Physical Geography Test 2
Air Mass
-Air Mass: movement of air with differing characteristics. -Boundary separating two air masses is called a front -Continental polar(cP) or continental arctic (cA): cold dry and stable; cA is exceptionally cold -Maritime Polar (mP): cool, moist, and unstable -Maritime tropical (mT) or maritime equatorial (mE)- warm, moist, and usually unstable; mE is exceptionally warm, -Continental tropical (cT)-hot dry and unstable at low levels and generally stable up high.
Aquifier
-An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt) from which groundwater can be extracted using a water well. -The Ogallala Aquifer is a shallow water table aquifer surrounded by sand, silt, clay and gravel located beneath the Great Plains in the United States.
Stationary Front
-Boundary between two air masses, neither of which is replacing the other. -Winds blow parallel to the front -Denoted on a map by alternating blue triangles and red semicircles.
Highland
-Classified as climates at elevations above 1500 meters (4900 feet) -Temperature and precipitation characteristics are highly variable and relate to elevation, slope, etc -Tend to be cooler and Wetter than surrounding lowlands. Highland climates may occur at any latitude
Cold front
-Colder air replacing relatively warmer air. -So you are out likely going to experience a warm front before a cold front. -Denser, advancing cold air forces warm, moist air to lift quickly. Precipitation in a cold front is often heavier and briefer than the precipitation from a warm front. -Air on the warm side is lifted rapidly over cold air; air rises and cools; condensation begins and clouds form rapidly. -Denoted on a map by blue triangles that point in the direction of the movement. -Cumulus clouds and thunderstorms are associated with cold fronts. -Typically one cold front is attached to low pressure system and extends southward.
DAR / ELR / MAR
-Environmental lapse rate: the actual laps rate at a particular place and time. -Adiabatic Rates: change in temp of a moving parcel of air. Describes cooling and warming rates for a parcel of rising or falling of air. - When an air parcel is warmer it is less dense and will rise and visa versa. -(DAR)Use Dry adiabatic lapse rate when the air is unsaturated (when the dew point is lower than the temp). -temp. changes only as a result of cooling by expansion (or heating by compression) -10 degrees celsius change per 100 meters -5.5 degrees celsius per 100 feet -Use moist adiabatic lapse rate when air is saturated (cloud) -Temp changes as result of cooling by expansion and condensation (or heating by compression and evaporation) -6 degrees celsius per 100 meters -3.3 degrees celsius per 100 feet An air parcel cools by both rates when it ascends in the atmosphere and warms by both rates when it descends. Stability: refers to the tendency of an air parcel to rise, remain in place, or fall. A parcel that is warmer than the air around it is unstable. and will rise. A stable parcel will either stay where it is or sink. Ex: a hot air balloon rises because it is warmer and therefore less dense than the air around it.
Review the greenhouse effect and be able to recognize the relationships between changes in Carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere and global average temperature. How are the concentrations changing over time and how are the changes different from the past?
-Greenhouse gases: are necessary for earth to be livable, but adding too much into the atmosphere will disrupt the long term energy balance, increasing the thermal energy in the atmosphere. -Quickly adding GHG like CO2 disrupts the balance..more energy is absorbed. -There have been large increases of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, since the industrial rev.
Cold
-Humid Continental Hot-summer -Humid Continental Mild-summer -Subarctic About 20% of land surface
Temperate
-Humid Subtropical Hot-Summer (OK, but far west): dry winters, -Marine West Coast -Mediterranean Dry Summer: Summers are hot, much hotter than and drier than Humid subtropical. Seventy percent of the precipitation occurs in the winter months. More than half of the world lives in temperate zones. Hottest month averages >10 c. coolest month averages greater than 18 degree c.
Given a brief example of a cloud, be able to select the cloud type.
