciferol • Released into the blood • Absorbed from small intestine from diet 2) Vitamin D3 circulates throughout the body • Converted to calcidiol by liver enzymes • Adds an -OH group Both steps 1 and 2 occur continuously with limited regulation 3) Calcidiol circulates in the blood • Converted to calcitriol by kidney enzymes • An -OH group added • Active form of Vitamin D3, calcitriol • Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases rate, so more calcitriol is formed • Calcitriol stimulates absorption of calcium ions from small intestine into the blood
Steps of interstitial growth
1)Chondrocytes w/i lacuna are stimulated to mitotically divide 2)Two cells, chondroblasts, occupy a single lacuna 3)Chondroblasts secrete new material and are pushed apart. Each is now called a chondrocyte 4)Cartilage continues to grow internally
true ribs
1-7 ribs
3 major types of skin cancer
1. Basal cell carcinoma 2. Squamous cell carcinoma 3. Melanoma
Epithelial tissue attachment to basement membrane
1. Clear layer or lamina lucida- layer closest to the epithelia -Thin layer secreted by epithelia -Functions as a barrier to proteins and large molecules from moving from connective tissue into epithelium 2. Dense layer or lamina densa- Thick fibers produced by connective tissue, Provides strength and acts as a filter for diffusion of materials between adjacent tissue and epithelium 3. Reticular lamina- a layer of extracellular material containing a fine network of collagen protein fibers that "belongs to" the underlying connective tissue
Steps of long bone development in a limb- Endochondral ossification
1. Fetal hyaline cartilage model develops, Chondroblasts secrete cartilage matrix 2. Cartilage matrix calcifies, chondrocytes die, produces calcified cartilage cavities - Blood vessels grow toward cartilage, Osteoblasts secrete osteoid 3. Periosteal bud extends from periosteum to cartilage shaft, - Growth of capillaries & osteoblasts - Bone development extends in both directions toward epiphyses 4. Secondary ossification centers form in epiphyses - Hyaline cartilage calcifies & degenerates - Blood vessels and osteoprogenitor cells enter - Secondary ossification centers form, Bone displaces cartilage - Osteoclasts resorb some bone matrix, Creates hollow medullary cavity 5. Bone replaces cartilage, except articular cartilage & epiphyseal plates 6. Epiphyseal plates ossify & form epiphyseal lines - Growth continues until epiphyseal plate is converted to epiphyseal line, Indicates bone has reached adult length, Occurs between ages of 10 and 25
Five zones of epiphyseal plate
1. Zone of resting cartilage 2. Zone of proliferating cartilage 3. Zone of hypertrophic cartilage 4. Zone of calcified cartilage 5. Zone of ossification
floating ribs
11-12
bones in thoracic vertebrae
12
Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton
126, 63 per side
Burn degrees
1st Degree - Red and Painful- epidermis 2nd Degree - Blisters- epidermis/dermis 3rd Degree - No Pain because of blocked and burned nerves- all three layers
Skull
22 bones (8 cranial, 14 facial)
dermis
2nd degree hit the _____________
True and False Pelves • Pelvic brim; Continuous oval ridge - Extends to inferior edges of sacral ala and promontory - Divides pelvis into true and false pelves - True pelvis o Inferior to pelvic brim o Encloses pelvic cavity and contains pelvic organs - False pelvis o Superior to pelvic brim o Houses inferior abdominal organs • Pelvic inlet - Superiorly positioned space enclosed by pelvic brim - Marks boundary between true and false pelves • Pelvic outlet - Inferiorly placed opening - Bounded by coccyx, ischial tuberosities, inferior border of symphysial surface - Covered with muscles and skin, forming perineum - Width and size important in females o Must be wide enough to accommodate fetal head
?????
rough
A _________(rough or smooth) boarder on a mole is an indication of melanoma
Glands
A cell, a group of cells, or an organ that produces a secretion for use elsewhere in the body or in a body cavity or for elimination from the body. - Epithelial tissue - May secrete o Mucin o Electrolytes o Hormones o Enzymes oUrea (nitrogenous waste)
Bone (osseous tissue)
A connective tissue that forms the bony skeleton.
Cartilage
A connective tissue that is more flexible than bone and that protects the ends of bones and keeps them from rubbing together.
Periosteum
A dense fibrous membrane covering the surface of bones (except at their extremities) and serving as an attachment for tendons and muscles.
Central canal
A tiny channel found within the spinal cord and inferior medulla oblongata
exchange reaction
AB + CD --> AD + CB
decomposition reaction (catabolism)
AB --> A + B
reversal reaction
AB <----> A + B
high-energy compound (with high energy phosphate bonds) used by cells
ATP
Layers of the Dermis: Reticular Layer
Accounts for approximately 80% of the thickness of the skin Collagen fibers in this layer add strength and resiliency to the skin Elastin fibers provide stretch-recoil properties
The _______ is also known as the "vinegar cup" and is formed by the joining of the three hip bones: the Ilium, ischium and pubic.
Acetabulum
The hip bones (ilium, ischium, pubis and sacrum) are also known as:
Acetabulum
Clinical View: Achondroplastic Dwarfism
Achondroplasia - Characterized by abnormal conversion of hyaline cartilage to bone - Most common, achondroplastic dwarfism o Long bones of limbs stop growing in childhood o Other bones continue normal growth - Short in stature but large head - Failure of chondrocytes in epiphyseal plate to grow and enlarge - Inadequate endochondral ossification
What are the two major types of purines?
Adenine and Guanine
Epithelial tissue cellularity
Almost entirely tightly packed cells
Apocrine glands
Apical membrane pinches off & becomes secretion Damage repaired by glandular cells Mammary glands & Ceruminous glands of ear
Characteristics of epithelia
Apical surface, epithelium, lateral surface, basement membrane, basal surface, connective tissue, blood vessel
4 different types of sweat glands
Apocrine, eccrine, mammary gland, ceruminous
Adipocytes- fat cells
Appear in small clusters in some types of CT proper Adipose connective tissue—dominant area of large clusters
Pseudostratified epithelium
Appears layered due to cells' different nuclei distribution levels - All cells attached to basement membrane, some don't reach the apical surface
Layers of the Dermis: Papillary Layer
Areolar connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers and blood vessels Loose tissue Phagocytes can patrol for microorganisms Dermal papillae Superficial peglike projections
Hyaline cartilage
Attaches ribs to sternum, Covers ends of some bones Cartilage within growth plates Provides model for formation of most bones in body
armpit
Axillary
Gas gangrene
Bacteria invade necrotic tissue ̶ Bacteria produce gas bubbles
Epithelial tissue attachment to basement membrane
Barrier between epithelium and connective tissue. Composed of collagen, glycoproteins, and proteoglycans
Bases
Bases = "alphabet"
formed when something major happened (chemotherapy, heart attack...)
Beau's lines
Inferior
Below
stratum lucidum location
Between stratum corneum and stratum granulosum on soles and palms
carbohydrates
Biological Macromolecule made of Monosaccharides (glucose, fructose..), Disaccharides (table sugar), and Polysaccharides
Nucleic Acids
Biological macromolecules, found in the Nucleus
Common structural features of Vertebral Anatomy
Body, thick anterior weight-bearing structure - Vertebral arch posterior to body - Vertebral foramen- Opening enclosed by body with vertebral arch - Vertebral canal- Formed by stacked vertebral foramina, Contains the spinal cord - Intervertebral foramina- Lateral openings between adjacent vertebrae, Passageways for spinal nerves extending to body - Vertebral arch composed of 2 pedicles and 2 laminae - Pedicles originate from posterolateral margins of body - Laminae extend posteromedially from posterior edge of pedicle
Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone
Bone Markings, Medullary cavity, Epiphyseal Line, Periosteum, Articular Cartilage, Epiphysis, and Diaphysis
Parallel lamellae- Spongy bone
Bone matrix Osteocytes between lamellae Canaliculi radiate from lacunae
Rotation:
Bone pivots on its own longitudinal axis
Fibrous joint
Bones held together by dense connective tissue
Cartilaginous joint
Bones joined by cartilage
Synovial joint
Bones joined by ligaments with fluid-filled joint cavity separating bone surfaces
Elastic CT
Branching, densely packed elastic fibers Able to stretch and recoil Found in; Walls of large arteries, Trachea, Vocal cords
Simple fracture
Broken bone not penetrating skin
Regulating calcium concentration in blood is essential
Calcium is required for - Initiation of muscle contraction - Exocytosis of molecules from cells, including neurons - Stimulation of the heart by pacemaker cells - Blood clotting
Spongy bone
Cancellous or trabecular bone Located internal to compact bone Appears porous 20% of bone mass
Humeroradial joint
Capitulum of humerus articulating with head of radius - Both enclosed within a single articular capsule
Amino acids are the basic units of _________, which performa variety of essential function in the body.
Carbohydrates
What is the difference between a catalyst and an enzyme?
Catalyst: decrease the energy of activation but speeds up the rate of the reaction Enzyme: protein catalyst
Wet gangrene
Caused by bacterial infection of tissues with lost blood supply ̶ Ruptured dying cells release fluid, allows bacteria to flourish
What is pinocytosis?
Cell drinking
What is phagocytosis?
Cell eating
Corneum
Cells are already dead
Granulosum layer
Cells die off
3 structural elements make up connective tissue?
