PHYL 141 TEST 1,2,3

Ace your homework & exams now with Quizwiz!

Genes

"nevels"

Glycocalyx

"sugar coat"

Codons

"words"

Squamous suture

- Articulates temporal bone & parietal bone on each side of skull

Proportion of organic & inorganic substances

- Correct proportion allows optimal functioning - Loss of protein results in brittle bones - Insufficient calcium results in soft bones

False ribs (ribs 8-12)

- Costal cartilages not attached directly to the sternum - Costal cartilage of ribs 8-10 o - Fused to costal cartilage of rib 7 - Indirectly attached to sternum - Floating ribs of 11-12 without a connection to sternum

The hip joint gets its stability from

- Deep bony socket - Strong articular capsule - Supporting ligaments - Muscular padding

Transverse ridges

- Horizontal lines of fusion remaining

Angular motion

- Increases or decreases angle between two bones - Includes specific types Flexion and extension Hyperextension Lateral flexion Abduction and adduction Circumduction

What are the characteristics of nervous tissue?

-only tissue that nerve impulses or electrical signals can travel through -coordinates body activities

Stages of wound healing

1) Cut blood vessels bleed into wound 2) Blood clot forms and leukocytes clean wound - Clot is a temporary barrier for pathogens 3) Blood vessels re-grow and granulation tissue forms - Vascular CT initially forms in wound 4) Epithelium regenerates and CT fibrosis occurs

Effects of Aging

1) Decreased tensile strength of bone ̶ Reduced rate of protein synthesis by osteoblasts ̶ Relative amount of inorganic material increases ̶ Become brittle and susceptible to fracture 2) Bone loss of calcium and other minerals ̶ Bones thinner and weaker ̶ Insufficient ossification, osteopenia - Reduced hormones- Vitamin D, growth hormone, estrogen, and testosterone

Steps of appositional growth

1) Stem cells at edge of perichondrium begin to divide 2) New undifferentiated stem cells and new chondroblasts are formed 3) Chondroblasts push apart and become chondrocytes

Female pubic angle

100 degrees or more

Sacrum

5 fused vertebrae

Bones in cervical vertebrae

7

Atoms Complex Protein Molecules Chemical Level Cellular Level Tissue Level Organ Level Organ system Level Organismal Level

8 levels of organization

false ribs

8-12

Bones of the Axial Skeleton

80 of the 206 bones in the body make up the axial skeleton. it is comprised of the skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum.

Synthesis Reaction (Anabolism)

A + B --> AB

Which purines are bonded to which pyrimidines? How many hydrogen bond hold them together?

A = T (double bond) C --- G (triple bond)

Can be a sign of melanoma

A black stripe on your nail

Axon

A threadlike extension of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body.

What makes up bone tissue?

About 25% of bone tissue is water, another 25% is made up of protein fibers like collagen. The other 50% of bone tissue is a mixture of mineral salts, primarily calcium and phosphorous.

Superior

Above

small intestine, large intestine

After the stomach food enters the ________ ________, and then the ___________ _________

Humerus

Anatomical neck- Groove marking location of former epiphyseal plate Surgical neck- Narrowing immediately distal to the tubercles, fractures easily, Deltoid tuberosity, Deltoid muscle attachment Radial groove- Location of radial nerve and some blood vessels Medial and lateral epicondyles- Provide surfaces for muscle attachment, Palpated on sides of elbow o Ulnar nerve travels posterior to medial epicondyle "Funny bone"

forearm

Antebrachial

dermis

Any injury that hits the ____________ causes scarring

dense connective tissue

Binds organ

abdominal cavity

Cavity housing intestines.

pimples (from accumulated sebum)

Comedones

uses the base A, T, C, G

DNA

What are the nucleotides (chains of nucleic acids) composed of?

DNA and RNA

What are the two major types of nucleic acids?

DNA and RNA

What is transcription?

DNA and RNA

Melanoma

Deadliest form of skin cancer!

falling apart

Decomposition (catabolism)

reticular layer

Deeper layer of the dermis

Epithelial tissue extensive innervation

Detection of changes in environment in a region

The middle (shaft) of long bones

Diaphysis

Mesenchymal cells

Embryonic stem cell, divides to replace damaged cells One replaces mesenchymal cell, other becomes committed cell

Structures of the knee joint - Articular capsule

Encloses only medial, lateral, and posterior knee regions

What is endocytosis/exocytosis?

Endo- food particles taken in Exo- eliminate waste

suture that separates the temporal bone from the parietal bone is called

Ethmoid

Hirsutism - Hair growth

Excessive male pattern hairiness Typically on face, chest, back Excess androgens Caused by medical condition or medication

- Sphenomandibular ligament

Extends anteriorly and inferiorly from sphenoid to mandible

Structures of the knee joint - Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL)

Extends from anteroinferior femur to posterior tibia Prevents hyperflexion and posterior displacement of tibia

Structures of the knee joint - Tibial collateral ligament

Extends from femur to tibia, Reinforces medial surface of joint Prevents hyperabduction

Structures of the knee joint - Patellar ligament

Extends from patella to tibial tuberosity

Structures of the knee joint - Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)

Extends from posterior femur to anterior tibia Prevents hyperextension and anterior displacement of tibia

- Temporomandibular ligament

Extends inferiorly and posteriorly from articular tubercle to mandible

Short, flat & irregular bones differ from long bones

External surface composed of compact bone Interior composed of spongy bone ˗ Diploë—spongy bone in flat bone of skull No medullary cavity

What three atoms are associated with hydrogen bonding?

F.O.N

glycerides

Fatty acid attached to glycerol molecule

when a cell exits the cell cycle, it could divide, but it doesn't want to.

G0/Quiescence

What happens in tissue repair?

Herpes: heat, redness, pain, swelling

What are the two different types of plasma membrane proteins?

Integral and peripheral

Nucleus pulposus and annulus fibrosus make up the ___________. (hint: jelly donut)

Intervertebral discs

Ischiofemoral ligament

Intracapsular ligament posteriorly located

Development and Aging of the Joints

Joints start to form by sixth week of development

brown pigmentation

Lesions with melanin confined to basal cells

Superior (external)

Located outside the body

breast

Mammary glands

Glycoproteins

Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to proteins.

merocrine vs holocrine

Merocrine: cell is lost with the secretion Holocrine: cell detaches with the secretion

ATP

Most chemical reactions in the body require ________ transport

Clinical View: Nail Disorders

Nails are indicative of overall health - Brittle nails are prone to vertical splitting and separation of nail plate layers - Ingrown nails with edge of nail digging into skin - Onchomycosis is a fungal infection - Yellow nail syndrome occurs when growth and thickening slows - Spoon nails outer surface of nail is concave - Beau's lines indicate temporary interference with nail growth - Vertical ridging common and usually harmless

Apex

Narrow, pointed portion of the bone projecting inferiorly

________ is a bone that makes up a portion of the nasal septum. (hint: it is very much in the middle and very much alone).

Nasal bones

_________ are bones that are found on the anterior aspect of the nose (hint: nose nose nose).

Nasal bones

Zone of ̶ resting cartilage

Nearest epiphysis Small chondrocytes distributed throughout matrix Resembles mature hyaline cartilage Secures epiphysis to epiphyseal plate

Flesh eating

Necrotizing Fasciitis

Is cartilage vascular?

No, it is avascular

Epithelial tissue avascular

Nutrients obtained across apical surface or from the basal surface

Pathologic fracture

Occurs in bone weakened by disease

Simple epithelium

One cell layer, all cells in direct contact with basement membrane - Filtration, absorption, or secretion is primary function - E.g., lining of air sacs of lungs, intestines, blood vessels

Compound fracture

One or both ends of the bone pierce overlying skin

Epthelium

One or more layer of closely packed cells, little to no extra cellular matrix, covers body surfaces, lines body cavities, forms majority of glands

Trabeculae- Spongy bone

Open lattice of narrow rods and plates of bones Bone marrow fills spaces Meshwork of crisscrossing bars Resistance to stresses

dissolve the bony matrix through osteolysis

Osteoclasts

(aka: osteoprogenitor cells) differentiate into osteoblasts

Osteogenic cells

What are the 2 major divisions of the dermis?

Papillary and reticular

Compact bone

Perforated by neurovascular canals Cylindrical structures—osteons ˗ Display concentric rings of bone CT called lamellae ˗ Lamellae encircle central canal, location of blood vessels and nerves

macrophages and other white blood cells

Phagocytosis occurs with ...

ATP

Primary active transport

ribosomes on its outer surface and forms transport vesicles

Rough ER

The phase of interphase when DNA replicates

S phase

When is DNA replicated?

S phase

Sacral vertebrae

S1-S5

across chemical gradients

Secondary active transport

If aspirin is a weakly acidic drug, where is it most likely to be absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract? Why?

Small intestines since it has a larger surface area

Mast cells

Small, mobile cells close to blood vessels oSecrete heparin to inhibit blood clotting Secrete histamine to dilate blood vessels

lipid synthesis and detoxification

Smooth ER

Compact bone

Spongy bone Dense or cortical bone Relatively dense CT Appears white, smooth & solid 80% of bone mass

dissolves, solute

Sugar _____________s in water (making it the ________)

Functions of the skelatal system

Support & protection - Bones provide structural support - A framework for the body - Protect many delicate tissues o Rib cage: heart & lungs o Cranial bones: brain o Vertebrae: spinal cord o Pelvis: urinary & reproductive organs & end of GI tract

Bone markings

Surface features that characterize each bone

G1 = Cell growth S = Synthesis G2 = Growth M = Mitosis

The Cell Cycle

What is homeostasis?

The bodies ability to maintain a stable internal environment

Arthrology

The study of joints

Intrinsic ligaments

Thickening of the articular capsule itself Include ligaments outside and within the joint capsule Cruciate

Stress fracture

Thin break caused by increased physical activity Bone experiences repetitive loads (e.g., runners)

Stress fracture

Thin break caused by increased physical activity o Bone experiences repetitive loads (e.g., runners)

chest

Thoracic or Thorax

The bones of the spine that are found in the chest region

Thoracic vertebrae

Dense regular CT

Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers, resemble stacked lasagna noodles o In tendons & ligaments; stress typically applied in a single direction Few blood vessels; takes a long time to heal

adipose tissue

Tissue that stores fat Located beneath the skin and in bone marrow

the extracellular fluid

Tonicity is usually describing ...

Intertrochanteric line

Travels between two trochanters

Pubofemoral ligament

Triangular thickening of capsule's inferior region - Become taut when hip extended

is a large, rough projection

Trochanter

Ribs 1-7, aka _________, attach directly to the sternum via extensions off their own cartilages.

True ribs

Lateral rotation

Turns anterior surface of bone laterally

Medial rotation

Turns anterior surface of bone medially

Stratified epithelium

Two or more layers - In areas subjected to mechanical stress o Better able to resist wear & tear o E.g., skin, lining of the esophagus, lining of urinary bladder - Cells in basal layer continuously regenerate to replace apical cells

Gouty arthritis

Typically seen in middle-aged or older males Due to increased levels of uric acid

The bone of the forearm that is found on the "pinky-side"

Ulna

Collagen fibers

Unbranched, "cable-like" long fibers, appear white in fresh tissue Strong, flexible, and resistant to stretching Numerous in tendons & ligaments

Epithelial tissue high regeneration capacity

Undergoes frequent cell division, regenerates at high rate, necessary due to environmental exposure, continual replacement of plots cells. Cell division of stem cells

The bones of the spine that are found in the hip region (not lower back).

Vertebral arch

Rickets

Vitamin D deficiency

Zone of ̶ ossification

Walls break down between lacunae in columns Spaces invaded by capillaries and osteoprogenitor cells New bone matrix deposited on the calcified cartilage matrix

Eccrine (merocrine)

Watery & salty secretions, located almost everywhere on our bodies (Perspiration)

DNA & RNA

What are the 2 main nucleic acids

goes past the dermis

a burn is 3rd dergree is it...

cavity contain internal organs such as liver, stomach, and kidneys

abdominal cavity

Superior

above

Is household chlorine an example of an acid or a base?

acid

Is lemon juice an example of an acid or a base?

acid

shoulder

acromial

movement of watery material into the cell is

active transport

The term used to describe "a disease of short duration by typically severe"

acute

heavier (1 neutron = 1 amu)

adding neutrons to an atom makes it _________

fat cells

adipocytes

Epigastric region

area right outside the stomach

Supporting CT

bone and cartilage

Articulating surfaces

condyle, facet, head, trochlea

shins

crural

function of calcitonin

decreases blood calcium

What is osmosis?

diffusion of water

The uppermost layer of skin is

epidermis

contains keratinocytes

epidermis

bone deposition

formation of bone, action of osteoblasts

Tissues are

groups of similar cells that act as a functional unit, extra cellular material

interstitial growth

growth in length

Ilium

hip bone

bone of the arm

humerus

The cartilage found at the end of long bones

hyaline

What are the 3 different types of cartilage?

hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage

"loves water"

hydrophilic

Dorsal

in back of

aka skin

integument

somatic cells spend majority of their time in

interphase

Patella

kneecap

goblet cells location

lining of organs, such as the intestinal and respiratory tracts

Mandible

lower jaw

Degrees of Severity

mild, moderate, severe, profound

Nuclear division of somatic cells

mitosis

Meiosis vs. Mitosis

mitosis=genetically identical diploid cells meiosis=genetically unique haploid cells

osmosis

movement of H2O across a selectively permeable membrane

Unit of nervous system

neuron

nervous system

neurons are a part of the ________ system

Nasal

nose

What are the four major types of organic compounds?

nucleic acid protein carbohydrates lipids

2 parts of intervertebral discs

nucleus pulposus and anulus fibrosus

Ligaments

o Anchor bone to bone

back of the skull

occipital

solution that causes water to flow out of a cell

osmosis

basic unit of bone

osteon (haversian system)

knee cap

patella

Erythocytes

red blood cells

What is RNA?

ribonucleic acid: controls steps in protein synthesis

Tibia

shin bone

basal layer of epidermis

stratum basale

deepest layer of epidermis

stratum basale

covalent bonds

strong bonds where electrons are shared equally

Collagen

structural protein found in the skin and connective tissue

face up

supine

Functions of bones

support, protection, movement, storage, blood cell formation

calf

sural

Wormian bones are also known as

sutural bones

Types of exocrine glands

sweat and sebaceous

ankle

tarsal

Lucidum

thick skin

Medial malleolus

tibia

What are cilia?

tiny hair-like projections used to move a cell or to move things past a cell

What are burns?

tissue damage and cell death

cartilage function

to support

Divides superior and inferior

transverse

(neutral fats) consist of three fatty acid molecules attached by dehydration synthesis to a molecule of glycerol

triglycerides

small, rounded projection

tubercle

transitional epithelium

urinary bladder

bladder

urine is stored in the _________

Is bone vascular?

very vascular

arrector pili muscle

what cause chicken skin

spongy bone and is the location where lipids (fats) are stored

yellow bone marrrow

Cheek bone

zygomatic bone

Herniated Discs - Treatment options

- "Wait and see", NSAIDs, Surgery - Microdiscectomy—portion of disc removed - Discectomy—vertebrae and muscles incised before removing portions of disc

Bones of the Upper Limb

- 1 humerus - 1 radius and 1 ulna - 8 carpal bones - 5 metacarpal bones - 14 phalanges

Thoracic vertebrae

- 12 total, each articulating with the ribs - Heart-shaped bodies - Costal facets or demifacets, On lateral side of body and on sides of transverse processes - Head of rib articulates with costal facet or demifacet - Tubercle of rib articulates with costal facets on transverse processes - T11 and T12 lack transverse costal facets

Stratum lucidum

- 2 to 3 cell layers - Translucent, Clear layer - Superficial to stratum granulosum - Found only on thick skin on palms and soles - Cells filled with a translucent protein, eleidin o Intermediate product in keratin maturation o Helps protect from UV light

Vertebral column

- 24 individual vertebrae plus the fused sacrum and coccyx - Each articulates with one superior and one inferior vertebra - Provides vertical support for body - Supports weight of head - Helps maintain an upright body position - Houses and protects spinal cord

Os coxae: (Hip bone)

- 3 bones: Ilium, Ischium, Pubis - Fuse between ages 13 to 15 years - Articulates posteriorly with sacrum at sacroiliac joint - Femur articulation with acetabulum, Deep, curved depression on lateral os coxae o Region where 3 bones have fused - C-shaped smooth surface on acetabulum, lunate surface o Articulates with femoral head

Phalanges

- 3 in 2nd through 5th fingers - 2 phalanges in thumb (pollex) - Proximal phalanx articulate with head of metacarpal - Distal phalanx at tip of finger - Middle phalanx between proximal & distal phalanges

Auditory ossicles

- 3 tiny ear bones - Housed within petrous part of each temporal bone - Malleus, incus, and stapes

Stratum granulosum

- 3 to 5 layers of keratinocytes - Granular layer - Superficial to stratum spinosum - Process begins called keratinization o Keratinocytes fill with keratin o Causes nucleus and organelles to disintegrate o Fully keratinized cell dead but structurally sound o Process not complete until in more superficial layers

Pelvis Girdle and Its Functions • Pelvis

- 4 bones- Sacrum, coccyx, right and left ossa coxae - Supports viscera in inferior part of ventral body cavity • Pelvic girdle - Left and right ossa coxae only - Articulates with trunk - Provides attachment point for lower limbs - Angled slightly anteriorly when standing upright

Vertebral column divisions

- 5 divisions or regions - Identified by capital letter for region followed by numerical subscript Indicates sequence from superior to inferior locations

Synovial joints

- A joint cavity - Most body joints - Diarthrotic (freely mobile) - Basic features: Articular capsule, Synovial fluid, Articular cartilage o Ligaments, nerves & blood vessels

Dysplasia

- Abnormal tissue development - May be precancerous, or revert back to normal - Must be closely monitored by professionals - cervical dysplasia due to exposure to human papillomavirus

Cuboidal cells

- About as tall as they are wide - Edges somewhat rounded - Nucleus spherical and in center of cell

Calcitonin

- Aids in regulating blood calcium levels - Less significant role than PTH or calcitriol - Released from the thyroid gland in response to high blood calcium levels - Also secreted in response to exercise - Inhibits osteoclast activity - Stimulates kidneys to increase loss of calcium in the urine o Reducing blood calcium levels - Greatest effect during greatest bone turnover o E.g., growing children - Therapeutic injections o Not able to provide long-term decrease in blood calcium - Entire function still unclear

Nonkeratinized

- All cells alive, kept moist with secretions (e.g., saliva, mucus) - Lack keratin, protective protein - Microscopically visible cell nuclei - Oral cavity, part of pharynx, esophagus, vagina, anus

Carpals: Wrist bones

- Allow multiple movements at wrist - Arranged in 2 rows of 4 bones each - Proximal row from lateral to medial- Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform - Distal row from lateral to medial- Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate

Extension

- Also in anterior-posterior plane, but opposite of flexion - Increases angle between articulating bones - E.g., straightening your fingers after making a fist

Protraction

- Anterior movement from anatomic position - E.g., jutting jaw anteriorly at temporomandibular joint

Sacrum

- Anteriorly curved, triangular bone - Forms posterior wall of pelvic cavity - Articulates with L5 superiorly Via pair of superior articular processes

Promontory

- Anterosuperior edge of first sacral vertebra - Bulges anteriorly into pelvic cavity

Spinal Curvatures- Secondary curves

- Appear after birth - Help shift trunk weight over the legs - Cervical curve appears when child is able to hold up head (3-4 months) - Lumbar curve appears when child is learning to stand and walk (by first year of life)

Pseudostratifed columnar epithelium

- Appears as multiple cell layers - Not really stratified o All cells in direct contact with basement membrane o Nuclei scattered at different distances o Not all cells reach apical surface

Elbow isvery stable because

- Articular capsule is thick - Bony surfaces of humerus and ulna interlock closely - Multiple, strong ligaments reinforce articular capsule

Planejoint

- Articular surfaces flat, Simplest, least mobile synovial articulation - Uniaxial: limited side-to-side gliding movement in a single plane

What are the main components and functional characteristics of the hip joint?