-Low clouds- primarily water droplets -Mid-level (alto) clouds- mix of droplets and ice crystals -High clouds-primarily ice crystals Stratiform Clouds (flat) -Stratus: low level cloud in the form of gray layer with a rather uniform base. -Nimbostratus:dark status cloud accompanied by more or less continuously falling rain snow or sleet. -Altosrtaus: midlevel cloud; occurs as a layer with a striated, fibroid, or uniform appearance Cirrostratus: high level cloud, has the appearance of a whitish veil Cumuliform Clouds "Bubbly" "cotton balls" -develop as a result of vertical convention (usually surface heating and rising of warm air) -cumulus- individual clouds that are generally dense, have well defined outlines, and show vertical development in the form of mounds -Altocumulus- midlevel clouds, wavy in appearance -Cumulonimbus: exceptionally dense and vertically developed cumulus. Associates with moderate/heavy rain and hail Cirriform (wispy) clouds -Cirrus -high level; composed of ice crystals and has the appearance of white, delicate filaments in patches of narrow bands. Cirrostratus: high level cloud, has the appearance of a whitish veil Fog: a cloud of the ground
What is Relative Humidity?
-R.H: ratio of the amount of water vapor actually in the air compared to the maximum amount of water vapor the air can hold at that particular temperature and pressure. -RH changes as the as the temp. or the amount of water vapor in the air changes. -Water molecules exists as a gas, liquid, or solid. These molecules go back and forth between these states as they absorb or release energy. Warmer air increases the rate of evaporation, and cooler air tends to increase the rate of condensation. Warmer air has more energy to evaporate water than cooler air, so more water vapor can be present in warmer air than cooler air. When the amount of water vapor present is equal to the max amount possible, the RH is 100%, and the air is saturated. In saturated air, an addition of water vapor or a decrease in temperature results in condensation, forming dew, clouds, fog, or precipitation.
Where and why rain shadow may be present next to a mountain range, giving a direction of prevailing wind.
-Rain on windward side; rain shadow on leeward side. -Winds force warm, moist air up the windward mountain slope, producing adiabatic cooling and condensation, cloud formation, and precipitation. On the leeward side, air sinks and heats by compression, creating the hot, dry rain shadow.
Severe Thunderstorm
-Recognize that a thunderstorm with high winds, large hail, or a tornado is called a severe thunderstorm. -Defined by the US National Weather Service as a thunderstorm that has one or more of the following attributes: -tornado -wind sees greater than 57 -hail greater than 1 inch in diameter Nearly 16 million thunderstorms occur around the world annually -100,000 in US each year -of these about 10% were severe
The reasons why the IPCC is concerned about current and future climate.
-Risk of large-scale discontinuities and disruptions -Risk to unique threatened systems -Aggregate impacts and damages -Risk of extreme weather events -Uneven distribution of climate change impacts Two Main Reasons -The risk of large scale disruptions to civilizations and risks to unique and already threatened systems.
The main threats of a tropical cyclone. Are any of them only a concern along the coastline?
-Storm Surge: moves ocean water against the coast, raising water level by 15 feet or more. -winds: sustained winds for 160 mph, with gusts over 200 mph recorded in the most intense hurricanes...can extend 30-600 miles outward -Inland flooding: these cyclones may drop several feet of rain in a few days (60% of deaths are related to inland flooding) -Tornadoes: often occur in the right-front quadrant of the hurricane, embedded in rainbands
What additional ingredient is needed for supercell thunderstorm development and how is a supercell thunderstorm different from a typical thunderstorm? (in severity, rotation, how long it lasts)
-The additional ingredient necessary for a Super cell thunderstorm is wind shear. -Wind shear: is the change in direction and speed of the wind with height. It produces rotation within the storm. -Single-cell thunderstorm may go on for hours -Updraft is tilted so that rain (and associated cooler air) is downwind go the storms source of moisture and instability. Main threats: large and long-lives tornadoes, large hail, strong winds, flash flooding.
Thunderstorm
-Thunderstorm can form as single, isolated, storms; multi cellular clusters; and multi cellular lines -Ingredients sufficient: sufficient moisture, instability, and lift. -Most typically form: along boundaries of convergent air masses (especially with sharp gradients) , Within an air mass( usually a warm, moist one), or in regions of rapid orographic uplift(steep mountain slopes)
Arid
-Tropical, subtropical hot desert climates (The Arabian desert) -Mid latitude cold deserts climates...mostly located at high elevations in the rainshadow of a mountain range -Tropical, Subtropical Hot steppe climates -Midlatitude cold Steppe climates About 30 % of the earths land area - Evaporation exceeds precipitation -Desert: precipitaion half or less of natural moisture demand -Steppe: precipitation more than half go natural moisture demand
Warm Front
-Warm air is replacing relatively colder air. Clouds get lower as the front approaches. Warm air rises over cold air at a slant, which leads to gradual lift -Denoted on a map by red semicircles that point int the direction of motion. -Stratus, altostratus, and cirrus are associated with warm fronts -Typically 1 warm front attached to a low pressure system and extends eastward.