Cells, fibers, and ground substance
Connective tissue basic components
Cells, protein fibers, ground substance
Secrete cerumen (earwax) and are connected to body odor
Ceruminous glands
The bones of the spine that are found in the neck region.
Cervical vertebrae
hydrophilic
Chemicals with high polarity or electric charge tend to be ___________ (hydrophilic or hydrophobic)?
hydrophobic
Chemicals with little polarity or no electric charge tend to be _____________ (hydrophilic or hydrophobic)?
phobic
Cholesterol it hydro________
Chondrocytes
Chondroblasts encased within the matrix o Occupy small spaces, lacunae Maintain the matrix
Zone of ̶ hypertrophic cartilage
Chondrocytes cease dividing Begin to hypertrophy, walls of lacunae thin
Zone of ̶ proliferating cartilage
Chondrocytes undergo rapid mitotic division Align into longitudinal columns of flattened lacunae Columns parallel to diaphysis
Classified by movements & shapes of joint surfaces
Classes by movement - Uniaxial joint, Bone moves in just one plane or axis - Biaxial joint, Bone moves in two planes or axes - Multiaxial joint, Bone moves in multiple planes or axes
Classification of Epithelia
Classified by number of cell layers. Simple epithelium, stratified epithelium, pseudostratified epithelium Classified by shape of cell. Squamous cells, cuboidal cells, columnar cells, transitional cells
Classification of epithelial tissue
Classified by number of cell layers. Simple epithelium, stratified epithelium, pseudostratified epithelium Classified by shape of cell. Squamous cells, cuboidal cells, columnar cells, transitional cells
The process that connects the scapula to the clavicle (hint: AC joint)
Clavicle
Dense irregular CT
Clumps of collagen fibers extend in all directions Provides support and resistance to stress in multiple directions Extensive blood supply Found in: most of the skin dermis, periosteum, perichondrium o Forms capsules around some internal organs
Protien fibers
Collagen fibers, eleastic fibers and reticular fibers are all types of protien fibers produced by the cells. Made by fibroblasts & fibrocytes- Strengthen & support tissue
Interstitial lamellae
Components of compact bone between osteons o Or partially resorbed osteons o Look like they have a "bite" taken out o Incomplete, no central canal
Adipose CT (fat)
Composed mostly of adipocytes, Two types: - White (stores energy, acts as insulator, cushions) - Brown (found in newborns, generates heat, lost as we age) Adipocyte # stable, weight gain/loss = adipocytes enlarging/shrinking
Zone of ̶ calcified cartilage
Composed of 2 to 3 layers of chondrocytes Minerals are deposited between lacunae, Destroys chondrocytes
pseudostratified epithelium
Comprising only a single layer of cell
is a smooth, rounded articular process
Condyle
Tendons
Connect muscle to bone
Integumentary system
Consists of the skin, mucous membranes, hair, and nail
Elastic fibers
Contain protein elastin Branching wavy fibers, stretch and recoil easily Yellow in color when fresh Found in skin, arteries, lungs
What is the nucleus? What does it contain?
Control center of the cell. Contains DNA.
The crow's beak (found on the scapula)
Coracoid process
What are the 4 or 5 layers of the epidermis?
Corneum Lucidum Spinosum Basale
Leg (shin area)
Crural
leg
Crural
What are the three major types of pyrimidines?
Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil
Structures of the knee joint - Medial meniscus and lateral meniscus
Deep to articular capsule within knee joint C-shaped fibrocartilage pads on top of tibial condyles Cushions articular surfaces, Stabilizes joint medially and laterally
Osteoarthritis
Degenerative joint condition in older individuals Due to wearing down of articular cartilage Fingers, knuckles, hips, knees, and shoulders most affected
Perichondrium
Dense irregular CT Covers cartilage and helps maintain its shape
Components of the radius
Disc-shaped head at proximal end, Articulates with capitulum of humerus Styloid process, bony projection at distal end Ulnar notch on distal medial surface, Articulates with medial surface of distal ulna Narrow neck extends from head to radial tuberosity, Attachment site for biceps brachii muscle Shaft of radius curves slightly
no
Do sebum have oders?
no
Does epithelial tissue have electrical activity
Median sacral crest
Dorsal ridge formed by fusion of spinous processes
Endocrine glands
Ductless glands that empty their hormonal products directly into the blood. Chemical messengers that influence cell activity elsewhere
Diaphysis
Elongated, usually cylindrical shaft Provides leverage and weight support Compact bone with thin spicules of spongy bone extending inward
______________________ begins with a cartilage model that is gradually replaced by bone at the metaphysics.
Endochondral ossification
the timing of ? of the epiphyseal cartilage and the formation oft he epiphyseal line differs amon bones and among individuals
Epiphyseal (plate) closure
distal
Farther from the trunk of the body
Resident cells of CT
Fibroblasts: principal cell of CT Fixed macrophages Adipocytes Mesenchymal
Microvilli
Fingerlike extensions of plasma membrane of apical epithelial cells, increase surface area, aid in absorbtion, exist on every moist epithelia, but most dense in small intestine and kidney
Fibroblast cells
Flat cells with tapered ends Most abundant resident cells in CT proper Produce fibers and ground substance of extracellular matrix
Types of Vertebrae- Cervical vertebrae
Form bones of neck; 7 vertebrae, C1-C7 C1 articulates with occipital condyles C7 articulates with first thoracic vertebra
Types of Vertebrae- Lumbar vertebrae
Form inferior concave region ("small") of the back 5 vertebrae, L1-L5 L5 articulates inferiorly with first sacral vertebra
Types of Vertebrae- Thoracic vertebrae
Form superior region of the back Each articulates laterally with one or two pairs of ribs 2 vertebrae, T1-T12 T12 articulates with first lumbar vertebra
Plasma cells
Form when B-lymphocytes become activated Produce antibodies (proteins that immobilize foreign material)
Glenohumeral (Shoulder) Joint - Ball-and socket joint
Formed by head of humerus and glenoid cavity of scapula - Permits greatest range of motion of any joint in the body Most unstable and most frequently dislocated - Fibrocartilaginous glenoid labrum encircles socket - Abundant bursae, Decrease friction where tendons and muscles extend across capsule - Supporting ligaments & tendons, Coracoacromial ligament, coracohumeral ligament, glenohumeral ligaments, Tendon of long head of biceps brachii - Most joint stability due to rotator cuff muscles Subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, Work as a group to hold head of humerus in glenoid cavity, Tendons encircle joint and fuse with articular capsule
Types of Vertebrae- Sacrum
Formed from 5 sacral vertebrae; S1-S5 - Fused into single structure by late 20s Articulates with L5 superiorly, first coccygeal vertebra inferiorly - Laterally articulates with 2 hip bones
Holocrine glands
Formed from cells that accumulate product Cell disintegrates: viscous mixture of cell fragments Oil-producing glands in the skin- sebaceous glands
Proteoglycans
Formed with GAG linked to a protein 90% carbohydrate in the form of GAGs Large structure due to negative repelling charges Perform numerous important functions
shallow depression in a bone
Fossa
Fracture of the Femoral Neck
Fracture of femur is often incorrectly referred to as "fractured hip"
Diarthroses
Freely mobile joints All synovial joints
Ischium
Fusion with ilium near superior and posterior margins of acetabulum Triangular ischial spine, posterior to acetabulum Ischial body, bulky bone superior to ischial spine Lesser sciatic notch -Roughened projection on posterolateral border of ischium Sitz bones Bear weight of body in sitting position Ramus of the ischium Semicircular depression inferior to ischial spine Ischial tuberosity Extends from ischial tuberosity toward anterior fusion with pubis
carb + lipid
Glycolipid = ___________ + ___________
carb + protein
Glycoprotein = _________ + _________
large protein + small carbohydrate
Glycoprotein = _________ + _________
fractures occur generally in young children, whose long bones have yet to ossify fully
Greenstick
Arthritis
Group of inflammatory or degenerative diseases of the joints Symptoms of joint swelling, pain, and stiffness
Organs
Groups of tissues that work together to perform a specific function or related functions
Hair components
Hair matrix: Structure at base of the hair bulb o Epithelial cells divide here o Produce new cells, gradually pushed toward surface Medulla: remnant of matrix, flexible, soft keratin Cortex: flattened cells closer to outer hair surface, relatively hard Cuticle: single cell layer around cortex Hair follicle o Oblique tube surrounding hair root o Extends into dermis and sometimes subcutaneous layer o Outer CT root sheath originating in dermis o Inner epithelial tissue root sheath originating from epidermis Arrector pili o Thin ribbons of smooth muscle o Extend from hair follicle to dermal papillae o Elevates hair with contraction, "goosebumps"
Canaliculi
Hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal, Allow exchange of nutrients, minerals, gases, and wastes between blood vessels and osteocytes
Cilia
Hairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used for locomotion, move in a wave like manner
Melanoma
Happens when melanocytes become cancerous
Rule of Nines (adult)
Head 9%, Back 18%, Chest 9%, Abdomen 9%, Arms 9% each, Groin 1%, Upper Leg 9% each, Lower Leg 9% each.