- Articulation between head of the femur and acetabulum of os coxa - Acetabular labrum—fibrocartilaginous ring that deepens socket - More stable, less mobile than glenohumeral joint

Gomphoses (peg in a socket)

- Articulations of teeth with sockets of mandible and maxillae - Tooth held in place by fibrous periodontal membranes - Function as synarthroses

Plagiocephaly

- Asymmetric head shape ̶ Caused by unilateral craniosynostosis or normal deformational factors

Xiphoidprocess

- At tip of sternum, doesn't ossify until age 40

Endoderm

- Becomes innermost germ layer - Structures derived o Epithelial linings of the tympanic cavity and auditory tube o Epithelial linings of digestive, respiratory, reproductive & urinary tract o Thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, thymus o Portions of palatine tonsils o Most of liver, gallbladder, pancreas

Process of cartilage growth

- Begins during embryologic development - Growth in length through interstitial growth o Occurs within internal regions of cartilage - Growth in width by appositional growth o Occurs on cartilage's outside edge

Endochondral ossification

- Begins w/ a hyaline cartilage model, produces most of skeleton (long bones)

Bone formation

- Begins with secretion of osteoid - Calcification occurs, deposition of hydroxyapatite crystals o Calcium & phosphate ions precipitate out, form crystals - Process requires o Vitamin D—enhances calcium absorption from GI tract oVitamin C—required for collagen formation o Calcium & phosphate for calcification

Tibiofemoral joint

- Between condyles of femur and condyles of tibia

Patellofemoral joint

- Between patella and patellar surface of femur

Axis (C2)

- Body of axis fused here - Produces dens; a pivot for lateral rotation between atlas and skull - Atlantoaxial joint between atlas and axis, Permits shaking the head "no"

Intramembranous ossification

- Bone growth within a membrane; Dermal ossification - Produces flat bones of skull, some of the facial bones, mandible - Begins when mesenchyme thickens with capillaries

Blood supply and innervation of bone

- Bone highly vascularized, e.g., in regions of spongy bone - Vessels enter from periosteum - Nutrient foramen o Small opening or hole in bone o Artery entrance and vein exit here • Nerves that supply bone o Accompany blood vessels through foramen o Innervate bone, periosteum, endosteum, and marrow cavity o Mainly sensory nerves

Bone resorption

- Bone matrix is destroyed by substances released from osteoclasts - Proteolytic enzymes released from lysosomes within osteoclasts o Chemically digest organic matrix components - Calcium and phosphate dissolved by hydrochloric acid - Freed calcium and phosphate ions enter the blood - Occurs when blood calcium levels are low

Pivot joint

- Bone with rounded surface fits into ligament ring - Uniaxial joint: rotation on longitudinal axis

Metacarpals

- Bones in palm of hand - Articulate with distal carpal bones - Support the palm - Roman numerals I-V denote metacarpal bones - Metacarpal I at base of the thumb, V at base of little finger

Synchondroses

- Bones joined by hyaline cartilage - Immobile (synarthroses)

Appendicular skeleton

- Bones of upper and lower limbs ̶ Girdles of bones attach limbs to axial skeleton ̶ Pectoral girdle holds upper limbs in place ̶ Pelvic girdle holds lower limbs in place

Syndesmoses

- Bound by interosseous membrane, broad ligamentous sheet - Found between radius and ulna and between tibia and fibula - Function as amphiarthroses, Provide pivot for two long bones

Components of the upper limb

- Brachium (arm) - Antebrachium (forearm) - Hand

Sternum

- Breastbone; Flat bone forming anterior midline of thoracic wall

Base

- Broad superior surface - 5 fused vertebrae - Completely fused by age 20-30

Structure of hyaline cartilage

- Cells scattered through matrix of protein fibers - Embedded in a gel-like ground substance o Includes proteoglycans but not calcium - Resilient & flexible - High percentage of water - Highly compressible & a good shock absorber - Avascular & contains no nerves - Chondroblasts—produce cartilage matrix

Metaplasia

- Change of mature epithelium to a different form - May occur as epithelium adapts to environment - E.g., smokers o Experience metaplastic changes in trachea epithelium o Normal pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium becomes nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium o Will revert back quickly if person quits smoking

Transitional cells

- Change shape, depending on stretch of epithelium o E.g., lining of the bladder, binucleated cells (two nuclei) - Polyhedral when epithelium relaxed, more flat when stretched

Chondrocytes

- Chondroblasts encased within the matrix o Occupy small spaces, lacunae - Maintain the matrix

Ciliated simple columnar epithelium

- Cilia project from apical surface oMove mucus along - Goblet cells interspersed oBronchioles. Uterine tubes

Cells

- Classes of CT have specific cell types - Most cells not in direct contact with each other - Two classes of cells o Resident cells o Wandering cells

Apocrin sweat glands

- Coiled, tubular glands - Discharge secretions into hair follicles located axillae, around nipples, in pubic and anal region - Produce secretion by membrane pinching off - Produce viscous cloudy secretions o Contain proteins and lipids, Produce odor when acted on by bacteria - Start producing secretions during puberty

Axial skeleton

- Composed of bones along central body axis ̶ Skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage ̶ Framework supports and protects organs ̶ Spongy bone contains hemopoietic tissue

Tendons

- Composed of dense regular connective tissue - Not part of the synovial joint itself - Attach muscle to bone - Help stabilize joints

Compact bone

- Composed of small cylindrical structures—osteons Haversian systems o Basic functional and structural unit of mature compact bone o Oriented parallel to bone diaphysis o Appears as bull's-eye target

Cardiac muscle tissue

- Confined to middle layer of heart wall, myocardium - Responsible for heart contraction to pump blood - Visible striations - Cells short and often bifurcating - One or two nuclei - Cells connected by intercalated discs • Strengthen connection between cells • Promote rapid conduction of electrical activity - Involuntary • Cannot be controlled by voluntary nervous system • Pacemaker cells initiate contraction

Cleft palate

- Congenital fissure in palate midline ̶ Left and right maxillary and palatine bones incompletely fused ̶ May have trouble swallowing ̶ Food traveling from oral to nasal cavity ̶ Multifactorial etiology ̶ Sometimes occurs with cleft lip

True ribs (ribs 1-7)

- Connect individually to the sternum by cartilaginous extensions ˗ Termed costal cartilages Smallest true rib is the first

Characteristics of fibrous joints

- Connected by dense regular connective tissue - Have no joint cavity - Immobile to only slightly mobile - Three most common types are Gomphoses, Sutures, Syndesmoses

Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium

- Contains cilia on apical surface - Protective functions - Goblet cells secrete mucin o Traps foreign particles moved by cilia - Located in large passageways of respiratory system

Non-ciliated simple columnar epithelium

- Contains microvilli oFuzzy structure—brush border - Unicellular glands—goblet cells oSecrete glycoprotein—mucin oForms mucus when mixed with water - Lines most of digestive tract from stomach to anal canal

Sacral canal

- Continuation of vertebral canal - Continues through sacrum on posterior side - Terminates in inferior opening, sacral hiatus - On either side, bony projections termed sacral cornua

Bone Remodeling

- Continues throughout adulthood - Occurs at periosteal and endosteal surfaces of a bone - Occurs at different rates - distal femur replaced in 4-6 months, diaphysis never completely replaced - 20% of skeleton replaced yearly - Coordinated by activities of osteoblasts, osteocytes & osteoclasts - Influenced by hormones and mechanical stress

Saddlejoint

- Convex and concave surfaces resembling saddle shape, Biaxial

Hingejoint

- Convex surface within concave depression - Uniaxial: like the hinge of a door

• Cutaneous membrane (skin)

- Covers external surface of body - Composed of o Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium o Underlying CT - Protects internal organs and prevents water loss

Shape and structure different in infants and adults

- Cranial sutures almost fully developed by age 5 - Young child's cranium relatively large compared to body - Infant's cranial bones not large enough to surround brain completely

Stratum basale

- Deepest epidermal layer - Stratum germinativum or basal layer - Single layer of cuboidal to low columnar cells - Attached to underlying basement membrane oSeparates epidermis dermis - Three cell types 1.Keratinocytes 2.Melanocytes 3.Tactile cells

Perichondrium

- Dense irregular CT - Covers cartilage and helps maintain its shape

Ligaments

- Dense regular connective tissue - Connect one bone to another - Stabilize, strengthen, and reinforce synovial joints

Lymph

- Derived from blood plasma - No cellular components or fragments - Ultimately returned to bloodstream

Vasodilation

- Diameter of vessels increases, more blood travel through ̶ More blood can travel close to surface ̶ Results in reddish/pink skin, flushed face during exercise • Sensory Reception - Skin has extensive innervation o Distribution of nerve fibers o Monitor stimuli in dermis and epidermis - Touch receptors detect stimuli o Send input to brain

Humerus

- Distal end with 2 curved surfaces - Articulation with bones of forearm - Capitulum located laterally - Articulates with radius Trochlea located medially ˗ Articulates with trochlear notch of ulna

Humerus

- Distal end with 3 depressions—2 on anterior surface, 1 on posterior surface - Radial fossa anterolaterally placed, Accommodates radial head - Coronoid fossa anteromedially placed, Accommodates coronoid process of ulna - Olecranon fossa posteriorly placed- Accommodates olecranon of ulna when elbow is extended

Unicellular glands

- Do not contain a duct - Located close to epithelium surface - Most common type is goblet cell

Special movements

- Do not readily fit other functional categories • Depression • Elevation

Stages of cartilage growth

- During early embryonic development o Interstitial & appositional growth occur simultaneously - As cartilage matures o Interstitial growth declines rapidly o Cartilage becomes semirigid o Future growth primarily appositional - After cartilage is fully mature o New cartilage growth stops o Growth occurs only after injury

Third-Class Levers

- Effort applied between resistance & fulcrum - E.g., forceps - Most common in body - Moves a greater distance - E.g., at elbow joint, Joint is fulcrum; biceps tendon applies effort; weight in hand provides resistance

Properties of cartilaginous joints

- Either hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage between bones - Lack a joint cavity - Immobile to slightly mobile - Synchondroses or symphyses

Irregularbones

- Elaborate, sometimes complex shapes - Do not fit any previous category o E.g., vertebrae, ossa coxae- hip bones, several bones in skull- ethmoid, sphenoid, sutural bones

Ribs

- Elongated, curved, flattened bones - Originate on thoracic vertebrae - End in anterior wall of thorax - 12 pairs of ribs

What is a lever?

- Elongated, rigid object rotates around fixed point, fulcrum - Has ability to change, Speed and distance of movement produced by a force, Direction of applied force, Force strength • Effort applied to one point • Resistance located at some other point • Movement occurs if effort exceeds resistance • Effort arm - Part of lever from fulcrum to point of effort • Resistancearm - Part of lever from fulcrum to point of resistance

Functions of the Integument- immune

- Epidermal dendritic cells o In stratum spinosum o Initiate immune response against pathogens o Attack cancer cells

Sex hormones

- Estrogen and testosterone o Dramatically accelerate bone growth at puberty - Increases cartilage growth & bone formation in epiphyseal plate - Bone formation rate greater than cartilage growth o Eventually cartilage replaced with bone- growth stops

Differences in female and male skulls

- Example of sexual dimorphism - "Female" features more delicate and small - "Male" features larger, bulkier - Features vary among populations - Difficult to determine sex of infant and juvenile remains - Appear female-like until after puberty

Movements of the TMJ

- Exhibits hinge, gliding & some pivot) joint movements - Functions like a hinge during jaw depression & elevation - Glides during protraction for biting, side-to-side grinding

Lambdoidsuture

- Extends across posterior skull surface - Articulates with parietal bones and occipital bone - Named for resembling Greek letter "lambda"

Sagittal suture

- Extends between coronal and lambdoid sutures - Articulates right and left parietal bones

Coronal suture

- Extends laterally across superior surface of skull - Articulation between anterior frontal and posterior parietal bones

Intertrochantericfractures

- Extracapsular fractures - Usually in younger and middle-aged individuals

Tactile cells - Merkel cells

- Few in number - Scattered within stratum basale - Sensitive to touch - When compressed, release chemicals o Stimulate sensory nerve endings

Loose CT (CT proper)

- Fewer cells & protein fibers than dense CT - Protein fibers are sparse & irregularly arranged - Abundant ground substance, body's "packing material", supports structures

What are the structural classes of joints?

- Fibrous joint - Cartilaginous joint - Synovial joint

Bursae

- Fibrous, saclike structures containing synovial fluid - Lined internally by synovial membrane - Found in synovial joints where bones, ligaments, muscles, skin, or tendons rub together - Connected to or separate from joint cavity - Alleviate friction

Cartilage

- Firm, semisolid extracellular matrix - Collage and elastic protein fibers - Chondrocytes—mature cells o Occupy small spaces called lacunae - Surrounded by a dense irregular CT covering o Perichondrium ˗ Outer fibrous layer and inner cellular layer - Stronger & more resilient than other CT - More flexible than bone - In areas of body that need support & withstand deformation (e.g., tip of nose) - Avascular in mature state

Mesenchyme

- First type of CT in developing embryo - Star- or spindle-shaped cells - Dispersed in ground substance with immature protein fibers o Larger proportion of ground substance than mesenchymal cells - Source of all other CT cells - Adult CT often has mesenchymal stem cells, All CT derived from mesenchyme o Provide support in repair of tissue

Flat bones

- Flat, thin surfaces, may be slightly curved - Provide surfaces for muscle attachment - Protect underlying soft tissues - Locations: Roof of skull, scapulae, sternum, ribs

Squamous cells

- Flat, wide, irregular in shape - Floor tile arrangement - Nucleus flat

Elastic cartilage

- Flexible, springy cartilage; numerous densely packed elastic fibers oEnsure tissue is resilient and flexible - Resists deformational pressure - Chondrocytes closely packed, Surrounded by a perichondrium - Located in external ear and epiglottis

Movements possible at the hip joint include

- Flexion - Extension - Abduction - Adduction - Rotation - Circumduction

Blood

- Fluid connective tissue with formed elements o Cells o Erythrocytes transport respiratory gases o Leukocytes protect against infectious agents o Cellular fragments, called platelets, help clot blood - Liquid ground substance is called plasma o Dissolved proteins o Transports nutrients, wastes, hormones

Intestinal gangrene

- Follows obstruction of blood supply to intestines ̶ If untreated, leads to death

Cranial bones- 8

- Form the rounded cranium • Surrounds and encloses brain - Roof of the cranium, calvaria • Part of frontal bone, parietal bone, parts of occipital bone - Base of the cranium composed of • Portions of ethmoid, sphenoid, occipital, temporal bones

Ossification (osteogenesis)

- Formation and development of bone CT - Begins in the embryo - Continues through childhood and adolescence - By 8th through 12th weeks of embryonic development o Skeleton begins forming ˗ Fromintramembranousossification ˗ Or endochondral ossification

Sutures (seams)

- Found between some skull bones, Very short fibers - Interlocking, irregular edges, Increase strength and decrease risk of fracture - Function as synarthroses - Allow growth in childhood - Become ossified synostoses in older adults

Breaks in bone

- Fractures - Result of unusual stress or sudden impact - Increased incidence with age o Due to normal thinning and weakening of bone

Decreased bone mass- Mechanical stress

- From removal of mechanical stress - Reduced collagen formation - Demineralization o E.g., decreased strength of unstressed bone in immobilized fracture

Increased bone mass- Mechanical stress

- From weight-bearing activities o E.g., weight lifting, walking, or running - Can increase total bone mass