Occluded front
-formed by a cold front overtaking a warm or stationary front, lifting the warm air aloft. -Typically denoted by a purple line with alternating purple triangles and semicircles. -cold and warm fronts not directly attached to low pressure system.
How do surface waters and ground waters interact?(how does water on the surface make it into the groundwater?, What ways can groundwater be moved to the surface?)
-springs are nature; features that occur when water flows from an aquifer and through a permeable rock layer, to the surface. p. 192
Tornado
-violently rotating column of air descending from a thunderstorm and IN CONTACT WITH THE GROUND. -may have wind speeds over 300 mph -nearly 1000 tornados occur in the US annually resulting in an average of 62 fatalities. -usually brief, but may last more than an house and travel four ten miles. -Formation p. 115
What are the three ingredients required to make a cloud?
1)Sufficient water vapor( so that saturation can occur) 2) Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) to provide a surface on which water will condense 3)Cooling Mechanism, which is required to cool the air temperature to the dew point temperature. -Cooling by lifting (most common) -Radiative cooling -Evaporative cooling -Cooling by horizontal motion
Water Budget...when would a location have a surplus or water deficit. Why is a climatological surplus or deficit important?
A simplified version of the soil-water budget: Change in Storage = Precipitation - Actual Evapotranspiration - Runoff Water surplus: climate demands for water can be met by stored soil moisture; actual ET = potential ET Water deficit: climate demands for water cannot be met by stored soil moisture; actual ET < potential ET In the global water budget water added to the atmosphere by evaporation occurs over both land and ocean, but largest amount is from the ocean.
Tropical Tropical Monsoon vs. Tropical Rainforest
About 40% of the world lives in the Tropics Classified as having an average temp of greater than or equal to 18 degrees C. -Tropical Rainforrest: average precipitation of driest month greater than 60 mm. -Tropical Monsoon: wet season/dry season -Trop. savanna: wet season/ dry season with less rainfall or more pronounced dry season than a tropical monsoon climate. ITCZ is responsible for the rain pattern throughout the year. -The main difference between the tropical rainforest climate and the tropical monsoon climate is that precipitation amounts are large year-round in the tropical rainforest climate and there is a distinct wet season and dry season in the tropical monsoon climate.
More RH
As temp rises, there is more energy available to evaporate water than at lower temperatures. If the amount of of water vapor remains constant, but temperature rises, the amount of water vapor possible will increase, so relative humidity will decrease. While relative humidity changes, the actual amount of water vapor may remain the same. RH is highest at dawn when air temps are the lowest. Seasonally January relative humidity readers are higher than July.
Describe how Relative Humidity changes if the atmosphere is warmed/ cooled or moistened/dried, particularly through examples.
As temperature rises, relative humidity decreases. When temperature falls, relative humidity increases.
Dryline
Boundary separating warm, dry air from warm, moist air, typically across parts of KS,NM,OK, and TX. -It typically lies north-south across the southern plains during the spring and early summer, separates moist air from the gulf of Mexico and dry desert air from the southwest US. -Thunderstorms can form along the dry line denoted by a brown scalloped line
Climates
Climates are classified predominately according to temperature and moisture characteristics and there are 6 major categories in most climate classifications. 1. Tropical (A) 2. Arid(B) 3. Temperate (C) 4. Cold (D) 5. Highland (H) 6. Polar (E)
What is Dew Point Temperarture?
Dew Point Temperature: Temperature at which a given mass of air becomes saturated and condensation begins. Dew point is a good measure of atmospheric temperature. BTW dew is most likely to form on a cloudless night
Name the visible sign of condensation (1) in earths atmosphere and (2) on Earths surface
Dew is a result of condensation. Dew: water condensed upon the surfaces of objects near the ground. Cloud: visible mass of minute water and/ or ice articles in the atmosphere suspended above earths surface. Also Fog: a cloud with its base in direct contact with the ground.