Functions of the skelatal system
Hemopoiesis - Blood cell production - Occurs in red bone marrow CT - Stem cells form blood cells & platelets • Storage of mineral & energy reserves - Bone stores body's reserve of calcium & phosphate o Released from bone into blood as needed - Calcium essential for o Muscle contraction, Blood clotting, Nerve impulse transmission - Phosphate o ATP utilization, Plasma membrane - Lipids stored in yellow bone marrow of adult bones
the study of tissues
Histology
Loose function
Holds organs in place and attaches epithelial tissues
loose connective tissue
Holds organs in place and attaches the epithelial tissue Located in the spleen, liver, and lymph nodes
Medullary cavity
Hollow, cylindrical space within the diaphysis Contains red bone marrow in children Contains yellow bone marrow in adults
Neuroepithelium
Houses cells responsible for sight, taste smell, hearing, equilibrium
Asymmetry Border Color (multicolored) Diameter (if bigger than the size of an eraser) Evolving (if it's growing rapidly)
How can you detect skin cancer (5 ways)
Three types of cartilage
Hyaline cartilage, Fibrocartilage, Elastic cartilage
+ , -
Hydrogen has a slightly ______ charge, attracting it to ________ charges for hydrogen bonding
This bone sits at the base of the tongue (and helps support it).
Hyoid bone
hemolysis
If enough water flows into the cell, it can swell and even burst this is called....
The large posterior bone of the hips (hint: _____ tuberosity is the bone you feel when someone sits on you with a "bony butt")
Ilium
The largest lateral bone of the hips
Ilium
The largest lateral bone of the hips (hint: has wings, a crest and some pointy spines like the A.S.I.S.)
Ilium
Synarthroses
Immobile joints Can be fibrous or cartilaginous joints
Epiphyseal plate
In metaphysis Growth plate Thin layer of hyaline cartilage oProvides for lengthwise bone growth In adults, the epiphyseal line, is the remnant of the epiphyseal plate
Exercise and joint health
Increases flow of synovial fluid to chondrocytes Strengthens muscles that support and stabilize joints In extreme, may aggravate potential joint problems and may worsen osteoarthritis
Of the three bones that make up the lateral aspect of the nasal cavity which is a bone by itself? (hint: top, middle or bottom)
Inferior nasal conchae
Stages of bone healing
Inflammation, induction, soft callus, hard callus, remodeling
Ulna
Inner and larger bone of the forearm
osteoblasts differentiate within connective tissue
Intramembranous ossification
smooth muscle
Involuntary muscle found inside many internal organs of the body
cardiac muscle
Involuntary muscle tissue found only in the heart.
Dry gangrene
Involved part is desiccated and shriveled ̶ Usually due to extreme cold
The anterior bone of the hips (hint: it has a symphysis on it)
Ischium
the same
Isotopes all have _____________ amount of protons
neutrons
Isotopes have different mass numbers because they have more or less ______
What is clathrin-mediated endocytosis?
It is rapid and enables the cell to ingest large amounts of specific ligands
keratin cells (for skin, hair, nails, feathers..)
Keratinocytes
lumbar vertebrae
L1-L5
The suture that separates the occipital bone from the parietal bones is called: (hint: greek letter)
Lamboid
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
Large molecule in ground substance Carbohydrate building blocks, some with attached amines Negatively charged and hydrophilic Charge attracts cations, water follows Types include ˗ Chondroitin sulfate, Heparin sulfate, Hyaluronic acid
Ilium
Largest of 3 coxal bones Forms superior region of the os coxae Forms part of acetabular surface Wide, fan-shaped region, the ala Depression on medial side of ala, iliac fossa Attachment sites for gluteal muscles Auricular surface, where ilium articulates with sacrum On posteromedial side Iliac crest, superiormost ridge of ilium
Cell body
Largest part of a typical neuron; contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm
Supination
Lateral rotation of forearm so palm of hand anterior
For future synovial joints
Laterally placed mesenchyme forms articular capsule and supporting ligaments Next layer of mesenchyme forms synovial membrane Centrally located mesenchyme may be reabsorbed or form menisci or articular discs
Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC)
Less common than BCC More chance of spreading (metastasis) Actinic Keratosis
Tissue aging
Less efficient after middle age Epithelia thins CT loses pliability and resiliency Collagen declines Bones become brittle o Muscles atrophy
Iliofemoral ligament
Ligament providing support for anterior articular capsule
Retinacular fibers
Ligamentous fibers of articular capsule Reflect around femur neck Retinacular arteries here - Supply most blood to femur head and neck
RUQ organs
Liver, gallbladder, appendix
Components of the ulna
Longer, medially placed bone of the forearm C-shaped trochlear notch at proximal end • Interlocks with trochlea of the humerus Olecranon, projection on posterosuperior trochlear notch • Forms posterior "bump" of elbow Coronoid process, inferior lip of trochlear notch • Articulates with humerus Tuberosity of ulna, at proximal end of bone Shaft terminates in knoblike head • Posteromedial styloid process, May be palpated on medial side of wrist
Anterior view of the skull
Major structures are frontal bone (forehead), zygomatic bones (cheekbones), maxillae, and mandible. Maxilla and mandible bear teeth. Contain Orbits and Nasal cavities
The most superior part of the sternum (hint: looks a little like an M).
Manubrium
Gluteal tuberosity
Marks attachment of gluteus maximus muscle
Pectineal line
Marks attachment of pectineus muscle
Pronation
Medial rotation of forearm so palm of hand posterior
For future fibrous joints
Mesenchyme differentiates into dense regular connective tissue
For future cartilaginous joints
Mesenchyme differentiates into fibrocartilage or hyaline cartilage
Reticular CT
Meshwork of reticular fibers, fibroblasts, leukocytes Structural framework of many lymphatic organs ˗ Spleen, Thymus, Lymph nodes, Bone marrow
The scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate and hamate are ________.
Metacarpal bones
Free macrophages
Mobile, phagocytic cells
Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC)
Most common skin cancer Low risk of spreading
Functions of the skelatal system
Movement - Bones serve as the attachment sites for oSkeletal muscles oSoft tissues oSome organs - System of levers oMuscle contraction exerting a pull on the skeleton - Can alter direction & magnitude of forces generated by muscles
diffusion
Movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration across a concentration gradient
Other leukocytes
Neutrophils: phagocytizes bacteria, killing itself in the process T-lymphocytes: leukocyte that attacks foreign or infected cells directly
Skin Markings
Nevus- Mole Freckles- Yellowish or brown spots Hemangioma- Skin discoloration due to benign blood vessel tumor - Capillary hemangiomas- Strawberry-colored birthmarks - Cavernous hemangiomas- larger dermal blood vessels
Is the epidermis vascular?
No, it is avascular
parathyroid hormone come from
Parathyroid gland
The suture that separates the temporal bone from the parietal bone is called: (hint: flat)
Parietal
Posterior view of the skull
Parietal and Occipital bones, Lambdoid suture, Sutural Bones, External occipital protuberance, Ligamentum nuchae, Nuchal lines
Lateral view of the skull
Parietal bones, Squamous part of temporal bone, Squamous suture, Temperal Bone, Greater wing of sphenoid, Zygomatic bones, Maxilla, Mandible
Structures of the knee joint - Quadriceps femoris muscle tendon
Passes over knee's anterior surface, surrounds patella
Two major types of diffusion
Passive diffusion and facilitated diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Passive transport process of larger solutes using protein carrier molecules
Clavicle and scapular make up the ________
Pectoral girdle
Pelvis (front)
Pelvic
The landmark that separates the false from the true pelvis (hint: like the _____ of a hat)
Pelvic brim
The portion of the pelvis where contents usually move "in" to the true pelvis.
Pelvic inlet
The portion of the pelvis where contents usually move "out" of the true pelvis
Pelvic outlet
The portion of the pelvis where contents usually move "out" of the true pelvis (hint: and into someplace else....flush)
Pelvic outlet
Structures in long bone, not part of osteon
Perforating canals (Volkmann) Resemble central canals Blood vessels and nerves travel through Perpendicular to central canals Connect central canals within different osteons
Epithelial tissue functions
Physical protection- ext/int surfaces from dehydration, abrasion, etc. Selective permeability- non-permeable to some substances, permeable to other molecules Secretions- some cells specialized to secret, scattered amongst other cells or in organized clusters Sensations- contain nerve endings for touch, pressure, pain, temp. Sends info to nervous system. Neuroepithelium
Extrinsic ligaments
Physically separate from joint capsule Co-laterals
What are the two ways in which homeostasis is maintained?
Physiological regulation and the key to survival in changing environment
electrical charge in a chemical
Polarity
Major types of active transport
Primary (direct): direct use of metabolic energy (ATP) to mediate transport Secondary (indirect): moves chemicals against gradients and doesn't use ATP as a direct source of energy
Osteoarthritis
Primary problem of aging joint due to wear and tear
Coccygeal cornua
Prominent laminae of first coccygeal vertebrae - In elderly, may ultimately fuse with the sacrum
phases of meiosis in order
Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I 2x
Adherent glycoproteins
Proteins with carbohydrates attached Bond CT cells and fibers to ground substance Includes: fibronectin, fibrillin, laminin
large polysaccharides + polypeptides
Proteoglycans = _________ + _________
viscosity
Proteoglycans promote _________
reticular tissue
Provide structural support found in the kidney and bone marrow Located in lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow
Epiphysis
Proximal epiphysis- End of the bone closest to body trunk Distal epiphysis- End farthest from trunk Composed of - Outer thin layer of compact bone - Inner region of spongy bone Articular cartilage - Covers the joint surface - Thin layer of hyaline cartilage - Reduces friction - Absorbs shock in moveable joints
Epiphysis
Proximal epiphysis- End of the bone closest to body trunk Distal epiphysis- End farthest from trunk Composed of - Outer thin layer of compact bone - Inner region of spongy bone Articular cartilage - Covers the joint surface - Thin layer of hyaline cartilage - Reduces friction - Absorbs shock in moveable joints
strand that carries from the nucleus to the cytoplasm
RNA
uses the bases A, U, C, G
RNA
U + A C + G
RNA base pairing
What is translation?