First-ClassLevers

- Fulcrum is between effort & resistance - E.g., pair of scissors, Effort applied to handle of scissors, Fulcrum along the middle of scissors - E.g., atlanto-occipital joint of the neck

Pubis

- Fuses with ilium & ischium at acetabulum - Ramus of ischium, Fuses anteriorly with inferior pubic ramus Forms ischiopubic ramus - Superior pubic ramus o Originates at anterior margin of acetabulum - Body of pubis o Between the superior and inferior pubic rami - Obturator foramen, space in os coxae o Encircled by pubic and ischial rami - Pubic crest, roughed ridge o On anterosuperior portion of superior pubic ramus o Ends at pubic tubercle - Symphysial surface o Site of articulation between pubic bones - Pectineal line, originating across pubis o Merges with arcuate line

Coccyx

- Fusion of 4 coccygeal vertebrae - Begins about age 25 - Attachment site for several ligaments and muscles

Long bones

- Greater in length than width - Elongated, cylindrical shaft (diaphysis) - Most common bone shape - Found in upper and lower limbs - Vary in size

Glucocorticoids- cortisol, the stress hormone

- Group of steroid hormones - Released from adrenal cortex - Regulate blood glucose level - High amounts increase bone loss o Impairs growth at epiphyseal plate in children

Hair Structures and Follicles

- Hair bulb o Swelling at base where hair originates in dermis o Surrounds hair papilla, composed of CT o Only region containing living epithelial cells - Root o Zone of hair from bulb to skin surface - Shaft o Portion of hair beyond skin surface

Features of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ)

- Head of mandible articulates with temporal bone - Has loose articular capsule, Surrounds joint, Promotes extensive range of motion - Has articular disc, Thick pad of fibrocartilage, Divides synovial cavity into two chambers

Subluxation of the head of the radius

- Head pulled out of anular ligament - Occurs almost exclusively in children (usually < 5 yrs) - Child's anular ligament thin and radial head not fully formed - Doctor may maneuver radial head back into anular ligament

Arches of the Foot

- Help support weight of the body - Ensure blood vessels on sole of foot not pinched when standing - Shape maintained primarily by foot bones themselves - Bones shaped so they can support their weight in an arch - Strong ligaments & tendons also helping maintain arches' shapes

Red bone marrow- myeloid tissue

- Hemopoietic- blood cell forming - Reticular CT, immature blood cells & fat - In children o Located in spongy bone & medullary cavity of long bones - In adults o Located only in selected areas of axial skeleton ˗ Skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, ossa coxae, proximal epiphyses of humerus & femur

Talocrural joint

- Highly modified hinge joint - Permits dorsiflexion and plantar flexion - Includes two articulations within one joint capsule Between distal end of tibia and talus Between distal end of fibula and lateral aspect of talus

Sebaceous glands

- Holocrine glands - Produce oily secretion, sebum o Lubricant for skin and hair o Bactericidal o Discharges into a hair follicle - Secretion stimulated by hormones, especially androgens - Activated during puberty

Stratum corneum

- Hornlike layer - Most superficial layer - What you see when you look at your skin - 20 to 30 layers of dead, interlocking keratinized cells oCells are anucleate (without a nucleus) and tightly packed - Cornified epithelium contains large amount of keratin - Migration of keratinocytes o Originate from stem cells in stratum basale o Migrate through strata to stratum corneum over two weeks o Undergoing structural changes ̶ Remain in stratum corneum another two weeks before shed ̶ Stratum corneum has dry, thickened surface o Unsuitable for microorganism growth o Secretions help protect

Pectoral girdle

- Humerus - Clavicle - Scapulae

Articular cartilage

- Hyaline cartilage on bone surface at joint - Functions, Reduces friction during movement, Acts as a cushion to absorb joint compression, Prevents damage to articulating ends of bones - Lacks a perichondrium - Avascular

Intracapsular ligaments

- Iliofemoral ligament - Ischiofemoral ligament - Pubofemoral ligament

Sutures

- Immovable joints - Form boundaries between cranial bones - Connected by dense regular CT - Often with intricate interlocking forms - Numerous in skull, each with specific name - Named for bones or features they interconnect E.g. occcipitomastoid suture connects occipital bone with mastoid process

Supination

- In anatomic position, palm of hand facing anteriorly - Radius and ulna parallel - Radius on lateral side of forearm - Ulna on medial side

Cleft lip

- Incomplete fusion of upper jaw components of embryo ̶ Split upper lip extending from mouth to side of one nostril ̶ Multifactorial etiology

Hyperplasia

- Increase in number of cells of a tissue

Hypertrophy

- Increase in size of existing cells of a tissue

Depression

- Inferior movement of a body part - E.g., movement of mandible while opening mouth

Costochondritis

- Inflammation of the costochondral joints - Localized chest pain - Cause usually unknown (trauma or infection) - May be mistaken for pain from a myocardial infarction - Treated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

Functions of the Integument- temperature regulation

- Influenced by capillaries and sweat glands in dermis - Dermal blood vessels play important role in body temperature/ blood pressure

Ectoderm

- Initially located on dorsal and external embryo surfaces - Responsible for forming many external structures o E.g., epidermis of skin, hair, nails, exocrine glands - Some, but not all, epithelial tissues derived from ectoderm - Other structures derived o Tooth enamel, eye lens, adrenal medulla, all nervous tissue

Exocrine glands

- Invaginated epithelium in connective tissue - Connected with epithelial surface by duct o Epithelium-lined tube for gland secretion - E.g., sweat glands, mammary glands, salivary glands

Hyperextension

- Joint extended more than 180 degrees - E.g., glancing up at the ceiling while standing

Patella

- Kneecap - Large, triangular sesamoid bone - Housed within tendon of quadriceps femoris muscle - Allows tendon to glide more smoothly - Protects knee joint - Superior broad base - Inferior pointed apex - Articular surface on posterior aspect o Articulates with patella surface of the femur

Osteoclasts

- Large, multinuclear, phagocytic cells, from fused bone marrow cells - Ruffled border increases surface area exposed to bone - Located within/adjacent to a depression/pit on bone surface o Resorption lacuna - Involved in bone resorption

Knee joint

- Largest and most complex diarthrosis - Primarily a hinge joint - Capable of slight rotation and lateral gliding when flexed - Composed of two separate articulations

Lumbar vertebrae

- Largest vertebrae - Thicker, oval body - Have neither transverse foramina nor costal facets - Bear most of the weight of the body

Abduction

- Lateral movement of body part away from midline - E.g., arm or thigh moved laterally from body midline

Short bones

- Length nearly equal to width o E.g., carpal bones- wrist bones, tarsals- foot bones, sesamoid bones- bones along tendons of some muscles, patella- kneecap

Bone functions

- Levers for movement - Supports tissues, Protects vital organs - Stores minerals, e.g., calcium and phosphorus - Houses hemopoietic cells, which make blood cells

Dorsiflexion

- Limited to ankle joint - Talocrural (ankle) joint bent so the dorsum (superior surface) of foot moves toward the leg - E.g., when digging in your heels

Serous membrane

- Lines body cavities that do not open to external environment - Simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium) - Produces thin, watery serous fluid o Derived from blood plasma o Reduces friction between opposing surfaces - Forms parietal and visceral layers - Serous cavity is in between

Mucous membrane - Mucosa

- Lines compartments that open to external environment - Includes: digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts - Performs absorptive, protective, and secretory functions - Formed from epithelium and underlying CT o CT component, lamina propria o Covered with mucus from goblet cells, multicellular glands, or both

Synovial membrane

- Lines some joints in body - Composed of o Areolar CT o Covered by squamous epithelial cells w/o basement membrane - Synovial fluid secreted by epithelial cells o Reduces friction among moving bone parts o Distributes nutrients to cartilage

Nervous tissue

- Located in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves - Cells called neurons o Receive, transmit, and process nerve impulses - Larger number of glial cells o Do not transmit nerve impulses o Instead, are responsible for protection, nourishment, and support of neurons

Sternumbody

- Longest part of sternum, costal cartilages from ribs 2-7 attached here - Articulates with manubrium at sternal angle - Costal cartilages of second ribs attach here - Important landmark for palpation and counting ribs

Femur

- Longest, heaviest, strongest bone in body - Spherical head o Articulates with os coxae at acetabulum - Fovea or fovea capitis o Small depression within head of the femur o Small ligament connects head to acetabulum - Elongated neck joins shaft of femur at an angle o Results in medial angling of the femur - Greater trochanter o Projects laterally from junction of neck and shaft - Lesser trochanter o On femur's posteromedial surface o Both trochanters are insertion sites for gluteal and thigh muscles - Intertrochanteric crest o Thick oblique ridge of bone connecting trochanters !

Connective tissue proper is divided into two categories

- Loose CT - Dense CT

Osteocytes

- Lost bone-forming ability, Maintain bone matrix - Detect mechanical stress on bone, triggering deposition of new bone matrix

Epiphyseal plate

- Maintains thickness during childhood - At maturity, rate of cartilage production slows - Osteoblastic activity increases - Plate narrows until it disappears o Interstitial growth stops - Remnant is an internal thin line of compact bone o Epiphyseal line

Wandering cells in CT

- Mast cells - Plasma cells - Free macrophages - Other leukocytes

Variations in Rib Development - Rudimentary cervical rib

- May form from seventh cervical vertebra ̶ May compress artery and nerves extending toward upper limb ̶ May produce tingling or pain • Some individuals lacking a pair of 12th ribs • Fused ribs

Anatomical features of talocrural joint

- Medial and lateral malleoli of tibia and fibula, Prevent talus from sliding medially or laterally - Articular capsule covers distal tibia, medial malleolus, lateral malleolus, and talus - Deltoid ligament binds tibia to foot on medial side, Prevents overeversion - Lateral ligament binds fibula to foot on lateral side, Prevents overinversion Prone to sprains and tears - Anterior and posterior tibiofibular ligaments

Adduction

- Medial movement of body part toward midline - E.g., thigh brought back to midline

Mesoderm

- Middle primary germ layer - Forms all muscle tissue - Forms epithelial lining of vessels & serous membranes - Becomes mesenchyme o Later forms all CT in body o Dermis, adrenal cortex, heart, spleen, kidneys & ureters, internal reproductive structures

Ceruminous glands

- Modified apocrine sweat glands - Located only in external ear canal - Secretions of waterproof earwax, cerumen o Traps foreign material o Lubricates acoustic meatus and eardrum

Mammary glands

- Modified apocrine sweat glands of breast - Only function in pregnant and lactating females - Produce milk

Hormones

- Molecules released from one cell into the blood - Travel throughout the body to affect or cells - Bind to cellular receptors of specific cells - Initiate specific cellular changes - Some alter rates of chondrocyte, osteoblast, and osteoclast activity - Affect bone composition and growth patterns

Bone

- More solid than cartilage - Greater support, but less flexible - Organic components (collagen and glycoproteins) - Inorganic components (calcium salts) - Bone cells—osteocytes o Housed within spaces in extracellular matrix called lacunae

Keratinocytes

- Most abundant cells in epidermis - Found in all layers - Large stem cells - Divide to regenerate new cells - Replace old cells shed at surface - Named for synthesizing of keratin o Protein that strengthens epidermis o Called cytokeratins in epidermis o Make skin almost waterproof

Hyaline cartilage

- Most common type - Clear, glassy appearance under microscope - Chondrocytes irregularly scattered - Surrounded by perichondrium - In; Nose, trachea, larynx, Costal cartilage, Articular ends of long bones, Most of fetal skeleton

Connective tissue

- Most diverse, abundant, and widely distributed of tissues - Supports, protects, and binds organs - Examples o Tendons, Ligaments, Adipose tissue, Cartilage, Bone, Blood

Cervical vertebrae

- Most superiorly located vertebrae - Kidney-bean-shaped bodies - Support only the weight of the head - Relatively small and light - Distinguished by transverse foramina in transverse processes

Dense CT (CT proper)

- Mostly protein fibers, Less ground substance than loose CT - Collagen fibers predominate

Range of motion at joints

- Motion ranges from no to extensive movement - Structure of each joint determines its mobility & stability - Inverse relationship (tradeoff) between mobility & stability For example, skull sutures are immobile but very stable

Flexion

- Movement in an anterior-posterior plane - Decreases the angle between bones: brings bones closer together - E.g., bending finger

Opposition

- Movement of thumb toward tips of fingers at carpometacarpal joint - Enables the thumb to grasp objects

Stratified squamous epithelium

- Multiple cell layers o Only deepest in direct contact with basement membrane - Basal layers w/ cuboidal shape, apical cells w/ squamous shape - Protects against abrasion & friction - Stem cells in basal layer continuously divide o Replace lost cells at surface

Serotonin

- Neurotransmitter and hormone - Most bones with serotonin receptors - Role in rate and regulation of normal bone remodeling - If levels are too high o Osteoprogenitor cells are prevented from differentiating into osteoblasts o Could be linked to low bone density disorders

Ground substance

- Noncellular material produced by CT cells - Residence of CT cells and protein fibers - Consistency: o Viscous e.g., blood o semisolid e.g., cartilage o Solid e.g., bone - Ground substance + protein fibers = extracellular matrix

Hair loss

- Normally 10 to 100 hairs lost per day o More than that could mean a health problem o Temporary loss could be from drugs, dietary factors, radiation, high fever, stress - Thinning of hair, alopecia o Due to aging - Diffuse hair loss o Hair shed from all parts of scalp o Primarily in women o Due to hormones, drugs, iron deficiency - Male pattern baldness o Loss of hair first from only crown region of scalp o Combination of genetic and hormonal factors o Baldness allele dominant in males and recessive in females o Expressed only in presence of high testosterone

Multi-cellular exocrine glands

- Numerous cells - Acini—cell clusters that produce secretions - Ducts transport secretions to epithelial surface - Surrounded by fibrous capsule o Extensions of capsule—septa, partition gland into lobes

Sensory nerves and blood vessels

- Numerous in synovial joints - Nerves detect painful stimuli, report on movement and stretch - Sends info to cerebellum

Subcapitalfractures

- Occur within hip articular capsule - Usually in elderly people with osteoporosis - May result in tearing of retinacular arteries, May have avascular necrosis in the region

Mechanical stress

- Occurs in weight-bearing movement and exercise - Required for normal bone remodeling - Detected by osteocytes and communicated to osteoblasts o Increase synthesis of osteoid - Causes increase in bone strength - Results from skeletal contraction and gravitational forces

Eversion

- Occurs only at intertarsal joints of foot - Sole turns laterally

Inversion

- Occurs only at intertarsal joints of the foot - Sole turns medially

Osteopenia

- Occurs slightly in all people with age - Begins age 35-40 - Osteoblast activity declines; osteoclast activity at previous levels - Vertebrae, jaw bones, epiphyses loose large amount of mass - Women loose more of their skeletal mass every decade than men

Bone growth in length

- Occurs specifically within o Zone 2 (proliferating cartilage) o Zone 3 (hypertrophic cartilage) - Pushes zone of resting cartilage toward epiphysis - Flexible hyaline cartilage permitting growth - New hyaline cartilage replaced by bone - Similar to endochondral ossification during bone development

Pott fracture

- Occurs with over eversion - Medial malleolus avulsed off of tibia (fracture) - Talus moves laterally and fractures fibula

Appositional Bone Growth

- Occurs within the periosteum - Bone matrix deposited within layers parallel to surface - Layers termed external circumferential lamellae o As they increase in number, structure increases in diameter - Osteoclasts resorb bone matrix along medullary cavity - Transforms infant bone into a larger adult version

Ala

- On each lateral surface of the sacrum

Stages of tissue development

- Oocyte fertilized by a sperm - Forms diploid cell, zygote - After multiple cell divisions, becomes blastocyst - Cells forming embryo, embryoblast - Three primary germ layers formed by 3rd week o Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm - Growing structure now an embryo

Reposition

- Opposite movement

Organic components

- Osteoid produced by osteoblasts, contains o Collagen protein o Semisolid ground substance of proteoglycans & glycoproteins - Gives bone tensile strength by resisting stretching - Contributes to bone flexibility

Condylarjoint

- Oval, convex surface articulating with concave surface, Biaxial

Symphyses

- Pads of fibrocartilage between articulating bones - Resist compression and act as shock absorbers - Allow slight mobility (amphiarthroses)

Anterior and posterior sacral foramina

- Permit passage of nerves to pelvic organs and gluteals

Joints (articulations)

- Places of contact between bones, bones and cartilage, or bones & teeth

Shoulder Joint- Acromioclavicular Joint

- Plane joint - Formed from acromion and lateral end of clavicle - Fibrocartilaginous articular disc within joint cavity - Capsule strengthened superiorly by acromioclavicular ligament - Clavicle bound to coracoid process by coracoclavicular ligament, If torn, acromion and clavicle no longer align (shoulder separation)

• Classes by joint shape surfaces (least to most mobile)

- Plane joints - Hinge joints - Pivot joints - Condylar joints - Saddle joints - Ball-and-socket joints

Clinical View: Acne and Acne Treatments

- Plugged sebaceous ducts - Typically begins during puberty - Increased activity gland secretions may block pores - Treatments o Benzoyl peroxide, salicylic acid, antibiotics, vitamin A-like compounds, systemic retinoinds - May lead to scarring if untreated

Retraction

- Posterior movement from anatomic position - E.g., pulling in jaw posteriorly at temporomandibular joint

Craniosynostosis

- Premature fusion of one or more cranial sutures ̶ If not surgically treated, individual grows up with unusual craniofacial shape ̶ Shape varies, according to which suture closed prematurely

Bones

- Primary organs of the skeletal system - Rigid framework of body - Many other functions

Yellow bone marrow

- Product of red bone marrow degeneration as children mature - Fatty substance - May convert back to red bone marrow o During severe anemia to facilitate production of erythrocytes