Know characteristics of droughts conditions (soil moisture deficit, departure from normal precipitation) Why is drought important to monitor.
Drought = too little water Occurs when water resourced are insufficient to meet water needs; it is a societal phenomenon. Three types of drought 1) Meteorological drought: departs from "normal" precipitation 2) Agricultural drought: soil/groundwater deficits that affect vegetation 3)Hydrologic drought: deficiency of water in watersheds, rivers; often lags agricultural impacts. Why Monitor Drought? -Drought is one of the most costly US natural disasters. estimated 6-8 billion annual loss. -Oklahoma drought in 2011-2012 Agricultural losses estimated at 1.6 billion in 2011 and $426 million in 2012. -Texas drought 2011: Agricultural losses estimated near $7.6 billion..many homes destroyed.
Spring Effluent Stream
Effluent(gaining) stream -Perennial Flow partially supplied by a high water table, characteristics of humid regions
Describe the main components of the water cycle, including which occur over the ocean and which occur over land.
Evap: liquid transformed to gas Transpir: plants transfer water within themselves to water vapor in the atmosphere. Evapotranspiration (ET): happens over land...difficult to measure directly. Surface runoff: process by which water flows along earths surface(rivers) Infiltration: process by which water enters into the soil from above Percolation: process by which water flows through soil. Groundwater flow: process which water flows beneath earth surface In the global water budget water added to the atmosphere by evaporation occurs over both land and ocean, but largest amount is from the ocean.
Understand precipitation is only one aspect of flooding
Flooding: when air rises and overflows the confines of a body of water onto normally dry land or accumulates in low-lying areas. Primary Causes of flooding: slow moving thunderstorms, training echoes( a series of storms over the same location), and tropical systems If the ground is saturated from previous rainfall, a less intense storm can cause flooding. Extended periods of rain can result in river flooding. Flash Flood: a local flood of great volume and short duration generally resulting tom heavy rainfall in the immediate vicinity. Areas most susceptible to flash floods: -low lying areas (dry creeks, banks or streams and rivers, mountain canyons) -Urban areas (underpasses) -Downstream of a dam, levee, or ice jam -Upstream from a bridge -Recent burn areas
Fronts
Fronts: are zones of transition between two different air masses
The differences and similarities of how hail, snow, sleet, and freezing rain are formed. Given specific atmospheric conditions, be able to determine the most likely type of precipitation that may fall.
Hail: forms by collision of supercooled drops- raindrops that are still liquid even though the air around them is below freezing. The hailstone continues to grow , supported by the updraft, until it it too heavy to remain aloft. The stronger the updraft, the bigger the hail size. Large hail occurs mostly in the US great plains, but can occur anywhere. Snow: Ice crystals form in the cloud and stick together, making snowflakes. Cold throughout the depth of the storm. Sleet: an intervening layer of warm air between the cloud and surface. Some snow melts and the re-freezes before reaching the ground. Results in a combo of snow and ice pellets. Freezing Rain: deeper warm layer; snow melts completely. Falls into a shallow cold layer at surface where it becomes supercooled. Does not have time to refreeze (like sleet). Freezes on contact with below-freezing surfaces (roads, trees cars..)
Describe when water may change from one state to another and whether energy is either required or released to make that change.
Heat energy must be added to or released from water for it to undergo a phase change. Heat energy that is absorbed or released as water changes phases is latent heat. Heat Properties: Phase Changes -Vaporization- requires energy -Condensation: releases energy -Melting, freezing, and sublimation Sublimation: The direct change of ice to water vapor Deposition: The change of water vapor to ice Vaporization: liquid water at boiling temperature becoming a gas Evaporation: happens at temperatures below boiling Energy is released when when air cools and water vapor condenses back into the liquid state. When water vapor condenses, heat energy is released into the atmosphere, warming the atmosphere and powering storms.
What are the three states of water?
Ice: solid phase Water: Liquid phase Water Vapor: Gas phase
Influent Stream
Influent (losing) stream- intermittent, transient 'Low water table characteristic of drier regions
What is the IPCC and how does it assess the climate?