RNA to protein
What are the four abdominal quadrants?
RUQ, LUQ, RLQ, LLQ
The bone of the forearm that is found on the "thumb-side"
Radius
particle size, temp., concentration, polarity, surface area
Rate of diffusion is affected by (5)
hormones, insulin, and enzymes
Receptor - mediated endocytosis is used durring the absorption of...
Clinical View: Bone Marrow Transplant
Red bone marrow transplant ̶ Bone marrow destroyed by radiation/chemo ̶ Abnormally functioning marrow ̶ Harvested cells injected into bloodstream of recipient ̶ Migrate to normal locations for red bone marrow ̶ Must be "match" between donor and recipient ̶ So immune system does not attack
What are the high compounds which store energy?
Regenerate ATP
Tissue is repaired in two ways:
Regeneration ̶ Replacement of damaged or dead cells with same cell type ̶ Restores organ function Fibrosis ̶ Gap filled with scar tissue ̶ Collagen produced by fibroblasts ̶ Functional activities not restored
Metaphysis
Region of mature bone between diaphysis and epiphysis
Structures of the knee joint - Fibular collateral ligament
Reinforces lateral surface of joint Extends from femur to fibula Prevents hyperadduction
Fixed macrophages- histiocytes
Relatively large, irregular-shaped cells Derived from monocytes- white blood cells Phagocytize/engulf damaged cells or pathogens Release chemicals that stimulate immune system/attract wandering cells
Active transport
Requires energy input, carrier proteins must combine specifically with the transported substance
when reactants are converted to products that can be converted to reactants (AB<----> CD) its called:
Reversible reaction
Arthritis
Rheumatic disease involving damage to articular cartilage Osteoarthritis
Circumferential lamellae
Rings of bone o External—run immediately internal to bone periosteum o Internal—run internal to the endosteum o Both run the entire circumference of the bone
The __________ structure of a protein includes alpha helices and beta pleated sheets and is associated with hydrogen bonds. (hint: ET FON home)
Secondary structure
Rheumatoid arthritis
Seen in younger to middle-aged adults, often women Autoimmune disorder Starts with synovial membrane inflammation
Reticular fibers
Similar to collagen fibers but thinner oForm branching, interwoven framework Tough but flexible Abundant in stroma, CT framework, of ˗ Lymph nodes, Spleen, Liver
Smooth areas
Sites of articulation between bones
Amphiarthroses
Slightly mobile joints Can be fibrous or cartilaginous joints
cells
Smallest living functional unit of the human body (building blocks)
The _________ bones are found on the sides of the skull (hint: they are separated from the parietal bones by the squamous suture)
Squamous
What are the different types of epithelial tissues?
Squamous Cuboidal Columnar
Interphase: everything leading up to Mitosis (G1, S, & G2) Prophase Metaphase Anaphase = apart Telophase = pulled toward opposite end
Stages of Mitosis
Where are glycolipids only found?
Surface of eukaryotic cell membrane
apocrine
Sweat glands cause body odor
building
Synthesis (anabolism)
Male and female pelves differ in all of the following features except __________.
The female sacrum is longer
Sebaceous
The glands connected with hair follicles that secrete oily & waxy sebum
What is diffusion?
The movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
What is transcription?
The process of making RNA from a DNA template
What is the definition of physiology?
The study of the function
What is the definition of anatomy?
The study of the structure
Humeroulnar joint
Trochlear notch of ulna articulating with trochlea of humerus
hydrogen bond
Weak partial bond but if you have a lot of hydrogen bonds together, they are strong (pos. & neg. attraction)
polypeptide
What is a long chain of amino acids?
Polysaccharide
What is a long chain of carbohydrates?
d= Lunula e = Proximal Nail Fold f = Eponychium
What is d, e, and f?
Hypogastric region: urinary bladder
What quadrant is this, and what organs are located there?
Left Inguinal Region: colon
What quadrant is this, and what organs are located there?
Left lumbar region: large intestine, small intestine
What quadrant is this, and what organs are located there?
Right Inguinal Region: cecum, appendix
What quadrant is this, and what organs are located there?
Right lumbar region: large intestine, small intestine
What quadrant is this, and what organs are located there?
Umbilical Region: large intestine, small intestine
What quadrant is this, and what organs are located there?
epigastric region: stomach
What quadrant is this, and what organs are located there?
left hypochondriac region: spleen, diaphragm
What quadrant is this, and what organs are located there?
right hypochondriac region: liver and gallbladder
What quadrant is this, and what organs are located there?
nutrients, H2O, electrolytes
What typically comes in through the cellular membrane (3)
metabolites, waste, excess H2O
What typically goes out through the cellular membrane (3)
solute
What's being dissolved in a solvent
Depressions, grooves & openings
Where blood vessels and nerves pass through bone
Projections
Where muscles, tendons & ligaments attach
Quaternary Structure - more than 1 polypeptide
Which 3D protein structure is this?
Primary Structure (one single thread)
Which protein structure is this?
Protein Tertiary Structure - 3D
Which protein structure is this?
Secondary (data sheet, twisted)
Which protein structure is this?
Leukocytes
White blood cells
side chain
_______ _______ determines properties of different amino acids
peptide, polypeptide, protein
________ bonds link amino acids together to make up a __________________, which make up a __________)
enzymes
_________ allows more efficient transfer of the energy (helps the chemical reaction be more efficient)
protons
_________ determine an element's "personality"
mRNA, DNA
__________ are transcripts from _______
fatty acids & cholesterol
___________ and __________ do not form polymers
mRNA, polypeptide
____________ undergoes translation to form a ____________
Langerhans Cells
_____________ cells are found everywhere but the stratum corneum and are there to protect you
collagen
_____________ is stronger than elastic fiber
Carrier protein
_______________ ______________ helps facilitate the diffusion of glucose molecules in and out of the cell, through the plasma membrane
hyoid bone
a U-shaped bone in the neck that supports the tongue.
epiphyseal fracture
a break at the location of the growth plate, which can affect growth of the bone
Melanin
a dark brown to black pigment occurring in the hair, skin, and iris of the eye in people and animals. It is responsible for tanning of skin exposed to sunlight.
Periosteum
a dense layer of vascular connective tissue enveloping the bones except at the surfaces of the joints.
Albinism
a genetic condition characterized by a deficiency or the absence of pigment in the skin, hair, and irises of the eyes
Proteoglycans
a glycoprotein consisting of a small core protein with many carbohydrate chains attached, found in the extracellular matrix of animal cells.
Elbow is
a hinge joint composed of two articulations
phospholipid
a lipid attached to phosphate
reticular function
a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
Dendrites
a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
Exocytosis
a process by which the contents of a cell vacuole are released to the exterior through fusion of the vacuole membrane with the cell membrane.
Canaliculi
a small channel or duct.
associated with fat cells
adipose tissue
blackheads
air oxidized sebum
areolar
airy, spacious, wide open tissue
What is a third degree burn?
aka full thickness, epidermis and entire dermis
basic
alkaline
Depressions
alveolus, fossa, sulcus
What are the building blocks of proteins?
amino acids
basic units of proteins are
amino acids
"two faced" (EX: one side of a phospholipid is hydrophobic and the other side is hydrophilic)
amphipathic
Cofactor
an ion or molecule that helps an enzyme bind its target
apical surface
an upper free surface exposed to the body exterior or the cavity of an internal organ, microvilli or cilia
the metabolic build-up of substances from their smallest functional parts
anabolism
What are the two major parts of metabolism?
anabolism and catabolism
Three phases of hair growth cycle
anagen- active, catagen- regression, telogen- resting
person standing with arms at sides and palms faced forward (it is the standard arrangement for anatomical reference)
anatomical position
The study of the structure of the body
anatomy
form, structure of the body
anatomy
Tarsal bones
ankle bones
front of elbox
antecubital
Front surface of the body
anterior
one substance moves in while another moves out
antiport
Epithelial tissue polarity
apical surface, lateral surface with intercellular junctions, basal surface
Types of sweat (sudoriferous) glands
apocrine and merocrine
armpit, mammary and groin region (type of sweat)
apocrine gland
found in the armpits, around the nipples, and groin
apocrine gland
RLQ organs
appendix
Biomechanics
applying mechanical principles to biology
process of depositing calcium salts within a tissue (often this is a sign of disease)
appositional
Growth of Cartilage
appositional and interstitial
no
are atoms living?
yes
are cells living?
no
are chemicals living?
yes
are sugar molecules polar?