Facial bones-14

- Protect entrances to digestive and respiratory systems - Give shape and individuality to the face - Form part of orbit and nasal cavities, support the teeth, provide attachment sites for muscles of facial expression and chewing • Paired zygomatic, lacrimal, nasal, inferior nasal conchae, palatine bones, maxillae, unpaired vomer, mandible

Circumduction

- Proximal end of appendage relatively stationary - Distal end makes a circular motion - Movement makes an imaginary cone shape - E.g., drawing a circle on the blackboard

Humerus

- Proximal end with a hemispherical head, Articulates with glenoid cavity of scapula - Greater tubercle positioned lateral to head, Helps form rounded contour of shoulder - Lesser tubercle smaller and more medial to head - Intertubercular sulcusIs a depression containing tendon of long head of biceps brachii muscle

Pronation of radius and ulna

- Radius and ulna pivoting along interosseous membrane - Palm of hand facing posteriorly - Head of radius still on lateral side of elbow - Distal end of radius has crossed over - More medial structure

Stratified columnar epithelium

- Rare, Columnar cells at apical surface - Protects & secretes o Large ducts of salivary glands, some segments of male urethra

Nonciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium

- Rare, lacks cilia, goblet cells - Protective functions - Occurs mainly in male urethra and epididymis

Osteoporosis

- Reduced bone mass sufficient to compromise normal function - Occurs in a significant percentage of older women - Occurs in a smaller percentage of older men

Second-Class Levers

- Resistance is between fulcrum and effort - Small force able to balance larger weight - E.g., wheelbarrow, Fulcrum far from effort - Rare in the body E.g., standing on tiptoes

Transverse arch

- Runs perpendicular to longitudinal arches - Formed from distal row of tarsals and bases of all metatarsals • Footprint illustrates position of longitudinal arches

Shoulder Joint- Sternoclavicular Joint

- Saddle joint - Formed by manubrium & sternal end of clavicle - Articular disc, Partitions joint into two parts forming two synovial cavities - Elevation, depression, circumduction possible - Stability provided by fibers & ligaments, Makes this specific joint very stable and difficult to dislocate

Inorganic components

- Salt crystals, calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2 - Interacts with calcium hydroxide o Forms crystals, hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 - Other substances incorporated into crystals o E.g., calcium carbonate, sodium, magnesium, sulfate, flouride - Crystals deposit around collagen fibers - Harden matrix and account for rigidity of bones

Melanocytes

- Scattered among keratinocytes - Produce & store pigment (melanin) in response to ultraviolet light - Transfer pigment granules (melanosomes) into keratinocytes o Pigment accumulates around nucleus of keratinocytes o Shield nuclear DNA from UV radiation o Responsible for darker tones of skin

Mucous

- Second type of embryonic CT - More numerous immature protein fibers than in mesenchyme - Found in umbilical cord only

Parathyroid hormone- PTH

- Secreted and released by parathyroid glands in response to reduced blood calcium levels - Accelerates conversion to calcitriol by kidney

Thyroid hormone

- Secreted by thyroid gland - Influences basal metabolic rate of bone cells - Regulates normal activity at epiphyseal plates

Supports of the hip joint

- Secured by articular capsule, ligaments, and muscles - Articular capsule Extends from acetabulum to trochanters Encloses femoral head and neck

Stratum spinosum

- Several layers of polygonal keratinocytes - Spiny layer o Named for spiny appearance on microscopy - Daughter cells from stratum basale pushed into this layer - Begin to develop into specialized, non-dividing keratinocytes o Some in deepest level still dividing cells - Nondividing keratinocytes - Attached by intercellular junctions, desmosomes - Epidermal dendritic cells (Langerhans cells) - In stratum spinosum and stratum granulosum - Initiate immune response - Responsive to pathogens and epidermal cancer cells

Atrophy

- Shrinkage of tissue by decrease in cell number or size - Due to normal aging or disuse - E.g., bedridden individual o Skeletal muscle fibers become smaller o Reversible by physical therapy

Osteoblasts

- Side-by-side on bone surfaces - Abundant rough ER & Golgi apparatus - Synthesize and secrete osteoid o Initial semisolid organic form of bone matrix, Osteoid later calcifies - Become entrapped within the matrix - Differentiate into oseotcytes

Fracture healing

- Simple fracture, 2 to 3 months to heal - Compound fracture, longer to heal - Healing slows with age - Some require surgical intervention to heal correctly

Simple columnar epithelium

- Single layer of cells, taller than they are wide - Oval nucleus, lengthwise in basal region - Ideal for secretory and absorptive functions

Simple squamous epithelium

- Single layer of flat cells, spherical to oval nucleus - Thinnest barrier - Allows rapid movement of molecules across surface - Lines air sacs of lungs alveoli - Lines blood and lymph vessel walls endothelium - Serous membrane of cavities mesothelium

Simple cuboidal epithelium

- Single layer, uniformly shaped cells - Centrally located spherical nucleus - Designed for absorption and secretion - Ideal for structural components of glands o Thyroid gland o Surface of ovary o Walls of kidney tubules o Secretory regions/ducts of most glands

Auricular surface

- Site of articulation with os coxae of pelvic girdle - Forms strong sacroiliac joint

Functions of the Integument- absorption

- Skin absorbs certain chemicals & drugs, other materials blocked - Selectively permeable o Some materials pass through, others blocked - Transdermal administration o Some oil-soluble drugs delivered by adhesive patch o Slowly penetrate epidermis, absorbed into blood vessels

Sensory Reception

- Skin has extensive innervation o Distribution of nerve fibers o Monitor stimuli in dermis and epidermis - Touch receptors detect stimuli o Send input to brain

Columnar cells

- Slender and taller than they are wide - Nucleus oval; oriented lengthwise in basal region

Hyoid bone

- Slender, curved bone - Inferior to skull between the mandible and the larynx - Does not articulate with any other bone - Medial body - 2 hornlike processes, greater and lesser cornua Attachment sites for tongue and larynx muscles and ligaments

Ligament of the head of femur (ligamentum teres)

- Small ligament from acetabulum to fovea of head of femur - Provides no strength - Contains artery supplying head of femur

Growth hormone

- Somatotropin - Produced by anterior pituitary gland - Stimulates liver to produce hormone, somatomedin o Both directly stimulate growth of cartilage in epiphyseal plate

Joint cavity

- Space between articulating bones - Lined by synovial membrane secreting synovial fluid Viscous, oily substance, Lubricates articular cartilage on articulating surfaces, Nourishes & removes wastes from chondrocytes, Acts as a shock absorber

Ligaments of the TMJ

- Sphenomandibular ligament - Temporomandibular ligament

Ball-and-socket joint

- Spherical head of one bone fitting into cup-like socket - Multiaxial, permitting movement in three planes, The most freely mobile joint

Common structural features of Vertebral Anatomy

- Spinous process projects posteriorly from laminae junction - Transverse processes- Lateral projections on both sides of vertebral arch - Superior and inferior articular processes- Originate at junction between pedicles and laminae, Each with a smooth surface, articular facet, Inferior facet articulates with superior facet of next inferior vertebra - Stack of vertebral bodies stabilized by ligaments - Intervertebral discs- Pads of fibrocartilage separating vertebral bodies, Outer ring of fibrocartilage, anulus fibrosus, Inner gelatinous region, nucleus pulposus Shock absorbers between vertebral bodies, Allows vertebral to bend

Variations in Rib Development - Bifid ribs

- Splits into two portions when it reaches the sternum

Radial collateral ligament

- Stabilizes joint at lateral surface - Extends around head of radius

Ulnar collateral ligament

- Stabilizes medial side of the joint - Extends from medial epicondyle of humerus to coronoid and olecranon of ulna

Osteoprogenitorcells

- Stem cells derived from mesenchyme, Located in periosteum & endosteum - Cellular division yields another stem cell and a "committed cell" osteoblast

Types of fractures

- Stress fracture - Pathologic fracture - Simple fracture - Compound fracture

Sprain

- Stretching or tearing of ligaments without fracture or dislocation - Results from twisting foot, usually overinversion - Fibers of lateral ligament stretched or torn - Localized swelling and tenderness anteroinferior to lateral malleolus

Skeletal muscle tissue

- Striated or voluntary muscle tissue - Moves skeleton - Long cylindrical cells o Skeletal muscle fibers - Arranged in parallel bundles that run length of entire muscle - Multinucleated - Alternating light and dark bands, striations - Does not contract unless stimulated by somatic nervous system o Voluntary

Stratified cuboidal epithelium

- Superficial cells cuboidal in shape - Forms tubes & coverings, protection & secretion - Forms walls of ducts in most exocrine glands oSweat glands, parts of male urethra, ovarian follicle periphery

Keratinized

- Superficial layers of dead cells - Cells lack nuclei, filled with keratin (fill with keratin & die) - Cells in basal region migrate toward apical surface - Found in epidermis

Elevation

- Superior movement of a body part - E.g., movement of mandible when closing mouth

Atlas (C1)

- Supports the head - Articulates with occipital condyles at the atlanto-occipital joint ˗ Permits nodding "yes" - Lacks body and spinous process - Lateral masses connected by anterior and posterior arches o Slight protuberances, anterior and posterior tubercles - Superior and inferior articular facets ˗ Articulate with occipital condyles and the axis o Articular facet for dens on its anterior arch

Anular ligament

- Surrounds the neck of the radius - Binds head of the radius to the ulna

What are the functional classes of joints?

- Synarthroses - Amphiarthroses - Diarthroses

Types of Vertebrae- Coccyx

- Tailbone Formed from 4 coccygeal vertebrae; Co1-Co4 - Start to unite during puberty Co1 articulates with inferior end of sacrum - May ultimately fuse to sacrum

Plantarflexion

- Talocrural joint bent so dorsum pointed inferiorly - E.g., ballerina on tiptoes in full plantar flexion

Other accessory structures

- Tendon sheaths, elongated bursae, Wrap around tendons where friction is excessive Common in wrist and ankle - Fat pads, Act as protective packing material in joint periphery Can fill spaces when joint shape changes

Thick versus thin skin

- Thick skin o Palms of hands, soles of feet o Occurs in all five layers of epidermal strata o Houses sweat glands o No hair follicles or sebaceous glands o From 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick - Thin skin o Covers most of body o Lacks a stratum lucidum o Sweat glands, hair follicles, and sebaceous glands oFrom 0.075 to 0.150 mm thick

Spinal Curvatures- Primary curves

- Thoracic and sacral curvatures - Present at birth - Result C-shape of column

Necrosis

- Tissue death - Due to irreversible tissue damage - Inflammatory response to tissue damage - E.g., gangrene • Necrosis of soft tissues of a body part • Due to diminished arterial blood supply • Most common in limbs, fingers, toes • Major complications of diabetes

Neoplasia

- Tissue growth is out of control - Tumor of abnormal tissue develops o Benign: Localized growth, does not spread o Malignant, Cancer: Metastasizes (spreads to other tissues) ˗ Can interfere with normal functioning, leading to death

Lateralflexion

- Trunk of body moving in coronal plane laterally - Occurs between vertebrae in the cervical and lumbar region

Gliding

- Two opposing surfaces sliding back-and-forth or side-to-side - Only limited movement possible in any direction - Typically occurs along plane joints E.g., between carpals or tarsals

Sutures during the lifespan

- Typically closed as adjoining bones fuse - Coronal usually in late 20s to early 30s - Sagittal suture in 30s or later - Lambdoid suture in 40s - Squamous suture in 60+ years, or not at all - Approximate age at death can be estimated from the extent of an individual's suture closure

Ribs

- Vertebral end of rib, Articulates with vertebral column at the head - Head divided into superior & inferior articular facets, Articulate with facets or demifacets on thoracic bodies, Divided by interarticular crest - Neck of the ribs, Lies between head and tubercle - Tubercle of the rib, Articular facet for transverse process of thoracic vertebra - Angle of the rib, Site where tubular shaft begins to curve - Costal groove along inferior internal border, Marks the path of nerves and blood

Smooth muscle tissue

- Visceral or involuntary muscle tissue - Lacks striations; appears smooth - Cells are spindle-shaped - Cells short with one central oval nucleus - Found in walls of intestines, stomach, airways, bladder, uterus, blood vessels - Helps propel movement through these organs - No voluntary control over the muscle

Metabolic regulation

- Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) - Synthesized from a steroid precursor by keratinocytes - Occurs upon UV exposure D3 released into blood and transported to liver - Converted to another intermediate molecule (calcidiol) - Transported to kidney and converted to calcitriol o Active form of vitamin D o Considered a hormone - Increases absorption of calcium and phosphate - Role in regulating blood levels of calcium and phosphate - 10 to 15 minutes of sunlight daily is adequate

Functions of the Integument- secretion

- Waste products secreted onto skin surface during sweating o Urea, salts, water o Amounts adjustable o Role in electrolyte homeostasis - Sebum of sebaceous glands lubricates skin surface and hair o Helps make integument water resistant

Fibrocartilage

- Weight-bearing cartilage, resists compression - Protein fibers in irregular bundles between chondrocytes - Sparse ground substance - No perichondrium - In; Intervertebral discs, Pubic symphysis, Menisci of knee joint

Manubrium

- Widest and most superior portion of sternum - Two clavicular notches Articulate sternum with left and right clavicles - Suprasternal notch: shallow superior indentation b/n the clavicular notches - Costal notches: Articulations for first ribs' costal cartilages

Carrying angle of radius and ulna

- With upper limbs extended & forearms supinated - Bones of forearm angle laterally from elbow joint - Positioned so forearms clear hips during walking - Wider in females

Sutural bones

- Wormian bones - Represent independent bone ossification centers - Most common and numerous in lambdoid suture

Regions of a long bone

-Diaphysis -Medullary cavity -Epiphysis -Metaphysis -Epiphyseal plate

Functions of hair include:

-help maintain warmth -alerting the body to presence of insects on the skin -guarding the scalp against physical trauma, heat loss, and sunlight

Four steps of bone fracture repair

1) Fracture hematoma forms from clotted blood • Blood vessels torn within periosteum 2) Fibrocartilaginous callus forms • Regenerated blood capillaries infiltrate hematoma • Fracture hematoma reorganized into a CT procallus • Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers • Chondroblasts form dense regular CT • Procallus becomes fibrocartilaginous (soft) callus 3). Hard (bony) callus forms • Osteoblasts adjacent to callus produce trabeculae • Replaces callus • Forms a hard (bony) callus • Continues to grow and thicken 4) Bone is remodeled • Final phase of fracture repair • Osteoclasts remove excess bony material • Compact bone replaces primary bone • Usually leaves a slight thickening of bone

Intramembranous ossification

1) Ossification centers form within thickened mesenchyme - Cells become osteoprogenitors or osteoblasts (secrete osteoid) 2) Osteoid undergoes calcification - Ca++ salts crystallizes osteoid, entrapped cells become osteocytes 3) Woven bone and surrounding periosteum form - Woven bone (primary bone), immature and poorly organized - Mesenchyme surrounding woven bone forms periosteum 4) Lamellar bone (secondary bone) replaces woven bone - Compact and spongy bone form from trabeculae - Two external compact bone layers w/ spongy bone in between !4

Activation of Vitamin D to Calcitriol

1) UV light converts 7-dehydrocholesterol to vitamin D3 • Cholecalciferol • Released into the blood • Absorbed from small intestine from diet 2) Vitamin D3 circulates throughout the body • Converted to calcidiol by liver enzymes • Adds an -OH group Both steps 1 and 2 occur continuously with limited regulation 3) Calcidiol circulates in the blood • Converted to calcitriol by kidney enzymes • An -OH group added • Active form of Vitamin D3, calcitriol • Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases rate, so more calcitriol is formed • Calcitriol stimulates absorption of calcium ions from small intestine into the blood

Steps of interstitial growth

1)Chondrocytes w/i lacuna are stimulated to mitotically divide 2)Two cells, chondroblasts, occupy a single lacuna 3)Chondroblasts secrete new material and are pushed apart. Each is now called a chondrocyte 4)Cartilage continues to grow internally

true ribs

1-7 ribs

3 major types of skin cancer

1. Basal cell carcinoma 2. Squamous cell carcinoma 3. Melanoma

Epithelial tissue attachment to basement membrane

1. Clear layer or lamina lucida- layer closest to the epithelia -Thin layer secreted by epithelia -Functions as a barrier to proteins and large molecules from moving from connective tissue into epithelium 2. Dense layer or lamina densa- Thick fibers produced by connective tissue, Provides strength and acts as a filter for diffusion of materials between adjacent tissue and epithelium 3. Reticular lamina- a layer of extracellular material containing a fine network of collagen protein fibers that "belongs to" the underlying connective tissue

Steps of long bone development in a limb- Endochondral ossification

1. Fetal hyaline cartilage model develops, Chondroblasts secrete cartilage matrix 2. Cartilage matrix calcifies, chondrocytes die, produces calcified cartilage cavities - Blood vessels grow toward cartilage, Osteoblasts secrete osteoid 3. Periosteal bud extends from periosteum to cartilage shaft, - Growth of capillaries & osteoblasts - Bone development extends in both directions toward epiphyses 4. Secondary ossification centers form in epiphyses - Hyaline cartilage calcifies & degenerates - Blood vessels and osteoprogenitor cells enter - Secondary ossification centers form, Bone displaces cartilage - Osteoclasts resorb some bone matrix, Creates hollow medullary cavity 5. Bone replaces cartilage, except articular cartilage & epiphyseal plates 6. Epiphyseal plates ossify & form epiphyseal lines - Growth continues until epiphyseal plate is converted to epiphyseal line, Indicates bone has reached adult length, Occurs between ages of 10 and 25

Five zones of epiphyseal plate

1. Zone of resting cartilage 2. Zone of proliferating cartilage 3. Zone of hypertrophic cartilage 4. Zone of calcified cartilage 5. Zone of ossification

floating ribs

11-12

bones in thoracic vertebrae

12

Bones of the Appendicular Skeleton

126, 63 per side

Burn degrees

1st Degree - Red and Painful- epidermis 2nd Degree - Blisters- epidermis/dermis 3rd Degree - No Pain because of blocked and burned nerves- all three layers

Skull

22 bones (8 cranial, 14 facial)

dermis

2nd degree hit the _____________

True and False Pelves • Pelvic brim; Continuous oval ridge - Extends to inferior edges of sacral ala and promontory - Divides pelvis into true and false pelves - True pelvis o Inferior to pelvic brim o Encloses pelvic cavity and contains pelvic organs - False pelvis o Superior to pelvic brim o Houses inferior abdominal organs • Pelvic inlet - Superiorly positioned space enclosed by pelvic brim - Marks boundary between true and false pelves • Pelvic outlet - Inferiorly placed opening - Bounded by coccyx, ischial tuberosities, inferior border of symphysial surface - Covered with muscles and skin, forming perineum - Width and size important in females o Must be wide enough to accommodate fetal head

?????

rough

A _________(rough or smooth) boarder on a mole is an indication of melanoma

Glands

A cell, a group of cells, or an organ that produces a secretion for use elsewhere in the body or in a body cavity or for elimination from the body. - Epithelial tissue - May secrete o Mucin o Electrolytes o Hormones o Enzymes oUrea (nitrogenous waste)

Bone (osseous tissue)

A connective tissue that forms the bony skeleton.