Hypogastric (or pubic) region
area right below the stomach
found surrounding blood vessel
areolar tissue
papillary layer
areolar tissue
What is the ABCD rule?
asymmetry, border irregularity, color, diameter
C1
atlas
protons
atomic # = # of _______
the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
atomic number
what are the basic particles of matter?
atoms
What is an isotope?
atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons
What is the difference between an atom and an element?
atoms: have the same number of protons and neutrons element: made up of one type of atom
_________ are three tiny bones found in the ears and associated with hearing and sound transmission.
auditory ossicle
Distal
away from the body
Deep (internal)
away from the body surface
Lateral
away from the midline
lateral
away from the midline
Proximal
away or toward the body
The skeletal system consists of the ________ skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.
axial
What are the 2 major divisions of the skeleton?
axial and appendicular
Skeletal system organized into two divisions:
axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton
armpit
axillary
C2 cervical vertebrae
axis
Posterior
back
Posterior/Dorsal
back side
Inferior
below
subcutaneous membrane
below the cutaneous membrane
coronal suture
between frontal and parietal bones
sagittal suture
between parietal bones
Squamosal
between temporal and parietal bones
Dense function
binds organs
Two types of fluid CT
blood and lymph
ionic bond
bond between cations (+) and anions (-)
greenstick fracture
bone breaks incompletely
comminuted fracture
bone breaks into many fragments
Osteocytes
bone cells
Osteoblasts
bone forming cells
Wolff's Law
bone grows or remodels in response to the demands placed on it
compression fracture
bone is crushed
Components of the skeletal system
bones, cartlidges, ligaments and joints
arm
brachial
Osteoclasts
break down bone
depressed fracture
broken bone portion is pressed inward
cheek
buccal
Biological Macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids)
building blocks of your cells (4)
heal of foot
calcaneal
heel of foot
calcaneal
Two primary hormones regulate blood calcium
calcitonin and parathyroid hormone- pth
Fibula
calf bone
yes
can Mesenchymal cells become other cells?
duct or channel
canal
Openings and spaces
canal, fissure, foramen, meatus, sinus
uncontrolled cell division
cancer
most important as an energy source for metabolic processes and include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
carbohydrates
What is the major atom/element contained in organic compounds?
carbon and hydrogen
striated involuntary muscle
cardiac muscle
heart
cardio
orange pigment
carotene
wrist
carpal
ground substnace of cartilage
cartilage
makes up the ground substance of cartilage
cartilage
connective tissue
cartilage = _______ tissue
metabolic breakdown of substances to their smallest functional part
catabolism
Pinocytosis
cell "gulps" drop of extracellular fluid containing dissolved molecules
Parts of a neuron
cell body, dendrites, axon
Granulosum
cell dies off
Mitosis
cell division resulting in 2 identical daughter cells through cytokinesis
Phagocytosis "cell eating"
cell engulfs material durring
What are the levels of organization?
cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
Unit of all living things
cells
What makes up tissues
cells
Corneum
cells are already dead
stem cells
cells that aren't yet differentiated
Characteristics of epithelial tissue
cellularity, polarity, attachment, avascularity, innervation, high regeneration capacity
Osteon components
central canal, concentric lamellae, osteocytes, canaliculi
head
cephalic
neck
cervical
Zygomatic bone
cheek bone
the formation and breaking of bonds
chemical reaction
dificiency of vitamin D3 in children
chloecalciferol
Vitamin D3
cholecalciferol
What makes up cartilage?
chondrocytes
Metaphase
chromatids move to a narrow central zone
In nondividing cells, DNA appears as threads that are referred to as:
chromatin
Prophase
chromosomes coil become visible as a single structure
anchored by a basal body and beat rhythmically to move fluids and secretions
cilia
Protection tissues
cilitated epithelium
The collar bone
clavicle
pectoral (shoulder) girdles
clavicle and scapula
ions or molecule that must bind to enzymes before the substrates can bind
coenzymes
organic cofactors commonly derived from vitamins
coenzymes
Two types of bone
compact and spongy
Types of bone
compact and spongy
Bone structure
compact bone and spongy bone
molecule with more than 1 type of element
compound
Osmolarity
concentration of a solute is there in the solution
Most abundant type of tissue
connective tissue
What type of tissue is bone?
connective tissue
What type of tissue is cartilage?
connective tissue
thoracic cavity
contains heart and lungs
horny layer
corneum
selective transport of materials into the cells through specific lignard-receptor binding
countertransport ?
The integument
covering of the body, protects internal body structures, 7 to 8% of body weight, thickness depends on body location
Where are epithelial tissues located?
covers all surfaces of body (inner & outer)
skull
cranial
dorsal cavity
cranial and spinal
a prominent ridge
crest
prominent ridge
crest
Projections for tendon and ligament attachment
crest, epicondyle, line, process, ramus, spine, trochanter, tubercle, tuberosity
folds in the inner membrane of the mitochondria
cristae
cuboidal epithelium
cube shaped cells
elbow
cubital
epidermis + dermis
cutaneous membrane = _______ + _______
Blue color of the skin
cyanosis
Diaphysis (shaft)
cylinder of compact bone to provide leverage
study of cells
cytology
occurs when a protein is temporarily or permanently damaged by temperature or pH changes
denaturation
Strength of Connective Tissue
dense connective tissue
What is DNA?
deoxyribonucleic acid: determines inherited characteristics
found underneath the "true skin"
dermis
true skin
dermis
dense irregular tissue
dermis of skin
concentration gradient
difference in concentration
The movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration is...
diffusion
fingers and toes
digits/phalanges
yes
do cells have unique traits?
yes
do ionic bonds transfer electrons?
yes
do muscles generate electricity
yes
do nervous cells generate electricity
no
do phospholipids dissolve easily in water?
yes, -3
does phosphate have a charge/what is it
Anaphase
each chromatid pair splits and it separates
palatine bone
either of two irregularly shaped bones that form the back of the hard palate
flexible cartilage
elastic cartilage
negatively charged and not found in the nucleus of the atom (usually found in the cloud)
electrons
exocrine vs endocrine
endocrine doesn't have ducts, exocrine does
secrete their products into the bloodstream
endocrine glands
forms of active transport that consume ATP directly to function and are not dependent on concentration gradient
endocytosis
a bone is lined on the inside with an
endosteum
epiphysis of long bone
ends of long bones
hyaline location
ends of long bones
protein catalyst that speeds up the rate of specific biological reactions
enzyme
What are examples of proteins?
enzymes
What is a second degree burn?
epidermal and upper dermal damage; blisters appear
the cells found in skin that function in immunity
epidermal dendritic cells or langerhans
contains 5 layers of keratinocytes and found in areas of heavy abrasion
epidermis
Layers of the integument
epidermis oStratified squamous epithelium dermis oDeeper layer oPrimarily dense irregular connective tissue
What is a first degree burn?
epidermis only
What are the 3 major regions of the skin?
epidermis, dermis, hypodermis
beating ciliated epithelium
epithelial cells
Four types of tissue
epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
What are the 4 different types of tissues?
epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
interphase
everything that's not part of mitosis, leading up to mitosis
When AB + CD are converted to AC + BD, this type of reaction is called
exchange reaction
reaction release energy
exergonic
form of secretion associated with oil
exocrine gland
elastic location
external ear
movement of materials into the cell
facilitated diffusion
examples of lipids
fats, oils, waxes
thigh
femoral
cartilage found in the intervertebral discs and knee
fibrocartilage
Lateral malleolus
fibula
protein
final product of protein synthesis
Phalanges
fingers
Phalanges
fingers, toes
squamous tissue
flat cells
soft spots in an infants skull
fontanels
Metatarsals
foot bones
largest hole in the skull
foramen magnum
Friction ridges- fingerprints
formed by large folds and valleys of the dermis and epidermis
apocrine glands
found in the armpits, around the nipples, and groin
Structure of nails
free edge, body, lunula, eponychium, cuticle, hyponychium, nail matrix
nail structure
free edge, lateral nail fold, lunula, eponychium, hyponychium
Anterior
front
Anterior/Ventral
front side (the side you hug your auntie from)
The superior nasal conchae, middle nasal conchae, cribiform plate and crista galli are structures found on the ______ bone.
frontal
forehead
frontal
plane divides the body into front and back
frontal (coronal) plane
Osteon
functional unit of compact bone
Lubrication and protection Anchoring and locomotion Specificity in binding (receptors) Recognition (immune response)
functions of Glycocalyx (4)
reproductive/sex cells
germ cells
eccrine glands
glands that produce sweat; found over most of the body
Examples of monosaccharides
glucose, fructose, galactose
but
gluteal
buttocks
gluteal
granular layer
granulosum
layer in which keratincytes "dies off"
granulosum
appositional growth
growth in width
epiphyseal line
growth plate
functional zones in long bone growth
growth zone, transformation zone, osteogenic zone
big toe
hallux
Metacarpals
hand bones
catalysts
help chemical reactions
anchor cells to the basement membrane
hemidesmosomes
basic
higher numbers (more than 7) on the pH scale are _____________
What bones form the bony pelvis?
hip bones, sacrum, coccyx
medullary cavity (long bone)
hollow cavity filled with yellow marrow
Existence of a stable environment within the body
homeostasis
Solution
homogeneous mixture of solute dissolved in a solvent
The weak, but important bond that has an electrical attraction between hydrogens and atoms such as fluorine, oxygen, and nitrogen that can affect the shapes and properties of molecules is ______ bond
hydrogen bond ?