Cartilage

A connective tissue that is more flexible than bone and that protects the ends of bones and keeps them from rubbing together.

Periosteum

A dense fibrous membrane covering the surface of bones (except at their extremities) and serving as an attachment for tendons and muscles.

Central canal

A tiny channel found within the spinal cord and inferior medulla oblongata

exchange reaction

AB + CD --> AD + CB

decomposition reaction (catabolism)

AB --> A + B

reversal reaction

AB <----> A + B

high-energy compound (with high energy phosphate bonds) used by cells

ATP

Layers of the Dermis: Reticular Layer

Accounts for approximately 80% of the thickness of the skin Collagen fibers in this layer add strength and resiliency to the skin Elastin fibers provide stretch-recoil properties

The _______ is also known as the "vinegar cup" and is formed by the joining of the three hip bones: the Ilium, ischium and pubic.

Acetabulum

The hip bones (ilium, ischium, pubis and sacrum) are also known as:

Acetabulum

Clinical View: Achondroplastic Dwarfism

Achondroplasia - Characterized by abnormal conversion of hyaline cartilage to bone - Most common, achondroplastic dwarfism o Long bones of limbs stop growing in childhood o Other bones continue normal growth - Short in stature but large head - Failure of chondrocytes in epiphyseal plate to grow and enlarge - Inadequate endochondral ossification

What are the two major types of purines?

Adenine and Guanine

Epithelial tissue cellularity

Almost entirely tightly packed cells

Apocrine glands

Apical membrane pinches off & becomes secretion Damage repaired by glandular cells Mammary glands & Ceruminous glands of ear

Characteristics of epithelia

Apical surface, epithelium, lateral surface, basement membrane, basal surface, connective tissue, blood vessel

4 different types of sweat glands

Apocrine, eccrine, mammary gland, ceruminous

Adipocytes- fat cells

Appear in small clusters in some types of CT proper Adipose connective tissue—dominant area of large clusters

Pseudostratified epithelium

Appears layered due to cells' different nuclei distribution levels - All cells attached to basement membrane, some don't reach the apical surface

Layers of the Dermis: Papillary Layer

Areolar connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers and blood vessels Loose tissue Phagocytes can patrol for microorganisms Dermal papillae Superficial peglike projections

Hyaline cartilage

Attaches ribs to sternum, Covers ends of some bones Cartilage within growth plates Provides model for formation of most bones in body

armpit

Axillary

Gas gangrene

Bacteria invade necrotic tissue ̶ Bacteria produce gas bubbles

Epithelial tissue attachment to basement membrane

Barrier between epithelium and connective tissue. Composed of collagen, glycoproteins, and proteoglycans

Bases

Bases = "alphabet"

formed when something major happened (chemotherapy, heart attack...)

Beau's lines

Inferior

Below

stratum lucidum location

Between stratum corneum and stratum granulosum on soles and palms

carbohydrates

Biological Macromolecule made of Monosaccharides (glucose, fructose..), Disaccharides (table sugar), and Polysaccharides

Nucleic Acids

Biological macromolecules, found in the Nucleus

Common structural features of Vertebral Anatomy

Body, thick anterior weight-bearing structure - Vertebral arch posterior to body - Vertebral foramen- Opening enclosed by body with vertebral arch - Vertebral canal- Formed by stacked vertebral foramina, Contains the spinal cord - Intervertebral foramina- Lateral openings between adjacent vertebrae, Passageways for spinal nerves extending to body - Vertebral arch composed of 2 pedicles and 2 laminae - Pedicles originate from posterolateral margins of body - Laminae extend posteromedially from posterior edge of pedicle

Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone

Bone Markings, Medullary cavity, Epiphyseal Line, Periosteum, Articular Cartilage, Epiphysis, and Diaphysis

Parallel lamellae- Spongy bone

Bone matrix Osteocytes between lamellae Canaliculi radiate from lacunae

Rotation:

Bone pivots on its own longitudinal axis

Fibrous joint

Bones held together by dense connective tissue

Cartilaginous joint

Bones joined by cartilage

Synovial joint

Bones joined by ligaments with fluid-filled joint cavity separating bone surfaces

Elastic CT

Branching, densely packed elastic fibers Able to stretch and recoil Found in; Walls of large arteries, Trachea, Vocal cords

Simple fracture

Broken bone not penetrating skin

Regulating calcium concentration in blood is essential

Calcium is required for - Initiation of muscle contraction - Exocytosis of molecules from cells, including neurons - Stimulation of the heart by pacemaker cells - Blood clotting

Spongy bone

Cancellous or trabecular bone Located internal to compact bone Appears porous 20% of bone mass

Humeroradial joint

Capitulum of humerus articulating with head of radius - Both enclosed within a single articular capsule

Amino acids are the basic units of _________, which performa variety of essential function in the body.

Carbohydrates

What is the difference between a catalyst and an enzyme?

Catalyst: decrease the energy of activation but speeds up the rate of the reaction Enzyme: protein catalyst

Wet gangrene

Caused by bacterial infection of tissues with lost blood supply ̶ Ruptured dying cells release fluid, allows bacteria to flourish

What is pinocytosis?

Cell drinking

What is phagocytosis?

Cell eating

Corneum

Cells are already dead

Granulosum layer

Cells die off

3 structural elements make up connective tissue?

Cells, fibers, and ground substance

Connective tissue basic components

Cells, protein fibers, ground substance

Secrete cerumen (earwax) and are connected to body odor

Ceruminous glands

The bones of the spine that are found in the neck region.

Cervical vertebrae

hydrophilic

Chemicals with high polarity or electric charge tend to be ___________ (hydrophilic or hydrophobic)?

hydrophobic

Chemicals with little polarity or no electric charge tend to be _____________ (hydrophilic or hydrophobic)?

phobic

Cholesterol it hydro________

Chondrocytes

Chondroblasts encased within the matrix o Occupy small spaces, lacunae Maintain the matrix

Zone of ̶ hypertrophic cartilage

Chondrocytes cease dividing Begin to hypertrophy, walls of lacunae thin

Zone of ̶ proliferating cartilage

Chondrocytes undergo rapid mitotic division Align into longitudinal columns of flattened lacunae Columns parallel to diaphysis

Classified by movements & shapes of joint surfaces

Classes by movement - Uniaxial joint, Bone moves in just one plane or axis - Biaxial joint, Bone moves in two planes or axes - Multiaxial joint, Bone moves in multiple planes or axes

Classification of Epithelia

Classified by number of cell layers. Simple epithelium, stratified epithelium, pseudostratified epithelium Classified by shape of cell. Squamous cells, cuboidal cells, columnar cells, transitional cells

Classification of epithelial tissue

Classified by number of cell layers. Simple epithelium, stratified epithelium, pseudostratified epithelium Classified by shape of cell. Squamous cells, cuboidal cells, columnar cells, transitional cells

The process that connects the scapula to the clavicle (hint: AC joint)

Clavicle

Dense irregular CT

Clumps of collagen fibers extend in all directions Provides support and resistance to stress in multiple directions Extensive blood supply Found in: most of the skin dermis, periosteum, perichondrium o Forms capsules around some internal organs

Protien fibers

Collagen fibers, eleastic fibers and reticular fibers are all types of protien fibers produced by the cells. Made by fibroblasts & fibrocytes- Strengthen & support tissue

Interstitial lamellae

Components of compact bone between osteons o Or partially resorbed osteons o Look like they have a "bite" taken out o Incomplete, no central canal

Adipose CT (fat)

Composed mostly of adipocytes, Two types: - White (stores energy, acts as insulator, cushions) - Brown (found in newborns, generates heat, lost as we age) Adipocyte # stable, weight gain/loss = adipocytes enlarging/shrinking

Zone of ̶ calcified cartilage

Composed of 2 to 3 layers of chondrocytes Minerals are deposited between lacunae, Destroys chondrocytes

pseudostratified epithelium

Comprising only a single layer of cell

is a smooth, rounded articular process

Condyle

Tendons

Connect muscle to bone

Integumentary system

Consists of the skin, mucous membranes, hair, and nail

Elastic fibers

Contain protein elastin Branching wavy fibers, stretch and recoil easily Yellow in color when fresh Found in skin, arteries, lungs

What is the nucleus? What does it contain?

Control center of the cell. Contains DNA.

The crow's beak (found on the scapula)

Coracoid process

What are the 4 or 5 layers of the epidermis?

Corneum Lucidum Spinosum Basale

Leg (shin area)

Crural

leg

Crural

What are the three major types of pyrimidines?

Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil

Structures of the knee joint - Medial meniscus and lateral meniscus

Deep to articular capsule within knee joint C-shaped fibrocartilage pads on top of tibial condyles Cushions articular surfaces, Stabilizes joint medially and laterally

Osteoarthritis

Degenerative joint condition in older individuals Due to wearing down of articular cartilage Fingers, knuckles, hips, knees, and shoulders most affected

Perichondrium

Dense irregular CT Covers cartilage and helps maintain its shape

Components of the radius

Disc-shaped head at proximal end, Articulates with capitulum of humerus Styloid process, bony projection at distal end Ulnar notch on distal medial surface, Articulates with medial surface of distal ulna Narrow neck extends from head to radial tuberosity, Attachment site for biceps brachii muscle Shaft of radius curves slightly

no

Do sebum have oders?

no

Does epithelial tissue have electrical activity

Median sacral crest

Dorsal ridge formed by fusion of spinous processes

Endocrine glands

Ductless glands that empty their hormonal products directly into the blood. Chemical messengers that influence cell activity elsewhere

Diaphysis

Elongated, usually cylindrical shaft Provides leverage and weight support Compact bone with thin spicules of spongy bone extending inward

______________________ begins with a cartilage model that is gradually replaced by bone at the metaphysics.

Endochondral ossification

the timing of ? of the epiphyseal cartilage and the formation oft he epiphyseal line differs amon bones and among individuals

Epiphyseal (plate) closure

distal

Farther from the trunk of the body

Resident cells of CT

Fibroblasts: principal cell of CT Fixed macrophages Adipocytes Mesenchymal

Microvilli

Fingerlike extensions of plasma membrane of apical epithelial cells, increase surface area, aid in absorbtion, exist on every moist epithelia, but most dense in small intestine and kidney

Fibroblast cells

Flat cells with tapered ends Most abundant resident cells in CT proper Produce fibers and ground substance of extracellular matrix

Types of Vertebrae- Cervical vertebrae

Form bones of neck; 7 vertebrae, C1-C7 C1 articulates with occipital condyles C7 articulates with first thoracic vertebra

Types of Vertebrae- Lumbar vertebrae

Form inferior concave region ("small") of the back 5 vertebrae, L1-L5 L5 articulates inferiorly with first sacral vertebra

Types of Vertebrae- Thoracic vertebrae

Form superior region of the back Each articulates laterally with one or two pairs of ribs 2 vertebrae, T1-T12 T12 articulates with first lumbar vertebra

Plasma cells

Form when B-lymphocytes become activated Produce antibodies (proteins that immobilize foreign material)

Glenohumeral (Shoulder) Joint - Ball-and socket joint

Formed by head of humerus and glenoid cavity of scapula - Permits greatest range of motion of any joint in the body Most unstable and most frequently dislocated - Fibrocartilaginous glenoid labrum encircles socket - Abundant bursae, Decrease friction where tendons and muscles extend across capsule - Supporting ligaments & tendons, Coracoacromial ligament, coracohumeral ligament, glenohumeral ligaments, Tendon of long head of biceps brachii - Most joint stability due to rotator cuff muscles Subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, Work as a group to hold head of humerus in glenoid cavity, Tendons encircle joint and fuse with articular capsule

Types of Vertebrae- Sacrum

Formed from 5 sacral vertebrae; S1-S5 - Fused into single structure by late 20s Articulates with L5 superiorly, first coccygeal vertebra inferiorly - Laterally articulates with 2 hip bones

Holocrine glands

Formed from cells that accumulate product Cell disintegrates: viscous mixture of cell fragments Oil-producing glands in the skin- sebaceous glands

Proteoglycans

Formed with GAG linked to a protein 90% carbohydrate in the form of GAGs Large structure due to negative repelling charges Perform numerous important functions

shallow depression in a bone

Fossa

Fracture of the Femoral Neck

Fracture of femur is often incorrectly referred to as "fractured hip"

Diarthroses

Freely mobile joints All synovial joints

Ischium

Fusion with ilium near superior and posterior margins of acetabulum Triangular ischial spine, posterior to acetabulum Ischial body, bulky bone superior to ischial spine Lesser sciatic notch -Roughened projection on posterolateral border of ischium Sitz bones Bear weight of body in sitting position Ramus of the ischium Semicircular depression inferior to ischial spine Ischial tuberosity Extends from ischial tuberosity toward anterior fusion with pubis

carb + lipid

Glycolipid = ___________ + ___________

carb + protein

Glycoprotein = _________ + _________

large protein + small carbohydrate

Glycoprotein = _________ + _________

fractures occur generally in young children, whose long bones have yet to ossify fully

Greenstick

Arthritis

Group of inflammatory or degenerative diseases of the joints Symptoms of joint swelling, pain, and stiffness

Organs

Groups of tissues that work together to perform a specific function or related functions

Hair components

Hair matrix: Structure at base of the hair bulb o Epithelial cells divide here o Produce new cells, gradually pushed toward surface Medulla: remnant of matrix, flexible, soft keratin Cortex: flattened cells closer to outer hair surface, relatively hard Cuticle: single cell layer around cortex Hair follicle o Oblique tube surrounding hair root o Extends into dermis and sometimes subcutaneous layer o Outer CT root sheath originating in dermis o Inner epithelial tissue root sheath originating from epidermis Arrector pili o Thin ribbons of smooth muscle o Extend from hair follicle to dermal papillae o Elevates hair with contraction, "goosebumps"

Canaliculi

Hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal, Allow exchange of nutrients, minerals, gases, and wastes between blood vessels and osteocytes

Cilia

Hairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used for locomotion, move in a wave like manner

Melanoma

Happens when melanocytes become cancerous

Rule of Nines (adult)

Head 9%, Back 18%, Chest 9%, Abdomen 9%, Arms 9% each, Groin 1%, Upper Leg 9% each, Lower Leg 9% each.

Functions of the skelatal system

Hemopoiesis - Blood cell production - Occurs in red bone marrow CT - Stem cells form blood cells & platelets • Storage of mineral & energy reserves - Bone stores body's reserve of calcium & phosphate o Released from bone into blood as needed - Calcium essential for o Muscle contraction, Blood clotting, Nerve impulse transmission - Phosphate o ATP utilization, Plasma membrane - Lipids stored in yellow bone marrow of adult bones

the study of tissues

Histology

Loose function

Holds organs in place and attaches epithelial tissues

loose connective tissue

Holds organs in place and attaches the epithelial tissue Located in the spleen, liver, and lymph nodes

Medullary cavity

Hollow, cylindrical space within the diaphysis Contains red bone marrow in children Contains yellow bone marrow in adults

Neuroepithelium

Houses cells responsible for sight, taste smell, hearing, equilibrium

Asymmetry Border Color (multicolored) Diameter (if bigger than the size of an eraser) Evolving (if it's growing rapidly)

How can you detect skin cancer (5 ways)

Three types of cartilage

Hyaline cartilage, Fibrocartilage, Elastic cartilage

+ , -

Hydrogen has a slightly ______ charge, attracting it to ________ charges for hydrogen bonding

This bone sits at the base of the tongue (and helps support it).

Hyoid bone

hemolysis

If enough water flows into the cell, it can swell and even burst this is called....

The large posterior bone of the hips (hint: _____ tuberosity is the bone you feel when someone sits on you with a "bony butt")

Ilium

The largest lateral bone of the hips

Ilium

The largest lateral bone of the hips (hint: has wings, a crest and some pointy spines like the A.S.I.S.)

Ilium

Synarthroses

Immobile joints Can be fibrous or cartilaginous joints

Epiphyseal plate

In metaphysis Growth plate Thin layer of hyaline cartilage oProvides for lengthwise bone growth In adults, the epiphyseal line, is the remnant of the epiphyseal plate

Exercise and joint health

Increases flow of synovial fluid to chondrocytes Strengthens muscles that support and stabilize joints In extreme, may aggravate potential joint problems and may worsen osteoarthritis

Of the three bones that make up the lateral aspect of the nasal cavity which is a bone by itself? (hint: top, middle or bottom)

Inferior nasal conchae

Stages of bone healing

Inflammation, induction, soft callus, hard callus, remodeling

Ulna

Inner and larger bone of the forearm

osteoblasts differentiate within connective tissue

Intramembranous ossification

smooth muscle

Involuntary muscle found inside many internal organs of the body

cardiac muscle

Involuntary muscle tissue found only in the heart.

Dry gangrene

Involved part is desiccated and shriveled ̶ Usually due to extreme cold

The anterior bone of the hips (hint: it has a symphysis on it)

Ischium

the same

Isotopes all have _____________ amount of protons

neutrons

Isotopes have different mass numbers because they have more or less ______

What is clathrin-mediated endocytosis?

It is rapid and enables the cell to ingest large amounts of specific ligands

keratin cells (for skin, hair, nails, feathers..)

Keratinocytes

lumbar vertebrae

L1-L5

The suture that separates the occipital bone from the parietal bones is called: (hint: greek letter)

Lamboid

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)

Large molecule in ground substance Carbohydrate building blocks, some with attached amines Negatively charged and hydrophilic Charge attracts cations, water follows Types include ˗ Chondroitin sulfate, Heparin sulfate, Hyaluronic acid

Ilium

Largest of 3 coxal bones Forms superior region of the os coxae Forms part of acetabular surface Wide, fan-shaped region, the ala Depression on medial side of ala, iliac fossa Attachment sites for gluteal muscles Auricular surface, where ilium articulates with sacrum On posteromedial side Iliac crest, superiormost ridge of ilium

Cell body

Largest part of a typical neuron; contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm

Supination

Lateral rotation of forearm so palm of hand anterior

For future synovial joints

Laterally placed mesenchyme forms articular capsule and supporting ligaments Next layer of mesenchyme forms synovial membrane Centrally located mesenchyme may be reabsorbed or form menisci or articular discs

Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC)

Less common than BCC More chance of spreading (metastasis) Actinic Keratosis

Tissue aging

Less efficient after middle age Epithelia thins CT loses pliability and resiliency Collagen declines Bones become brittle o Muscles atrophy

Iliofemoral ligament

Ligament providing support for anterior articular capsule

Retinacular fibers

Ligamentous fibers of articular capsule Reflect around femur neck Retinacular arteries here - Supply most blood to femur head and neck

RUQ organs

Liver, gallbladder, appendix

Components of the ulna

Longer, medially placed bone of the forearm C-shaped trochlear notch at proximal end • Interlocks with trochlea of the humerus Olecranon, projection on posterosuperior trochlear notch • Forms posterior "bump" of elbow Coronoid process, inferior lip of trochlear notch • Articulates with humerus Tuberosity of ulna, at proximal end of bone Shaft terminates in knoblike head • Posteromedial styloid process, May be palpated on medial side of wrist

Anterior view of the skull

Major structures are frontal bone (forehead), zygomatic bones (cheekbones), maxillae, and mandible. Maxilla and mandible bear teeth. Contain Orbits and Nasal cavities

The most superior part of the sternum (hint: looks a little like an M).

Manubrium

Gluteal tuberosity

Marks attachment of gluteus maximus muscle

Pectineal line

Marks attachment of pectineus muscle

Pronation

Medial rotation of forearm so palm of hand posterior

For future fibrous joints

Mesenchyme differentiates into dense regular connective tissue

For future cartilaginous joints

Mesenchyme differentiates into fibrocartilage or hyaline cartilage

Reticular CT

Meshwork of reticular fibers, fibroblasts, leukocytes Structural framework of many lymphatic organs ˗ Spleen, Thymus, Lymph nodes, Bone marrow

The scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate and hamate are ________.

Metacarpal bones

Free macrophages

Mobile, phagocytic cells

Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC)

Most common skin cancer Low risk of spreading

Functions of the skelatal system

Movement - Bones serve as the attachment sites for oSkeletal muscles oSoft tissues oSome organs - System of levers oMuscle contraction exerting a pull on the skeleton - Can alter direction & magnitude of forces generated by muscles

diffusion

Movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration across a concentration gradient

Other leukocytes

Neutrophils: phagocytizes bacteria, killing itself in the process T-lymphocytes: leukocyte that attacks foreign or infected cells directly

Skin Markings

Nevus- Mole Freckles- Yellowish or brown spots Hemangioma- Skin discoloration due to benign blood vessel tumor - Capillary hemangiomas- Strawberry-colored birthmarks - Cavernous hemangiomas- larger dermal blood vessels

Is the epidermis vascular?

No, it is avascular

parathyroid hormone come from

Parathyroid gland

The suture that separates the temporal bone from the parietal bone is called: (hint: flat)

Parietal

Posterior view of the skull

Parietal and Occipital bones, Lambdoid suture, Sutural Bones, External occipital protuberance, Ligamentum nuchae, Nuchal lines

Lateral view of the skull

Parietal bones, Squamous part of temporal bone, Squamous suture, Temperal Bone, Greater wing of sphenoid, Zygomatic bones, Maxilla, Mandible

Structures of the knee joint - Quadriceps femoris muscle tendon

Passes over knee's anterior surface, surrounds patella

Two major types of diffusion

Passive diffusion and facilitated diffusion

Facilitated diffusion

Passive transport process of larger solutes using protein carrier molecules

Clavicle and scapular make up the ________

Pectoral girdle

Pelvis (front)

Pelvic

The landmark that separates the false from the true pelvis (hint: like the _____ of a hat)

Pelvic brim

The portion of the pelvis where contents usually move "in" to the true pelvis.

Pelvic inlet

The portion of the pelvis where contents usually move "out" of the true pelvis

Pelvic outlet

The portion of the pelvis where contents usually move "out" of the true pelvis (hint: and into someplace else....flush)

Pelvic outlet

Structures in long bone, not part of osteon

Perforating canals (Volkmann) Resemble central canals Blood vessels and nerves travel through Perpendicular to central canals Connect central canals within different osteons

Epithelial tissue functions

Physical protection- ext/int surfaces from dehydration, abrasion, etc. Selective permeability- non-permeable to some substances, permeable to other molecules Secretions- some cells specialized to secret, scattered amongst other cells or in organized clusters Sensations- contain nerve endings for touch, pressure, pain, temp. Sends info to nervous system. Neuroepithelium

Extrinsic ligaments

Physically separate from joint capsule Co-laterals

What are the two ways in which homeostasis is maintained?

Physiological regulation and the key to survival in changing environment

electrical charge in a chemical

Polarity

Major types of active transport

Primary (direct): direct use of metabolic energy (ATP) to mediate transport Secondary (indirect): moves chemicals against gradients and doesn't use ATP as a direct source of energy

Osteoarthritis

Primary problem of aging joint due to wear and tear

Coccygeal cornua

Prominent laminae of first coccygeal vertebrae - In elderly, may ultimately fuse with the sacrum

phases of meiosis in order

Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I 2x

Adherent glycoproteins

Proteins with carbohydrates attached Bond CT cells and fibers to ground substance Includes: fibronectin, fibrillin, laminin

large polysaccharides + polypeptides

Proteoglycans = _________ + _________

viscosity

Proteoglycans promote _________

reticular tissue

Provide structural support found in the kidney and bone marrow Located in lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow

Epiphysis

Proximal epiphysis- End of the bone closest to body trunk Distal epiphysis- End farthest from trunk Composed of - Outer thin layer of compact bone - Inner region of spongy bone Articular cartilage - Covers the joint surface - Thin layer of hyaline cartilage - Reduces friction - Absorbs shock in moveable joints

Epiphysis

Proximal epiphysis- End of the bone closest to body trunk Distal epiphysis- End farthest from trunk Composed of - Outer thin layer of compact bone - Inner region of spongy bone Articular cartilage - Covers the joint surface - Thin layer of hyaline cartilage - Reduces friction - Absorbs shock in moveable joints

strand that carries from the nucleus to the cytoplasm

RNA

uses the bases A, U, C, G

RNA

U + A C + G

RNA base pairing

What is translation?

RNA to protein

What are the four abdominal quadrants?

RUQ, LUQ, RLQ, LLQ

The bone of the forearm that is found on the "thumb-side"

Radius

particle size, temp., concentration, polarity, surface area

Rate of diffusion is affected by (5)

hormones, insulin, and enzymes

Receptor - mediated endocytosis is used durring the absorption of...

Clinical View: Bone Marrow Transplant

Red bone marrow transplant ̶ Bone marrow destroyed by radiation/chemo ̶ Abnormally functioning marrow ̶ Harvested cells injected into bloodstream of recipient ̶ Migrate to normal locations for red bone marrow ̶ Must be "match" between donor and recipient ̶ So immune system does not attack

What are the high compounds which store energy?

Regenerate ATP

Tissue is repaired in two ways:

Regeneration ̶ Replacement of damaged or dead cells with same cell type ̶ Restores organ function Fibrosis ̶ Gap filled with scar tissue ̶ Collagen produced by fibroblasts ̶ Functional activities not restored

Metaphysis

Region of mature bone between diaphysis and epiphysis

Structures of the knee joint - Fibular collateral ligament

Reinforces lateral surface of joint Extends from femur to fibula Prevents hyperadduction

Fixed macrophages- histiocytes

Relatively large, irregular-shaped cells Derived from monocytes- white blood cells Phagocytize/engulf damaged cells or pathogens Release chemicals that stimulate immune system/attract wandering cells

Active transport

Requires energy input, carrier proteins must combine specifically with the transported substance

when reactants are converted to products that can be converted to reactants (AB<----> CD) its called:

Reversible reaction

Arthritis

Rheumatic disease involving damage to articular cartilage Osteoarthritis

Circumferential lamellae

Rings of bone o External—run immediately internal to bone periosteum o Internal—run internal to the endosteum o Both run the entire circumference of the bone

The __________ structure of a protein includes alpha helices and beta pleated sheets and is associated with hydrogen bonds. (hint: ET FON home)

Secondary structure

Rheumatoid arthritis

Seen in younger to middle-aged adults, often women Autoimmune disorder Starts with synovial membrane inflammation

Reticular fibers

Similar to collagen fibers but thinner oForm branching, interwoven framework Tough but flexible Abundant in stroma, CT framework, of ˗ Lymph nodes, Spleen, Liver

Smooth areas

Sites of articulation between bones

Amphiarthroses

Slightly mobile joints Can be fibrous or cartilaginous joints

cells

Smallest living functional unit of the human body (building blocks)

The _________ bones are found on the sides of the skull (hint: they are separated from the parietal bones by the squamous suture)

Squamous

What are the different types of epithelial tissues?

Squamous Cuboidal Columnar

Interphase: everything leading up to Mitosis (G1, S, & G2) Prophase Metaphase Anaphase = apart Telophase = pulled toward opposite end

Stages of Mitosis

Where are glycolipids only found?

Surface of eukaryotic cell membrane

apocrine

Sweat glands cause body odor

building

Synthesis (anabolism)

Male and female pelves differ in all of the following features except __________.

The female sacrum is longer

Sebaceous

The glands connected with hair follicles that secrete oily & waxy sebum

What is diffusion?

The movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

What is transcription?

The process of making RNA from a DNA template

What is the definition of physiology?

The study of the function

What is the definition of anatomy?

The study of the structure

Humeroulnar joint

Trochlear notch of ulna articulating with trochlea of humerus

hydrogen bond

Weak partial bond but if you have a lot of hydrogen bonds together, they are strong (pos. & neg. attraction)

polypeptide

What is a long chain of amino acids?

Polysaccharide

What is a long chain of carbohydrates?

d= Lunula e = Proximal Nail Fold f = Eponychium

What is d, e, and f?

Hypogastric region: urinary bladder

What quadrant is this, and what organs are located there?

Left Inguinal Region: colon

What quadrant is this, and what organs are located there?

Left lumbar region: large intestine, small intestine

What quadrant is this, and what organs are located there?

Right Inguinal Region: cecum, appendix

What quadrant is this, and what organs are located there?

Right lumbar region: large intestine, small intestine

What quadrant is this, and what organs are located there?

Umbilical Region: large intestine, small intestine

What quadrant is this, and what organs are located there?

epigastric region: stomach

What quadrant is this, and what organs are located there?

left hypochondriac region: spleen, diaphragm

What quadrant is this, and what organs are located there?

right hypochondriac region: liver and gallbladder

What quadrant is this, and what organs are located there?

nutrients, H2O, electrolytes

What typically comes in through the cellular membrane (3)

metabolites, waste, excess H2O

What typically goes out through the cellular membrane (3)

solute

What's being dissolved in a solvent

Depressions, grooves & openings

Where blood vessels and nerves pass through bone

Projections

Where muscles, tendons & ligaments attach

Quaternary Structure - more than 1 polypeptide

Which 3D protein structure is this?

Primary Structure (one single thread)

Which protein structure is this?

Protein Tertiary Structure - 3D

Which protein structure is this?

Secondary (data sheet, twisted)

Which protein structure is this?

Leukocytes

White blood cells

side chain

_______ _______ determines properties of different amino acids

peptide, polypeptide, protein

________ bonds link amino acids together to make up a __________________, which make up a __________)

enzymes

_________ allows more efficient transfer of the energy (helps the chemical reaction be more efficient)

protons

_________ determine an element's "personality"

mRNA, DNA

__________ are transcripts from _______

fatty acids & cholesterol

___________ and __________ do not form polymers

mRNA, polypeptide

____________ undergoes translation to form a ____________

Langerhans Cells

_____________ cells are found everywhere but the stratum corneum and are there to protect you

collagen

_____________ is stronger than elastic fiber

Carrier protein

_______________ ______________ helps facilitate the diffusion of glucose molecules in and out of the cell, through the plasma membrane

hyoid bone

a U-shaped bone in the neck that supports the tongue.

epiphyseal fracture

a break at the location of the growth plate, which can affect growth of the bone

Melanin

a dark brown to black pigment occurring in the hair, skin, and iris of the eye in people and animals. It is responsible for tanning of skin exposed to sunlight.

Periosteum

a dense layer of vascular connective tissue enveloping the bones except at the surfaces of the joints.

Albinism

a genetic condition characterized by a deficiency or the absence of pigment in the skin, hair, and irises of the eyes

Proteoglycans

a glycoprotein consisting of a small core protein with many carbohydrate chains attached, found in the extracellular matrix of animal cells.

Elbow is

a hinge joint composed of two articulations

phospholipid

a lipid attached to phosphate

reticular function

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

Dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Exocytosis

a process by which the contents of a cell vacuole are released to the exterior through fusion of the vacuole membrane with the cell membrane.

Canaliculi

a small channel or duct.

associated with fat cells

adipose tissue

blackheads

air oxidized sebum

areolar

airy, spacious, wide open tissue

What is a third degree burn?

aka full thickness, epidermis and entire dermis

basic

alkaline

Depressions

alveolus, fossa, sulcus

What are the building blocks of proteins?

amino acids

basic units of proteins are

amino acids

"two faced" (EX: one side of a phospholipid is hydrophobic and the other side is hydrophilic)

amphipathic

Cofactor

an ion or molecule that helps an enzyme bind its target

apical surface

an upper free surface exposed to the body exterior or the cavity of an internal organ, microvilli or cilia

the metabolic build-up of substances from their smallest functional parts

anabolism

What are the two major parts of metabolism?

anabolism and catabolism

Three phases of hair growth cycle

anagen- active, catagen- regression, telogen- resting

person standing with arms at sides and palms faced forward (it is the standard arrangement for anatomical reference)

anatomical position

The study of the structure of the body

anatomy

form, structure of the body

anatomy

Tarsal bones

ankle bones

front of elbox

antecubital

Front surface of the body

anterior

one substance moves in while another moves out

antiport

Epithelial tissue polarity

apical surface, lateral surface with intercellular junctions, basal surface

Types of sweat (sudoriferous) glands

apocrine and merocrine

armpit, mammary and groin region (type of sweat)

apocrine gland

found in the armpits, around the nipples, and groin

apocrine gland

RLQ organs

appendix

Biomechanics

applying mechanical principles to biology

process of depositing calcium salts within a tissue (often this is a sign of disease)

appositional

Growth of Cartilage

appositional and interstitial

no

are atoms living?

yes

are cells living?

no

are chemicals living?

yes

are sugar molecules polar?