What is pH the measure of?
hydrogen ion concentration
"hates water"
hydrophobic
Bone matrix consists largely of crystals of:
hydroxyapatite
Ventral
in front of
Subluxation refers to
incomplete dislocation
What is the function of parathyroid hormone
increases blood calcium levels
Below; at a lower level
inferior
groin
inguinal
fibrocartilage location
intervertebral discs
three major types of chemical bonds
ionic, covalent, hydrogen
cations and anions are examples of ________ that have either more electrons or less electrons than their original elemental state
ions
an atom has unequal amount of protons and electrons
ions hapen when
What are the lesser or trace elements of the body?
iron, manganese, zinc, copper, iodine, cobalt, molybdenum, selenium, chromium, silicon, fluorine, vanadium, nickel, arsenic, and tin
Hemoglobin
iron-containing protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen for delivery to cells
passive
is Diffusion active or Passive Transport?
no
is Pinocytosis specific?
both! the lipid side is hydrophobic, the phosphate side is hydrophilic
is a phospholipid hydrophobic or hydrophilic
slightly basic
is blood basic (alkaline) or acidic?
passive
is facilitated Diffusion active or Passive Transport?
yes
is phosphate attracted to water
extremely acidic
is stomach acid basic or acidic?
Meiosis
is the Mitosis or Meiosis?
Mitosis
is the Mitosis or Meiosis?
typically more neutral, can be both acidic or basic
is urine basic or acidic?
atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons
isotopes
lysosomes
job is to digest garbage, break it down
plasma membrane
keeps the cells seperate from their environment, and senses/interacts with the environment (to control what goes in and out of the cell)
"hard, corny, and horny" protein that helps to prevent water loss in the skin
keratin
cells that secrete the protein keratin used to help precent water loss from the skin
keratinocytes
4 cells of epidermis
keratinocytes, melanocytes, dendritic cells, tactile cells
What are the 4 cells of the epidermis?
keratinocytes, melanocytes, langerhans cells, merkel cells
urinary
kidneys are a part of the ________ system
Three types of hair
lanugo- fine, vellus- fine/primary, terminal- coarser/beards/eye lashes
LLQ organs
large and small intestines
away from the midline
lateral
Radius
lateral bone of the forearm
Concentric lamellae
layers of bony matrix around a central canal. 90 degrees from previous lamellae
Corneum Lucidium (only found where you can walk: palms of hand and soles of your feet, areas that need thick skin) Granulosum Spinosum Basale
layers of skin from superficial to deep
Includes fats, oils, and waxes
lipids
phobic
lipids and fats are mainly hydro_____
phobic
lipids are hrdro______
Classification of Bone by Shape
long bone, short bone, flat bone, irregular bone
4 shapes of bones
long, short, flat, irregular
What are the arches of the foot?
longitudinal and transverse
Osteoporosis
loss of bone density
denaturation
loss of shape and function due to heat or pH (Irreversible reaction)
acidic
lower numbers (less than 7) on the pH scale are _____________
clear layer
lucidum
The main part of the vertebrae that supports the weight of the bones (and body weight) above it.
lumbar
lower back
lumbar
B cells and T cells are examples of
lymphocytes
responsible for the autolysis of injured cells
lysosomes
carries instruction from the nucleus to the cytoplasm
mRNA
"big eaters"
macrophages
function of red bone marrow
makes red blood cells
Jaw bone
mandible
hand
manual
molecule is the sum of the atomic weight of its component atoms
mass number (atomic mass)
protons + neutrons
mass number = ________ + ________
like chondrocytes as well as ground matrix
matrix
Osteocytes
mature bone cells, found in small spaces between concentric lamellae- lacunae, maintain bone matrix
Sex cells are produced by
meiosis
3 pigments that contribute to skin color
melanin, carotene, hemoglobin
Skin color is determined by
melanin, carotene, hemoglobin
Endosteum
membrane lining the medullary cavity of a bone
Vesicular Transport
membranous sacs called vesicles transport large macromolecules across membranes during
chin
mental
cells in the skin that provide sensory information about the objects that touch the skin
merkel cell (tactile receptor)
What are the different types of exocrine glands
merocrine, apocrine, holocrine
types of exocrine glands
merocrine, apocrine, holocrine
Embryonic Connective Tissue
mesenchyme and mucous connective tissue
chromatids move to the center of the cell and start "line up"
metaphase
bones in the sole of the feet
metatarsals
simple sugars which include glucose, fructose, and galactose
monosaccharides
What is active transport?
movement of molecules into or out of a cell against a concentration gradient
Four types of body membranes
mucous, serous, cutaneous, synovial
What is calcium used for?
muscle contraction
connective tissue that wraps around the muscle
muscle tissue
Epidermal derivatives
nails, hair, exocrine glands of the skin
Male pelvic inlet
narrow and heart-shaped
Vomer
nasal septum (thin, flat bone)
peptide bonds
new bond between Nitrogen and Carbon
Telophase
new cell prepares to return to interphase state
cartilage structure
no blood vessels
coenzyme
nonprotein organic cofactors (vitamins)
Spongy bone
o Located in interior of bone o Latticework structure, strong and lightweight
Areolar CT
o Loose organization of collagen & elastic fibers, highly vascularized o Ground substance is abundant and viscous o Papillary layer (dermis), major component of subcutaneous layer o Surrounds organs, nerve and muscle cells, and blood vessels
Fibrocartilage
o Weight-bearing cartilage that withstands compression o Located in Intervertebral discs. Pubic symphysis, knee pads
Merocrine glands
oPackaged into vesicles, release secretions by exocytosis oExamples include - Lacrimal (tear) glands, - Salivary glands, - Eccrine sweat glands, - Pancreas & Gastric glands of the stomach
bone is found in the back of the skull
occipital
eye
ocular/orbital
What are sebaceous glands?
oil glands
back of your elbow
olecranal
The point of the elbow
olecranon
point (or back) of elbow
olecranon
ear
optic
___________ within the cytoplasm perform particular functions
organelles
Bone matrix has _______ and _______ components
organic and inorganic
force of water movement into a solution
osmotic pressure
formation of bone
ossification
mature bone cells
osteocytes
Epithilial tissue located
outer surfaces of organs and blood vessels
female pelvic inlet
oval shaped
What are the four major elements of the body?
oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen
the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution
pH
A + T A + U G + C
pairing of DNA/RNA
roof of mouth
palatine
hand
palmar
palm
palmar
Location of stratum lucidum
palms of the hands and the soles of the feet.
dermis contains "nipple like" appearance
papillary layer
Layers of dermis
papillary layer and reticular layer
knee
patellar
kneecap
patellar
functional changes that accompany a particular syndrome or disease
pathophysiology
foot
pedal
cavity contains the bladder and reproductive organs
pelvic cavity
Cavity containing the heart
pericardial cavity
DNA
permanent record (transcription)
movement of large materials into the cell ... "eating"
phagocytosis
What are the different types of endocytosis?
phagocytosis and pinocytosis
fingers
phalanges
What is the plasma membrane composed of?
phospholipids
- , attracted
phospholipids have strongly _____ charges (making them ______ to water)
Functions of connective tissue
physical protection, support and structural framework, binding of structures, storage, transport, immune protection
function of body
physiology
sole of foot
plantar
sole of the foot
plantar
The watery matrix of blood
plasma
thrombocytes
platelets
A bond with unequal sharing of electrons
polar covalent bond
electrons are shared, but one element has a stronger hold than the other
polar covalent bond
thumb
pollex
back of knee
popliteal
back of the knee
popliteal
back surface of the body
posterior (dorsal)
structure of a protein includes the number, order, and sequence of amino acid
primary
ceruminous glands
produce ear wax
keratinocytes function
produce keratin
Melanocytes function
produce melanin
mammary glands
produce milk
function of goblet cells
produce mucus
what do you find in basal layer
producing new cells
Epicondyle
projection above a condyle
face down
prone
What are the phases of meiosis?
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
What is the function of the plasma membrane?
protect the cell from its surroundings
function of integumentary system
protection
functions of the integumentary system
protection, sensation, temperature regulation, vitamin d production, excretion
What are nails?
protective coverings on the ends of the fingers and toes
adipose tissue function
protects, insulates, stores fat
amino acids are the basic units of _________, which performs variety of essential function in the body
protein
peripheral proteins
proteins Bound to inner or outer surface of the membrane
intergral proteins
proteins within the membrane
What makes up ground substance?
proteoglycans and glycoproteins
positively charged, found in the nucleus of the atom and is considered the "personality" of the atom
proton
What is a base?
proton acceptor
what is an acid?
proton donor
What are the three subatomic particles? What charge do they carry?
protons (positive charge) neutrons (neutral charge) electrons (negative charge)
stratum spinosum
provides strength and flexibility to the skin
closer to the point of origin
proximal
Pubis
pubic
Apoptosis
purposeful cell death
found in spongy bone and is the location where blood cells are made
red bone marrow
What is endochondral ossification?
replacement of cartilage by bone
Meiosis
results in 4 genetically different sex cells with ½ the # of chromosomes as the parent cell
contains hair follicles, nerve endings, sweat glands and arrector pili
reticular layer
Haversian (central) canals
run longitudinally in bone tissue. These contain blood vessels and nerves.