Hypogastric (or pubic) region

area right below the stomach

found surrounding blood vessel

areolar tissue

papillary layer

areolar tissue

What is the ABCD rule?

asymmetry, border irregularity, color, diameter

C1

atlas

protons

atomic # = # of _______

the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom

atomic number

what are the basic particles of matter?

atoms

What is an isotope?

atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons

What is the difference between an atom and an element?

atoms: have the same number of protons and neutrons element: made up of one type of atom

_________ are three tiny bones found in the ears and associated with hearing and sound transmission.

auditory ossicle

Distal

away from the body

Deep (internal)

away from the body surface

Lateral

away from the midline

lateral

away from the midline

Proximal

away or toward the body

The skeletal system consists of the ________ skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.

axial

What are the 2 major divisions of the skeleton?

axial and appendicular

Skeletal system organized into two divisions:

axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton

armpit

axillary

C2 cervical vertebrae

axis

Posterior

back

Posterior/Dorsal

back side

Inferior

below

subcutaneous membrane

below the cutaneous membrane

coronal suture

between frontal and parietal bones

sagittal suture

between parietal bones

Squamosal

between temporal and parietal bones

Dense function

binds organs

Two types of fluid CT

blood and lymph

ionic bond

bond between cations (+) and anions (-)

greenstick fracture

bone breaks incompletely

comminuted fracture

bone breaks into many fragments

Osteocytes

bone cells

Osteoblasts

bone forming cells

Wolff's Law

bone grows or remodels in response to the demands placed on it

compression fracture

bone is crushed

Components of the skeletal system

bones, cartlidges, ligaments and joints

arm

brachial

Osteoclasts

break down bone

depressed fracture

broken bone portion is pressed inward

cheek

buccal

Biological Macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids)

building blocks of your cells (4)

heal of foot

calcaneal

heel of foot

calcaneal

Two primary hormones regulate blood calcium

calcitonin and parathyroid hormone- pth

Fibula

calf bone

yes

can Mesenchymal cells become other cells?

duct or channel

canal

Openings and spaces

canal, fissure, foramen, meatus, sinus

uncontrolled cell division

cancer

most important as an energy source for metabolic processes and include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

carbohydrates

What is the major atom/element contained in organic compounds?

carbon and hydrogen

striated involuntary muscle

cardiac muscle

heart

cardio

orange pigment

carotene

wrist

carpal

ground substnace of cartilage

cartilage

makes up the ground substance of cartilage

cartilage

connective tissue

cartilage = _______ tissue

metabolic breakdown of substances to their smallest functional part

catabolism

Pinocytosis

cell "gulps" drop of extracellular fluid containing dissolved molecules

Parts of a neuron

cell body, dendrites, axon

Granulosum

cell dies off

Mitosis

cell division resulting in 2 identical daughter cells through cytokinesis

Phagocytosis "cell eating"

cell engulfs material durring

What are the levels of organization?

cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

Unit of all living things

cells

What makes up tissues

cells

Corneum

cells are already dead

stem cells

cells that aren't yet differentiated

Characteristics of epithelial tissue

cellularity, polarity, attachment, avascularity, innervation, high regeneration capacity

Osteon components

central canal, concentric lamellae, osteocytes, canaliculi

head

cephalic

neck

cervical

Zygomatic bone

cheek bone

the formation and breaking of bonds

chemical reaction

dificiency of vitamin D3 in children

chloecalciferol

Vitamin D3

cholecalciferol

What makes up cartilage?

chondrocytes

Metaphase

chromatids move to a narrow central zone

In nondividing cells, DNA appears as threads that are referred to as:

chromatin

Prophase

chromosomes coil become visible as a single structure

anchored by a basal body and beat rhythmically to move fluids and secretions

cilia

Protection tissues

cilitated epithelium

The collar bone

clavicle

pectoral (shoulder) girdles

clavicle and scapula

ions or molecule that must bind to enzymes before the substrates can bind

coenzymes

organic cofactors commonly derived from vitamins

coenzymes

Two types of bone

compact and spongy

Types of bone

compact and spongy

Bone structure

compact bone and spongy bone

molecule with more than 1 type of element

compound

Osmolarity

concentration of a solute is there in the solution

Most abundant type of tissue

connective tissue

What type of tissue is bone?

connective tissue

What type of tissue is cartilage?

connective tissue

thoracic cavity

contains heart and lungs

horny layer

corneum

selective transport of materials into the cells through specific lignard-receptor binding

countertransport ?

The integument

covering of the body, protects internal body structures, 7 to 8% of body weight, thickness depends on body location

Where are epithelial tissues located?

covers all surfaces of body (inner & outer)

skull

cranial

dorsal cavity

cranial and spinal

a prominent ridge

crest

prominent ridge

crest

Projections for tendon and ligament attachment

crest, epicondyle, line, process, ramus, spine, trochanter, tubercle, tuberosity

folds in the inner membrane of the mitochondria

cristae

cuboidal epithelium

cube shaped cells

elbow

cubital

epidermis + dermis

cutaneous membrane = _______ + _______

Blue color of the skin

cyanosis

Diaphysis (shaft)

cylinder of compact bone to provide leverage

study of cells

cytology

occurs when a protein is temporarily or permanently damaged by temperature or pH changes

denaturation

Strength of Connective Tissue

dense connective tissue

What is DNA?

deoxyribonucleic acid: determines inherited characteristics

found underneath the "true skin"

dermis

true skin

dermis

dense irregular tissue

dermis of skin

concentration gradient

difference in concentration

The movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration is...

diffusion

fingers and toes

digits/phalanges

yes

do cells have unique traits?

yes

do ionic bonds transfer electrons?

yes

do muscles generate electricity

yes

do nervous cells generate electricity

no

do phospholipids dissolve easily in water?

yes, -3

does phosphate have a charge/what is it

Anaphase

each chromatid pair splits and it separates

palatine bone

either of two irregularly shaped bones that form the back of the hard palate

flexible cartilage

elastic cartilage

negatively charged and not found in the nucleus of the atom (usually found in the cloud)

electrons

exocrine vs endocrine

endocrine doesn't have ducts, exocrine does

secrete their products into the bloodstream

endocrine glands

forms of active transport that consume ATP directly to function and are not dependent on concentration gradient

endocytosis

a bone is lined on the inside with an

endosteum

epiphysis of long bone

ends of long bones

hyaline location

ends of long bones

protein catalyst that speeds up the rate of specific biological reactions

enzyme

What are examples of proteins?

enzymes

What is a second degree burn?

epidermal and upper dermal damage; blisters appear

the cells found in skin that function in immunity

epidermal dendritic cells or langerhans

contains 5 layers of keratinocytes and found in areas of heavy abrasion

epidermis

Layers of the integument

epidermis oStratified squamous epithelium dermis oDeeper layer oPrimarily dense irregular connective tissue

What is a first degree burn?

epidermis only

What are the 3 major regions of the skin?

epidermis, dermis, hypodermis

beating ciliated epithelium

epithelial cells

Four types of tissue

epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

What are the 4 different types of tissues?

epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

interphase

everything that's not part of mitosis, leading up to mitosis

When AB + CD are converted to AC + BD, this type of reaction is called

exchange reaction

reaction release energy

exergonic

form of secretion associated with oil

exocrine gland

elastic location

external ear

movement of materials into the cell

facilitated diffusion

examples of lipids

fats, oils, waxes

thigh

femoral

cartilage found in the intervertebral discs and knee

fibrocartilage

Lateral malleolus

fibula

protein

final product of protein synthesis

Phalanges

fingers

Phalanges

fingers, toes

squamous tissue

flat cells

soft spots in an infants skull

fontanels

Metatarsals

foot bones

largest hole in the skull

foramen magnum

Friction ridges- fingerprints

formed by large folds and valleys of the dermis and epidermis

apocrine glands

found in the armpits, around the nipples, and groin

Structure of nails

free edge, body, lunula, eponychium, cuticle, hyponychium, nail matrix

nail structure

free edge, lateral nail fold, lunula, eponychium, hyponychium

Anterior

front

Anterior/Ventral

front side (the side you hug your auntie from)

The superior nasal conchae, middle nasal conchae, cribiform plate and crista galli are structures found on the ______ bone.

frontal

forehead

frontal

plane divides the body into front and back

frontal (coronal) plane

Osteon

functional unit of compact bone

Lubrication and protection Anchoring and locomotion Specificity in binding (receptors) Recognition (immune response)

functions of Glycocalyx (4)

reproductive/sex cells

germ cells

eccrine glands

glands that produce sweat; found over most of the body

Examples of monosaccharides

glucose, fructose, galactose

but

gluteal

buttocks

gluteal

granular layer

granulosum

layer in which keratincytes "dies off"

granulosum

appositional growth

growth in width

epiphyseal line

growth plate

functional zones in long bone growth

growth zone, transformation zone, osteogenic zone

big toe

hallux

Metacarpals

hand bones

catalysts

help chemical reactions

anchor cells to the basement membrane

hemidesmosomes

basic

higher numbers (more than 7) on the pH scale are _____________

What bones form the bony pelvis?

hip bones, sacrum, coccyx

medullary cavity (long bone)

hollow cavity filled with yellow marrow

Existence of a stable environment within the body

homeostasis

Solution

homogeneous mixture of solute dissolved in a solvent

The weak, but important bond that has an electrical attraction between hydrogens and atoms such as fluorine, oxygen, and nitrogen that can affect the shapes and properties of molecules is ______ bond

hydrogen bond ?

What is pH the measure of?

hydrogen ion concentration

"hates water"

hydrophobic

Bone matrix consists largely of crystals of:

hydroxyapatite

Ventral

in front of

Subluxation refers to

incomplete dislocation

What is the function of parathyroid hormone

increases blood calcium levels

Below; at a lower level

inferior

groin

inguinal

fibrocartilage location

intervertebral discs

three major types of chemical bonds

ionic, covalent, hydrogen

cations and anions are examples of ________ that have either more electrons or less electrons than their original elemental state

ions

an atom has unequal amount of protons and electrons

ions hapen when

What are the lesser or trace elements of the body?

iron, manganese, zinc, copper, iodine, cobalt, molybdenum, selenium, chromium, silicon, fluorine, vanadium, nickel, arsenic, and tin

Hemoglobin

iron-containing protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen for delivery to cells

passive

is Diffusion active or Passive Transport?

no

is Pinocytosis specific?

both! the lipid side is hydrophobic, the phosphate side is hydrophilic

is a phospholipid hydrophobic or hydrophilic

slightly basic

is blood basic (alkaline) or acidic?

passive

is facilitated Diffusion active or Passive Transport?

yes

is phosphate attracted to water

extremely acidic

is stomach acid basic or acidic?

Meiosis

is the Mitosis or Meiosis?

Mitosis

is the Mitosis or Meiosis?

typically more neutral, can be both acidic or basic

is urine basic or acidic?

atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons

isotopes

lysosomes

job is to digest garbage, break it down

plasma membrane

keeps the cells seperate from their environment, and senses/interacts with the environment (to control what goes in and out of the cell)

"hard, corny, and horny" protein that helps to prevent water loss in the skin

keratin

cells that secrete the protein keratin used to help precent water loss from the skin

keratinocytes

4 cells of epidermis

keratinocytes, melanocytes, dendritic cells, tactile cells

What are the 4 cells of the epidermis?

keratinocytes, melanocytes, langerhans cells, merkel cells

urinary

kidneys are a part of the ________ system

Three types of hair

lanugo- fine, vellus- fine/primary, terminal- coarser/beards/eye lashes

LLQ organs

large and small intestines

away from the midline

lateral

Radius

lateral bone of the forearm

Concentric lamellae

layers of bony matrix around a central canal. 90 degrees from previous lamellae

Corneum Lucidium (only found where you can walk: palms of hand and soles of your feet, areas that need thick skin) Granulosum Spinosum Basale

layers of skin from superficial to deep

Includes fats, oils, and waxes

lipids

phobic

lipids and fats are mainly hydro_____

phobic

lipids are hrdro______

Classification of Bone by Shape

long bone, short bone, flat bone, irregular bone

4 shapes of bones

long, short, flat, irregular

What are the arches of the foot?

longitudinal and transverse

Osteoporosis

loss of bone density

denaturation

loss of shape and function due to heat or pH (Irreversible reaction)

acidic

lower numbers (less than 7) on the pH scale are _____________

clear layer

lucidum

The main part of the vertebrae that supports the weight of the bones (and body weight) above it.

lumbar

lower back

lumbar

B cells and T cells are examples of

lymphocytes

responsible for the autolysis of injured cells

lysosomes

carries instruction from the nucleus to the cytoplasm

mRNA

"big eaters"

macrophages

function of red bone marrow

makes red blood cells

Jaw bone

mandible

hand

manual

molecule is the sum of the atomic weight of its component atoms

mass number (atomic mass)

protons + neutrons

mass number = ________ + ________

like chondrocytes as well as ground matrix

matrix

Osteocytes

mature bone cells, found in small spaces between concentric lamellae- lacunae, maintain bone matrix

Sex cells are produced by

meiosis

3 pigments that contribute to skin color

melanin, carotene, hemoglobin

Skin color is determined by

melanin, carotene, hemoglobin

Endosteum

membrane lining the medullary cavity of a bone

Vesicular Transport

membranous sacs called vesicles transport large macromolecules across membranes during

chin

mental

cells in the skin that provide sensory information about the objects that touch the skin

merkel cell (tactile receptor)

What are the different types of exocrine glands

merocrine, apocrine, holocrine

types of exocrine glands

merocrine, apocrine, holocrine

Embryonic Connective Tissue

mesenchyme and mucous connective tissue

chromatids move to the center of the cell and start "line up"

metaphase

bones in the sole of the feet

metatarsals

simple sugars which include glucose, fructose, and galactose

monosaccharides

What is active transport?

movement of molecules into or out of a cell against a concentration gradient

Four types of body membranes

mucous, serous, cutaneous, synovial

What is calcium used for?

muscle contraction

connective tissue that wraps around the muscle

muscle tissue

Epidermal derivatives

nails, hair, exocrine glands of the skin

Male pelvic inlet

narrow and heart-shaped

Vomer

nasal septum (thin, flat bone)

peptide bonds

new bond between Nitrogen and Carbon

Telophase

new cell prepares to return to interphase state

cartilage structure

no blood vessels

coenzyme

nonprotein organic cofactors (vitamins)

Spongy bone

o Located in interior of bone o Latticework structure, strong and lightweight

Areolar CT

o Loose organization of collagen & elastic fibers, highly vascularized o Ground substance is abundant and viscous o Papillary layer (dermis), major component of subcutaneous layer o Surrounds organs, nerve and muscle cells, and blood vessels

Fibrocartilage

o Weight-bearing cartilage that withstands compression o Located in Intervertebral discs. Pubic symphysis, knee pads

Merocrine glands

oPackaged into vesicles, release secretions by exocytosis oExamples include - Lacrimal (tear) glands, - Salivary glands, - Eccrine sweat glands, - Pancreas & Gastric glands of the stomach

bone is found in the back of the skull

occipital

eye

ocular/orbital

What are sebaceous glands?

oil glands

back of your elbow

olecranal

The point of the elbow

olecranon

point (or back) of elbow

olecranon

ear

optic

___________ within the cytoplasm perform particular functions

organelles

Bone matrix has _______ and _______ components

organic and inorganic

force of water movement into a solution

osmotic pressure

formation of bone

ossification

mature bone cells

osteocytes

Epithilial tissue located

outer surfaces of organs and blood vessels

female pelvic inlet

oval shaped

What are the four major elements of the body?

oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen

the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution

pH

A + T A + U G + C

pairing of DNA/RNA

roof of mouth

palatine

hand

palmar

palm

palmar

Location of stratum lucidum

palms of the hands and the soles of the feet.

dermis contains "nipple like" appearance

papillary layer

Layers of dermis

papillary layer and reticular layer

knee

patellar

kneecap

patellar

functional changes that accompany a particular syndrome or disease

pathophysiology

foot

pedal

cavity contains the bladder and reproductive organs

pelvic cavity

Cavity containing the heart

pericardial cavity

DNA

permanent record (transcription)

movement of large materials into the cell ... "eating"

phagocytosis

What are the different types of endocytosis?

phagocytosis and pinocytosis

fingers

phalanges

What is the plasma membrane composed of?

phospholipids

- , attracted

phospholipids have strongly _____ charges (making them ______ to water)

Functions of connective tissue

physical protection, support and structural framework, binding of structures, storage, transport, immune protection

function of body

physiology

sole of foot

plantar

sole of the foot

plantar

The watery matrix of blood

plasma

thrombocytes

platelets

A bond with unequal sharing of electrons

polar covalent bond

electrons are shared, but one element has a stronger hold than the other

polar covalent bond

thumb

pollex

back of knee

popliteal

back of the knee

popliteal

back surface of the body

posterior (dorsal)

structure of a protein includes the number, order, and sequence of amino acid

primary

ceruminous glands

produce ear wax

keratinocytes function

produce keratin

Melanocytes function

produce melanin

mammary glands

produce milk

function of goblet cells

produce mucus

what do you find in basal layer

producing new cells

Epicondyle

projection above a condyle

face down

prone

What are the phases of meiosis?

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

What is the function of the plasma membrane?

protect the cell from its surroundings

function of integumentary system

protection

functions of the integumentary system

protection, sensation, temperature regulation, vitamin d production, excretion

What are nails?

protective coverings on the ends of the fingers and toes

adipose tissue function

protects, insulates, stores fat

amino acids are the basic units of _________, which performs variety of essential function in the body

protein

peripheral proteins

proteins Bound to inner or outer surface of the membrane

intergral proteins

proteins within the membrane

What makes up ground substance?

proteoglycans and glycoproteins

positively charged, found in the nucleus of the atom and is considered the "personality" of the atom

proton

What is a base?

proton acceptor

what is an acid?

proton donor

What are the three subatomic particles? What charge do they carry?

protons (positive charge) neutrons (neutral charge) electrons (negative charge)

stratum spinosum

provides strength and flexibility to the skin

closer to the point of origin

proximal

Pubis

pubic

Apoptosis

purposeful cell death

found in spongy bone and is the location where blood cells are made

red bone marrow

What is endochondral ossification?

replacement of cartilage by bone

Meiosis

results in 4 genetically different sex cells with ½ the # of chromosomes as the parent cell

contains hair follicles, nerve endings, sweat glands and arrector pili

reticular layer

Haversian (central) canals

run longitudinally in bone tissue. These contain blood vessels and nerves.