The shoulder blade
scapula
fibroblasts, collagen
scars are formed because _____________ build ____________, raising the skin = the scar
discharge waxy oil substance into the lumen and into the hair follicle
sebaceous gland
oil waxy substance that is secreted into the hair follicle
sebum
whitheads
sebum that hasn't been oxidized
Exocrine glands
secrete chemical substances into ducts that lead either to other organs or out of the body
sebaceous glands
secrete sebum (oil) into the hair follicles where the hair shafts pass through the dermis
Merkel cells function
sensory for fine-touch
stratified epithelium
several layers of cells
What is meiosis?
sexual reproduction
Groove
shallow linear channel
covalent bond
sharing of electrons ex: H2O
negative feedback
shivering when you are cold to heat yourself up, sweating to cool yourself off are examples of
line the stomach, intestine, gallbladder
simple columnar
single layer of rectangular cells
simple columnar epithelium
single layer of flattened cells
simple squamous
simple epithelium
single layer of cells
columnar epithelium
single layer of epithelial cells taller than they are wide
lambdoidal structure
site of articulation of occopital bone and parietal bone
dense regular
skeletal muscles = ________ ________ tissue
Three types of muscle tissue
skeletal, cardiac, smooth - Cells contract when stimulated - Contraction causes movement o Voluntary motion of body parts o Contraction of heart o Propulsion of material through digestive and urinary tracts
dense irregular
skin = ________ ________ tissue
Cranial
skull
example of intramembranous ossification
skull bones
What are the bones of the axial skeleton?
skull, vertebral column, rib cage
Volkmann's canals
small channels in the bone that transmit blood vessels from the periosteum into the bone and that communicate
lacrimal bone
small fragile bone making up part of the front inner walls of each eye socket
involuntary non-striated muscle
smooth muscle
Bone marrow:
soft connective tissue within the medullary cavity of bones
Osteomalacia
softening of the bone
everything but sex cells
somatic cells
calcium phosphate is an example of
specialized cells
Receptor - mediated endocytosis
specific mechanism of endocytosis that involves receptor proteins on the plasma membrane
Vertebrae
spine
a pointed process
spine
parts of the scapula
spine, acromion, coracoid process
Spiral
spirillum
iron deficiency
spoon-like nails indicate
examples of polysaccharides
starch, glycogen, cellulose
ionic bond
steals electrons Ex: Na ---> Cl (rip off) Na+ ---> Cl - (share)
Osteogenic cells
stem cells
basal, surface (apical)
stem cells are found at the ____ part of the epithelium and push stuff toward the _______
LUQ organs
stomach, spleen, pancreas
What is the function of yellow bone marrow?
stores fat
layer rectangular
stratified cuboidal
Epidermal Strata
stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum
Layers of epidermis
stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum
prickly layer
stratum spinosum
skeletal muscle
striated and voluntary
What are intervertebral discs?
strong cartilage that holds vertebrae together, allows for flexibility, and cushions vertebrae to reduce stress
Dermatology
study of the skin
Histology
study of tissues
solvent
substance used to dissolve other chemicals
Solvent
substances used to dissolve other chemicals
examples of disaccharides
sucrose, lactose, maltose
sweat glands; divided into two types: apocrine ad merocrine gland
sudoriferous glands
narrow groove
sulcus
metabolism
sum of all chemical reactions occuring in your body
Xiphoid
sword shaped
two substances move in the same direction at the same time
symport
ribosomes
synthesize polypeptides
3 letter code on tRNA and is used in the selection of amino acid for polypeptide
tRNA
caudal
tail end
Coccyx
tailbone
langerhans function
take up and process microbial antigens
bones are found on the sides of the skull
temporal
side of the skull
temporal
dense regular connective tissue
tendons and ligaments
structure of protein involves complex FOLDING (tying a piece of rope into a knot)
tertiary structure
genetic code
the "language"
body of sternum
the bony structure that forms the middle portion of the sternum
What is intramembranous ossification?
the formation of bone from fibrous membranes
What is the cell cycle?
the life cycle of a cell
Ischium
the lower, posterior portions of the pelvis
differentiation
the process of becoming different, cells are becoming specialized
bone resorption
the removal of osseous tissue
Epthelium
the specialized epithelial tissue that forms the epidermis of the skin and the surface layer of mucous membranes
Carotene
the yellow pigment of the skin that accumulates in subcutaneous fat . Important to vision, reducing free radicals, and immune functions
lucidum
thick skin only
Femur
thigh bone
Inferior conchae
thin curved bones projecting from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity
Lamella
thin plate
4 layers of keratinocytes and covers most of the body
thin skin
chest
thoracic
cavity contains the lungs
thoracic cavity
Where does calcitonin come from?
thyroid gland
reticular
tissue with 3D network with more fibers, holds cells in space
Cranial
towar skull
Caudal
toward tail (coccyx in humans)
Proximal
toward the body
medial
toward the midline
Found in urinary tract organs
transitional epithelium
Exocytosis
transport OUT OF cell using secretory vesicles
passive transport
transport with no added energy required
Endocytosis
transportation INTO cell
basic unit of fat
triglycerides
Axial & Appendicular Skeleton
two divisions of the skeleton
isozymes
two enzymes that can catalyze the same reaction
molecule
two or more atoms bonded together
*fibroblast* and *macrophages*
types of cells in connective tissue
Simple Diffusion
unassisted diffusion of solutes across a selectively permeable membrane
What is chromatin?
uncoiled DNA
Humerus
upper arm bone
Maxilla
upper jaw bone
Manubrium
upper portion of the sternum
Non-pigmented white patches of various sizes on otherwise normally pigmented skin (white patchy spots)
vitiligo
What is the rule of nines?
way to determine the extent of burns
hydrogen bond
weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and another atom
1. Cotransport (symport) = two substances move in the same direction at the same time 2. Countertransport (antiport) = one substance moves in while another moves out
what are the 2 types of Carrier - Mediated Transport
Thymine, Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine
what are the 4 DNA nucleobases?
Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, Uracil
what are the 4 RNA nucleobases?
Anchoring proteins (stabilizers) Recognition proteins (identifiers) Enzymes Receptor proteins Transport/carrier proteins Channels
what are the Different functions of membrane proteins (6)
Large molecules, Highly polar compounds, Ions
what can not pass through the Lipid Bilayer (plasma membrane)
Small molecules (O2, CO2, H2O, ethanol) Non-polar molecules (hydrophobic molecules/drugs)
what can pass through the Lipid Bilayer (plasma membrane)
RNA polymerase
what is the enzyme for nucleic acids?
the two payers of phospholipids (lipid part forms the middle, they face each other and the phosphate ends are what face the outside)
what is the phospholipid bilayer
selectively permeable
what type of membrane is the plasma membrane
mRNA
what type of nucleic acid encodes proteins
hypertonic
what type of solution is this?
hypotonic
what type of solution is this?
isotonic
what type of solution is this?
Solute
what's being dissolved in a solvent
G0
when a cell is not actively dividing it is in _____
Blanching
when all the color leaves the area under pressure
only after puberty
when do apocrine glands become active?
crenation
when the cell is dehydrated and shrinking this process is called...
dynamic equilibrium
when the rate of diffusion plateaus
Erythema
when you get red colored skin b/c of rosacea, sun burn...
Jaundice
when you get yellow skin
Cyanosis
when you lack oxygen in your blood (resulting in blue colored skin)
armpits, nipples, and groin
where are the apocrine glands found?
Dermis and hypodermis
where are the nutrients, oxygen, blood cells, and other things we need to rejuvenate the cells found?
Metaphysis
where diaphysis and epiphysis meet
in cells that line the intestines
where does Pinocytosis occur?
stomach
where is most of the acid located along the digestive track?
What do you find in the hypodermis
where you hide the fat
proton
which subatomic particle has + charge, 1 mass unit, and is Found in the nucleus
electron
which subatomic particle has - charge, very low mass, and surrounds the nucleus
neutron
which subatomic particle has no charge, 1 mass unit, and is Found in the nucleus
cardiovascular
which system pumps blood?