The shoulder blade

scapula

fibroblasts, collagen

scars are formed because _____________ build ____________, raising the skin = the scar

discharge waxy oil substance into the lumen and into the hair follicle

sebaceous gland

oil waxy substance that is secreted into the hair follicle

sebum

whitheads

sebum that hasn't been oxidized

Exocrine glands

secrete chemical substances into ducts that lead either to other organs or out of the body

sebaceous glands

secrete sebum (oil) into the hair follicles where the hair shafts pass through the dermis

Merkel cells function

sensory for fine-touch

stratified epithelium

several layers of cells

What is meiosis?

sexual reproduction

Groove

shallow linear channel

covalent bond

sharing of electrons ex: H2O

negative feedback

shivering when you are cold to heat yourself up, sweating to cool yourself off are examples of

line the stomach, intestine, gallbladder

simple columnar

single layer of rectangular cells

simple columnar epithelium

single layer of flattened cells

simple squamous

simple epithelium

single layer of cells

columnar epithelium

single layer of epithelial cells taller than they are wide

lambdoidal structure

site of articulation of occopital bone and parietal bone

dense regular

skeletal muscles = ________ ________ tissue

Three types of muscle tissue

skeletal, cardiac, smooth - Cells contract when stimulated - Contraction causes movement o Voluntary motion of body parts o Contraction of heart o Propulsion of material through digestive and urinary tracts

dense irregular

skin = ________ ________ tissue

Cranial

skull

example of intramembranous ossification

skull bones

What are the bones of the axial skeleton?

skull, vertebral column, rib cage

Volkmann's canals

small channels in the bone that transmit blood vessels from the periosteum into the bone and that communicate

lacrimal bone

small fragile bone making up part of the front inner walls of each eye socket

involuntary non-striated muscle

smooth muscle

Bone marrow:

soft connective tissue within the medullary cavity of bones

Osteomalacia

softening of the bone

everything but sex cells

somatic cells

calcium phosphate is an example of

specialized cells

Receptor - mediated endocytosis

specific mechanism of endocytosis that involves receptor proteins on the plasma membrane

Vertebrae

spine

a pointed process

spine

parts of the scapula

spine, acromion, coracoid process

Spiral

spirillum

iron deficiency

spoon-like nails indicate

examples of polysaccharides

starch, glycogen, cellulose

ionic bond

steals electrons Ex: Na ---> Cl (rip off) Na+ ---> Cl - (share)

Osteogenic cells

stem cells

basal, surface (apical)

stem cells are found at the ____ part of the epithelium and push stuff toward the _______

LUQ organs

stomach, spleen, pancreas

What is the function of yellow bone marrow?

stores fat

layer rectangular

stratified cuboidal

Epidermal Strata

stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum

Layers of epidermis

stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum

prickly layer

stratum spinosum

skeletal muscle

striated and voluntary

What are intervertebral discs?

strong cartilage that holds vertebrae together, allows for flexibility, and cushions vertebrae to reduce stress

Dermatology

study of the skin

Histology

study of tissues

solvent

substance used to dissolve other chemicals

Solvent

substances used to dissolve other chemicals

examples of disaccharides

sucrose, lactose, maltose

sweat glands; divided into two types: apocrine ad merocrine gland

sudoriferous glands

narrow groove

sulcus

metabolism

sum of all chemical reactions occuring in your body

Xiphoid

sword shaped

two substances move in the same direction at the same time

symport

ribosomes

synthesize polypeptides

3 letter code on tRNA and is used in the selection of amino acid for polypeptide

tRNA

caudal

tail end

Coccyx

tailbone

langerhans function

take up and process microbial antigens

bones are found on the sides of the skull

temporal

side of the skull

temporal

dense regular connective tissue

tendons and ligaments

structure of protein involves complex FOLDING (tying a piece of rope into a knot)

tertiary structure

genetic code

the "language"

body of sternum

the bony structure that forms the middle portion of the sternum

What is intramembranous ossification?

the formation of bone from fibrous membranes

What is the cell cycle?

the life cycle of a cell

Ischium

the lower, posterior portions of the pelvis

differentiation

the process of becoming different, cells are becoming specialized

bone resorption

the removal of osseous tissue

Epthelium

the specialized epithelial tissue that forms the epidermis of the skin and the surface layer of mucous membranes

Carotene

the yellow pigment of the skin that accumulates in subcutaneous fat . Important to vision, reducing free radicals, and immune functions

lucidum

thick skin only

Femur

thigh bone

Inferior conchae

thin curved bones projecting from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity

Lamella

thin plate

4 layers of keratinocytes and covers most of the body

thin skin

chest

thoracic

cavity contains the lungs

thoracic cavity

Where does calcitonin come from?

thyroid gland

reticular

tissue with 3D network with more fibers, holds cells in space

Cranial

towar skull

Caudal

toward tail (coccyx in humans)

Proximal

toward the body

medial

toward the midline

Found in urinary tract organs

transitional epithelium

Exocytosis

transport OUT OF cell using secretory vesicles

passive transport

transport with no added energy required

Endocytosis

transportation INTO cell

basic unit of fat

triglycerides

Axial & Appendicular Skeleton

two divisions of the skeleton

isozymes

two enzymes that can catalyze the same reaction

molecule

two or more atoms bonded together

*fibroblast* and *macrophages*

types of cells in connective tissue

Simple Diffusion

unassisted diffusion of solutes across a selectively permeable membrane

What is chromatin?

uncoiled DNA

Humerus

upper arm bone

Maxilla

upper jaw bone

Manubrium

upper portion of the sternum

Non-pigmented white patches of various sizes on otherwise normally pigmented skin (white patchy spots)

vitiligo

What is the rule of nines?

way to determine the extent of burns

hydrogen bond

weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and another atom

1. Cotransport (symport) = two substances move in the same direction at the same time 2. Countertransport (antiport) = one substance moves in while another moves out

what are the 2 types of Carrier - Mediated Transport

Thymine, Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine

what are the 4 DNA nucleobases?

Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine, Uracil

what are the 4 RNA nucleobases?

Anchoring proteins (stabilizers) Recognition proteins (identifiers) Enzymes Receptor proteins Transport/carrier proteins Channels

what are the Different functions of membrane proteins (6)

Large molecules, Highly polar compounds, Ions

what can not pass through the Lipid Bilayer (plasma membrane)

Small molecules (O2, CO2, H2O, ethanol) Non-polar molecules (hydrophobic molecules/drugs)

what can pass through the Lipid Bilayer (plasma membrane)

RNA polymerase

what is the enzyme for nucleic acids?

the two payers of phospholipids (lipid part forms the middle, they face each other and the phosphate ends are what face the outside)

what is the phospholipid bilayer

selectively permeable

what type of membrane is the plasma membrane

mRNA

what type of nucleic acid encodes proteins

hypertonic

what type of solution is this?

hypotonic

what type of solution is this?

isotonic

what type of solution is this?

Solute

what's being dissolved in a solvent

G0

when a cell is not actively dividing it is in _____

Blanching

when all the color leaves the area under pressure

only after puberty

when do apocrine glands become active?

crenation

when the cell is dehydrated and shrinking this process is called...

dynamic equilibrium

when the rate of diffusion plateaus

Erythema

when you get red colored skin b/c of rosacea, sun burn...

Jaundice

when you get yellow skin

Cyanosis

when you lack oxygen in your blood (resulting in blue colored skin)

armpits, nipples, and groin

where are the apocrine glands found?

Dermis and hypodermis

where are the nutrients, oxygen, blood cells, and other things we need to rejuvenate the cells found?

Metaphysis

where diaphysis and epiphysis meet

in cells that line the intestines

where does Pinocytosis occur?

stomach

where is most of the acid located along the digestive track?

What do you find in the hypodermis

where you hide the fat

proton

which subatomic particle has + charge, 1 mass unit, and is Found in the nucleus

electron

which subatomic particle has - charge, very low mass, and surrounds the nucleus

neutron

which subatomic particle has no charge, 1 mass unit, and is Found in the nucleus

cardiovascular

which system pumps blood?

proteins

workforce of the cell (make chemical reactions possible)

mRNA

working copies (translation)

areolar tissue function

wraps and cushions organs

areolar connective tissue

wraps and cushions organs Located in the mucous membrane

Subcutaneous layer- hypodermis

˗ Deep to dermis ˗ Layer of alveolar and CT ˗ Not part of integumentary system

Appendicular skeleton

̶ Bones of upper and lower limbs ̶ Girdles of bones attach limbs to axial skeleton ̶ Pectoral girdle holds upper limbs in place ̶ Pelvic girdle holds lower limbs in place

Axial skeleton

̶ Composed of bones along central body axis ̶ Skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage ̶ Framework supports and protects organs ̶ Spongy bone contains hemopoietic tissue

Mecrocrine sweat glands

̶ Most numerous and widely distributed ̶ Simple, coiled tubular glands ̶ Discharge secretions onto skin surface ̶ Produce secretion by exocytosis- eccrine ̶ Secrete sweat o Composed of 99% water and 1% other chemicals o Includes: electrolytes, metabolites, and waste products o Antibacterial/antifungal activity ̶ Major function, thermoregulation o Regulation of body temperature by fluid evaporation

Vasaconstriction

̶ Vessels narrow, less blood travels through ̶ Less blood passage in dermal vessels means deeper vessels must be used ̶ Shunting of blood away from periphery of body toward deeper structures ̶ Occurs when body tries to conserve heat ̶ Reason we look pale when cold

Structures of the knee joint - Cruciate ligaments

—cross each other Deep to articular capsule

Vertebral Column

• 4 spinal curvatures- Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral curvatures - Gives column some flexibility - Better supports weight of the body than a straight spine - Appear sequentially during fetal, newborn, and child development stages

Bone Growth and Bone Remodeling

• Bone growth and remodeling - Begins during embryologic development • Bone growth in length—interstitial growth • Bone growth in diameter or thickness—appositional growth • Interstitialgrowth - Dependent upon cartilage growth in epiphyseal plate

Radius & Ulna

• Borders b/n radius & ulna - Interosseous borders, facing each other - Connected by an interosseous membrane Dense regular CT Keeps radius & ulna a fixed distance apart Pivot of rotation for the forearm

Clinical View: Botox and Wrinkles

• Botox is a treatment for wrinkles caused by facial muscle expression • Clostridium botulinum toxin • Blocks nerve impulses to facial expression muscles • Decreases or eliminates wrinkles • Botox injected into specific facial muscles • Temporary effect only • Muscles regain function and procedure must be repeated

Clinical View: Psoriasis

• Chronic autoimmune skin disease • Keratinocytes attacked by T-lymphocytes • Causes rapid overgrowth of new skin cells • Patches of whitish, scaly skin on epidermal surface • Symptoms: severe itching, pain, skin cracking • Treatments ̶ Corticosteroids, UV light therapy, medications that interfere with skin cell production

Scurvy

• Collagen is an important protein • Strengthens and supports almost all body tissues • Vitamin C essential for healthy collagen fibers • Scurvy caused by vitamin C deficiency • Symptoms: weakness, gum ulceration, hemorrhages, abnormal bone growth • Caused by nutritional deficiencies • Treated by consuming foods high in vitamin C or supplements

Shoulder Joint Dislocations

• Common due to joint instability • Shoulder separation refers to acromioclavicular dislocation - Pain when arm abducted more than 90 degrees - Acromion appearing prominent • Glenohumeral joint dislocations usually occur when fully abducted humerus struck hard - Shoulder appears flattened and "squared-off " - Humeral head anterior and inferior to glenohumeral joint capsule

Sex Differences in the Pelvis

• Determing sex of the skeleton - Ossa coxae the most sexually dimorphic bones - Due to demands of pregnancy and childbirth - Female pelvis shallower and wider - Females with wider hips o Due to female ilium flares more laterally - Female acetabulum projects more laterally - Female greater sciatic notch wider - Females have preauricular sulcus o Depression between greater sciatic notch and sacroiliac articulation - Female sacrum shorter and wider - Body of pubis longer and more rectangular-shaped in women - Subpubic angle o Angle when pubic bones aligned at symphysial surfaces o Wider and more convex in females

Integument & Integumentary Derivatives Development

• Development around week 7 - Ectoderm forms a layer of squamous epithelium o Becomes periderm and basal layer o Basal layer forms all epidermal layers • By week 21 - Formation of stratum corneum and friction ridges o Periderm eventually sloughed off o Mixes with sebum to produce coating on fetus skin, vernix caseosa • Development around week 11 - Dermis is derived from mesoderm o Mesoderm becomes mesenchyme

Clinical View: Rickets

• Disease caused by vitamin D deficiency in childhood • Characterized by deficient calcification of osteoid tissue • Bowlegged appearance • Disturbances in growth, hypocalcemia, and tetany (cramps & twitches) ̶ Caused by low blood calcium • Occurs in some developing nations • Incidence increasing in urban U.S. children

Distinguishing Features & Anatomy of Synovial Joints

• Double-layered joint capsule (articular capsule) - Outer layer, fibrous layer Formed from dense connective tissue Strengthens joints to prevent bones being pulled apart - Inner layer, synovial membrane Composed primarily of areolar connective tissue Covers internal joint surfaces not covered by cartilage Helps produce synovial fluid

Clinical View: Forensic Anthropology

• Juvenile skeleton with separate diaphysis and epiphysis • Adult skeleton with whole fused bones • This helps determine age of skeletal remains • Open: no union between epiphysis and other bone end • Partial union: some fusion between epiphysis and rest of bone • Complete union: all visible aspects united to rest of bone • Female epiphyseal plates fuse about 1 to 2 yrs earlier than males

Spinal Curvature Abnormalities

• Kyphosis- Exaggerated thoracic curvature, Produces hunchback look, May result from osteoporosis • Lordosis- Exaggerated lumbar curvature, swayback, May result from added abdominal weight • Scoliosis- Abnormal lateral curvature, May require back brace or surgery

Arches of the Foot

• Lateral longitudinal arch - Not as high as medial arch - Extends between little toe and the heel - Formed from calcaneus, cuboid bones, metatarsals IV and V

Arches of the Foot

• Medial longitudinal arch - Highest of the three arches - Extends from heel to great toe - Formed from calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuneiform bones, metatarsals I-III - Prevents medial side of foot from touching the ground

TMJ Disorders

• Most common due to alteration in the ligaments securing the joint • Articular disc forced out of normal position • Clicking or popping heard as person opens or closes mouth • Possible pain in joint, paranasal sinuses, tympanic membrane, oral cavity, eyes, and teeth

Herniated Discs

• Nucleus pulposus protruding into or thru the anulus fibrosus • Produces a bulging of disc contents into vertebral canal • Pinches the spinal cord or nerves • Cervical and lumbar discs most commonly injured • Cervical herniated discs ̶ Neck pain and pain down the upper limb • Lumbar herniated discs ̶ Low back pain ̶ Pain down the entire lower limb, sciatica

Parathyroid Hormone and Calcitriol

• PTH and calcitriol interact with major organs ̶ Bone CT of skeleton o Act synergistically to increase release of calcium from the bone into the blood o Increase osteoclast activity - Kidneys - Stimulate the kidney to excrete less calcium in urine - Increasing calcium reabsorption in the kidney tubules - Smallintestine - Only calcitriol increases absorption of calcium from small intestine into the blood

Clinical View: Tattoos

• Permanent images produced on integument • Dye injected into dermis • Permanent part of dermis layer • Usually impossible to completely remove a tattoo • Lasers used to break down pigments • Newer inks are available that allow for removal

Sternal Foramen

• Present in midline of 4-10% of adults • Failure of left and right ossification centers to fuse completely • May be misidentified as a bullet wound

Coccyx (Tailbone) Injury

• Prone to bruising or fracture • Injurious activities: falling on buttocks, sitting abruptly, hit during contact sports, cycling frequently, or childbirth • Severe pain, coccydynia • Slow to heal • Treatment: rest, ice & non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

Radius and Ulna

• Radius and ulna form forearm - Bones are parallel - Radius located laterally • Components of the radius - Disc-shaped head at proximal end - Styloid process, bony projection at distal end - Ulnar notch on distal medial surface Articulates with capitulum of humerus - Narrow neck extends from head to radial tuberosity Attachment site for biceps brachii muscle - Shaft of radius curves slightly Articulates with medial surface of distal ulna

Marfan Syndrome

• Rare genetic disease of CT • Causes skeletal, cardiovascular, and visual abnormalities • Abnormal chromosome 15 • Symptoms ̶ Abnormally long fingers, toes, limbs ̶ Malformation of thoracic cage, vertebral column ̶ Easily dislocated joints, resulting from weak ligaments, tendons, and joint capsules ̶ Weakness in aorta and abnormal heart valves ̶ Slipped lens of the eye • Often death before age 50 due to cardiovascular problems • Early diagnosis/medical management allows long life span

Clinical View: Osteitis Deformans

• Results from disruption between osteoclast and osteoblast function • Characterized by excessive bone resorption followed by excessive bone deposition • Larger osteoclasts resorb bone at higher rate • Newly deposited bone poorly formed • Most commonly affected bones ̶ Pelvis, skull, vertebrae, femur, tibia • Symptoms: bone deformity and pain

Clinical View: Osteoporosis

• Results in decreased bone mass, weakened bones prone to fracture • Linked to age, onset of menopause, smoking history, Caucasian race • Postmenopausal women at most risk • Increased incidence of fracture ̶ Especially at wrist, hip, vertebral column • Best treatment is prevention with diet and physical activity in young adults • Medical treatments involve ̶ Slowing rate of bone loss ̶ Attempting to stimulate new bone growth

Scaphoid Fractures

• Scaphoid bone a more commonly fractured bone • May fracture from fall from outstretched hand • Blood vessels torn, resulting in avascular necrosis ̶ Death of bone tissue due to inadequate blood supply • Takes a long time to heal

Knee Ligament and Cartilage Injuries

• Tibial collateral ligament injury when leg forcibly abducted • Fibular collateral ligament injury when medial side of knee is struck • ACL injury when leg hyperextended • PCL injury when leg hyperflexed • Meniscus injury due to trauma and/or overuse • Unhappy triad: injury of tibial collateral ligament, medial meniscus, and ACL - Occurs due to a lateral blow to the knee that abducts and laterally rotates leg

Vertebra prominens (C7)

• Transition from cervical to thoracic vertebral region • Spinous process longer than in other cervical vertebrae • Easily palpated between the shoulder blades

Clinical View: Burns

• Treatments for burns ̶ Manage fluid loss ̶ Relieve swelling ̶ Manage pain ̶ Remove dead tissue ̶ Control infection ̶ Increase calorie intake


Related study sets

MGMT 3000H Review Questions- Lyons

View Set

Study.com Financial Accounting Chapter 3

View Set

chapter 50 52, adult nursing endocrine and biliary disorder

View Set

Intake Questions Master Practice Quiz

View Set

Characterization, Theme, and Irony in "The Gift of the Magi"

View Set

Chapter 25 - The Global Crisis - PT 2 MC, pg 695- 702

View Set

Chapter 01: Assignment: An Overview of Organizational Behavior

View Set