proteins
workforce of the cell (make chemical reactions possible)
mRNA
working copies (translation)
areolar tissue function
wraps and cushions organs
areolar connective tissue
wraps and cushions organs Located in the mucous membrane
Subcutaneous layer- hypodermis
˗ Deep to dermis ˗ Layer of alveolar and CT ˗ Not part of integumentary system
Appendicular skeleton
̶ Bones of upper and lower limbs ̶ Girdles of bones attach limbs to axial skeleton ̶ Pectoral girdle holds upper limbs in place ̶ Pelvic girdle holds lower limbs in place
Axial skeleton
̶ Composed of bones along central body axis ̶ Skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage ̶ Framework supports and protects organs ̶ Spongy bone contains hemopoietic tissue
Mecrocrine sweat glands
̶ Most numerous and widely distributed ̶ Simple, coiled tubular glands ̶ Discharge secretions onto skin surface ̶ Produce secretion by exocytosis- eccrine ̶ Secrete sweat o Composed of 99% water and 1% other chemicals o Includes: electrolytes, metabolites, and waste products o Antibacterial/antifungal activity ̶ Major function, thermoregulation o Regulation of body temperature by fluid evaporation
Vasaconstriction
̶ Vessels narrow, less blood travels through ̶ Less blood passage in dermal vessels means deeper vessels must be used ̶ Shunting of blood away from periphery of body toward deeper structures ̶ Occurs when body tries to conserve heat ̶ Reason we look pale when cold
Structures of the knee joint - Cruciate ligaments
—cross each other Deep to articular capsule
Vertebral Column
• 4 spinal curvatures- Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral curvatures - Gives column some flexibility - Better supports weight of the body than a straight spine - Appear sequentially during fetal, newborn, and child development stages
Bone Growth and Bone Remodeling
• Bone growth and remodeling - Begins during embryologic development • Bone growth in length—interstitial growth • Bone growth in diameter or thickness—appositional growth • Interstitialgrowth - Dependent upon cartilage growth in epiphyseal plate
Radius & Ulna
• Borders b/n radius & ulna - Interosseous borders, facing each other - Connected by an interosseous membrane Dense regular CT Keeps radius & ulna a fixed distance apart Pivot of rotation for the forearm
Clinical View: Botox and Wrinkles
• Botox is a treatment for wrinkles caused by facial muscle expression • Clostridium botulinum toxin • Blocks nerve impulses to facial expression muscles • Decreases or eliminates wrinkles • Botox injected into specific facial muscles • Temporary effect only • Muscles regain function and procedure must be repeated
Clinical View: Psoriasis
• Chronic autoimmune skin disease • Keratinocytes attacked by T-lymphocytes • Causes rapid overgrowth of new skin cells • Patches of whitish, scaly skin on epidermal surface • Symptoms: severe itching, pain, skin cracking • Treatments ̶ Corticosteroids, UV light therapy, medications that interfere with skin cell production
Scurvy
• Collagen is an important protein • Strengthens and supports almost all body tissues • Vitamin C essential for healthy collagen fibers • Scurvy caused by vitamin C deficiency • Symptoms: weakness, gum ulceration, hemorrhages, abnormal bone growth • Caused by nutritional deficiencies • Treated by consuming foods high in vitamin C or supplements
Shoulder Joint Dislocations
• Common due to joint instability • Shoulder separation refers to acromioclavicular dislocation - Pain when arm abducted more than 90 degrees - Acromion appearing prominent • Glenohumeral joint dislocations usually occur when fully abducted humerus struck hard - Shoulder appears flattened and "squared-off " - Humeral head anterior and inferior to glenohumeral joint capsule
Sex Differences in the Pelvis
• Determing sex of the skeleton - Ossa coxae the most sexually dimorphic bones - Due to demands of pregnancy and childbirth - Female pelvis shallower and wider - Females with wider hips o Due to female ilium flares more laterally - Female acetabulum projects more laterally - Female greater sciatic notch wider - Females have preauricular sulcus o Depression between greater sciatic notch and sacroiliac articulation - Female sacrum shorter and wider - Body of pubis longer and more rectangular-shaped in women - Subpubic angle o Angle when pubic bones aligned at symphysial surfaces o Wider and more convex in females
Integument & Integumentary Derivatives Development
• Development around week 7 - Ectoderm forms a layer of squamous epithelium o Becomes periderm and basal layer o Basal layer forms all epidermal layers • By week 21 - Formation of stratum corneum and friction ridges o Periderm eventually sloughed off o Mixes with sebum to produce coating on fetus skin, vernix caseosa • Development around week 11 - Dermis is derived from mesoderm o Mesoderm becomes mesenchyme
Clinical View: Rickets
• Disease caused by vitamin D deficiency in childhood • Characterized by deficient calcification of osteoid tissue • Bowlegged appearance • Disturbances in growth, hypocalcemia, and tetany (cramps & twitches) ̶ Caused by low blood calcium • Occurs in some developing nations • Incidence increasing in urban U.S. children
Distinguishing Features & Anatomy of Synovial Joints
• Double-layered joint capsule (articular capsule) - Outer layer, fibrous layer Formed from dense connective tissue Strengthens joints to prevent bones being pulled apart - Inner layer, synovial membrane Composed primarily of areolar connective tissue Covers internal joint surfaces not covered by cartilage Helps produce synovial fluid
Clinical View: Forensic Anthropology
• Juvenile skeleton with separate diaphysis and epiphysis • Adult skeleton with whole fused bones • This helps determine age of skeletal remains • Open: no union between epiphysis and other bone end • Partial union: some fusion between epiphysis and rest of bone • Complete union: all visible aspects united to rest of bone • Female epiphyseal plates fuse about 1 to 2 yrs earlier than males
Spinal Curvature Abnormalities
• Kyphosis- Exaggerated thoracic curvature, Produces hunchback look, May result from osteoporosis • Lordosis- Exaggerated lumbar curvature, swayback, May result from added abdominal weight • Scoliosis- Abnormal lateral curvature, May require back brace or surgery
Arches of the Foot
• Lateral longitudinal arch - Not as high as medial arch - Extends between little toe and the heel - Formed from calcaneus, cuboid bones, metatarsals IV and V
Arches of the Foot
• Medial longitudinal arch - Highest of the three arches - Extends from heel to great toe - Formed from calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuneiform bones, metatarsals I-III - Prevents medial side of foot from touching the ground
TMJ Disorders
• Most common due to alteration in the ligaments securing the joint • Articular disc forced out of normal position • Clicking or popping heard as person opens or closes mouth • Possible pain in joint, paranasal sinuses, tympanic membrane, oral cavity, eyes, and teeth
Herniated Discs
• Nucleus pulposus protruding into or thru the anulus fibrosus • Produces a bulging of disc contents into vertebral canal • Pinches the spinal cord or nerves • Cervical and lumbar discs most commonly injured • Cervical herniated discs ̶ Neck pain and pain down the upper limb • Lumbar herniated discs ̶ Low back pain ̶ Pain down the entire lower limb, sciatica
Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitriol
• PTH and calcitriol interact with major organs ̶ Bone CT of skeleton o Act synergistically to increase release of calcium from the bone into the blood o Increase osteoclast activity - Kidneys - Stimulate the kidney to excrete less calcium in urine - Increasing calcium reabsorption in the kidney tubules - Smallintestine - Only calcitriol increases absorption of calcium from small intestine into the blood
Clinical View: Tattoos
• Permanent images produced on integument • Dye injected into dermis • Permanent part of dermis layer • Usually impossible to completely remove a tattoo • Lasers used to break down pigments • Newer inks are available that allow for removal
Sternal Foramen
• Present in midline of 4-10% of adults • Failure of left and right ossification centers to fuse completely • May be misidentified as a bullet wound
Coccyx (Tailbone) Injury
• Prone to bruising or fracture • Injurious activities: falling on buttocks, sitting abruptly, hit during contact sports, cycling frequently, or childbirth • Severe pain, coccydynia • Slow to heal • Treatment: rest, ice & non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
Radius and Ulna
• Radius and ulna form forearm - Bones are parallel - Radius located laterally • Components of the radius - Disc-shaped head at proximal end - Styloid process, bony projection at distal end - Ulnar notch on distal medial surface Articulates with capitulum of humerus - Narrow neck extends from head to radial tuberosity Attachment site for biceps brachii muscle - Shaft of radius curves slightly Articulates with medial surface of distal ulna
Marfan Syndrome
• Rare genetic disease of CT • Causes skeletal, cardiovascular, and visual abnormalities • Abnormal chromosome 15 • Symptoms ̶ Abnormally long fingers, toes, limbs ̶ Malformation of thoracic cage, vertebral column ̶ Easily dislocated joints, resulting from weak ligaments, tendons, and joint capsules ̶ Weakness in aorta and abnormal heart valves ̶ Slipped lens of the eye • Often death before age 50 due to cardiovascular problems • Early diagnosis/medical management allows long life span
Clinical View: Osteitis Deformans
• Results from disruption between osteoclast and osteoblast function • Characterized by excessive bone resorption followed by excessive bone deposition • Larger osteoclasts resorb bone at higher rate • Newly deposited bone poorly formed • Most commonly affected bones ̶ Pelvis, skull, vertebrae, femur, tibia • Symptoms: bone deformity and pain
Clinical View: Osteoporosis
• Results in decreased bone mass, weakened bones prone to fracture • Linked to age, onset of menopause, smoking history, Caucasian race • Postmenopausal women at most risk • Increased incidence of fracture ̶ Especially at wrist, hip, vertebral column • Best treatment is prevention with diet and physical activity in young adults • Medical treatments involve ̶ Slowing rate of bone loss ̶ Attempting to stimulate new bone growth
Scaphoid Fractures
• Scaphoid bone a more commonly fractured bone • May fracture from fall from outstretched hand • Blood vessels torn, resulting in avascular necrosis ̶ Death of bone tissue due to inadequate blood supply • Takes a long time to heal
Knee Ligament and Cartilage Injuries
• Tibial collateral ligament injury when leg forcibly abducted • Fibular collateral ligament injury when medial side of knee is struck • ACL injury when leg hyperextended • PCL injury when leg hyperflexed • Meniscus injury due to trauma and/or overuse • Unhappy triad: injury of tibial collateral ligament, medial meniscus, and ACL - Occurs due to a lateral blow to the knee that abducts and laterally rotates leg
Vertebra prominens (C7)
• Transition from cervical to thoracic vertebral region • Spinous process longer than in other cervical vertebrae • Easily palpated between the shoulder blades
Clinical View: Burns
• Treatments for burns ̶ Manage fluid loss ̶ Relieve swelling ̶ Manage pain ̶ Remove dead tissue ̶ Control infection ̶ Increase calorie intake