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a United Nations body, founded in 1988, which evaluates climate change science. The IPCC assesses research on climate change and synthesises it into major 'assessment' reports every 5-7.
The characteristics of water on Earths surface. Recognize the main uses for water in the U.S.
Main Uses of water include: Industrial, Mining, Livestock, Thermoelectric recirculating, Public supply and Domestic Self-Supply (25%) agricultural irrigation (60%)
General Characteristics of Midlatitude Cyclones and tropical cyclones.
Midlatitude Cyclones are low pressure systems that follow the jet stream. They move west to east, are associated with rising motion, and have cold and warm fronts attached. Tropical Cyclones: large low pressure system that originates over the tropical oceans( includes tropical depressions, tropical storms, and hurricanes) Ingredients for a Tropical Cyclone: -Warm Ocean Waters (26 degrees celsius, 79 degreed Fahrenheit) -Unstable atmosphere -Moist air throughout the troposphere -Very little vertical wind shear -At least 300 miles from the equator
How are global climate models useful in understanding climate change? In general, what are the models projecting for the end of this century.
Models based on physical last and statistical representations of observations. Provides reasonable description of physical changes, not detailed predictions. Using this models, scientists have predicted that if we reduce our total emissions worldwide in the next decade or two, we can substantially reduce the effects of climate change by the end of the century.
PET and ET
Potential Evapotranspiration: demand of the atmosphere for water; upper limit of evapotranspiration based on atmospheric conditions. (assumes adequate water supply in the soil) -Demand mostly lies on temp. and length of the day; the higher the temp and longer the daytime hours, the more demand from the atmosphere for moisture from the surface, and the higher the potential eval. -Pot. EVap is most influences by air temp Actual Evap: Actual water loss from evaporation + transpiration. -depends upon precipitation, temperature, wind speed, type os soil, vegetation, soil moisture content, land management, etc.
Severe Wind
Responsible for most thunderstorm damage...affects much larger area than tornado paths. Winds may exceed 100mph Derecho: long lived rapidly moving line of intense thunderstorms that produces widespread damaging winds in nearly continuous swath
Know what saturation means and be able to recognize different descriptions of when it happens.
Saturation: The presence of the most water possible in the air.
Given sufficient supply of the other two ingredients, be able to recognize cooling mechanisms that may aid cloud formation and when these conditions might occur in the atmosphere (example on sheet)
So, air must be cooled to its dew pint temperature to condense, form clouds, and bring rain. When air is lifted, it expands and cools adiabatically. *Mechanical Lifting* Convergent lifting: air flows toward an area of low pressure, ITCZ Convectional lifting: local surface heating causes warm air to rise. Orographic lifting: air is lifted upward by a barrier such as a mountain range. Frontal lifting: warmer air is lifted upward by cooler air. (warm front, cold front, stationary front, occluded front, Dryline)
What are some ways that society can mitigate or adapt to climate change? What are some ways that you can?
Society -Renewable energy: nuclear, solar, wind, and biofuels -Energy Standards: Vehicle efficiency (60+mpg), building efficiency, industrial heat recovery -Economic Based Strategies: "cap and trade" to limit emissions by allowing free market to reach the goal -Geoengineering: implement carbon scrubbers, put powered limestone in ocean to reduce acidity, spray seawater into clouds etc... What can YOU do? -Support charitable aid to impoverished peoples -Educate yourself -Reduce consumption -Vote!I
Know that willing point and field capacity relate to accessibility of water for plants and soil moisture must be between these values for plants to access water through their roots.
Soil Moisture: amount of water that is stored in the soil and is accessible to plant roots. -"savings account" of water in soil. Wilting Point: minimal point of soil moisture the plant requires not to wilt. -depends on soil type Field Capacity: maximum amount of soil moisture held in soil after excess water has drained away. -soil is saturated; depends on soil type.
Water Table
The boundary between saturated and unsaturated zones. p.167
Transpiration
The process by which plants transfer liquid water within themselves to water vapor in the atmosphere is called.
How these three stages of Thunderstorm development are different from each other.
Thunderstorm life cycle -cumulus stage: usually little if any rain during this stage. Lasts about 10 minutes. Occasional lightning during this stage. -mature stage: most likely time for hail, heavy rain, lightning, strong winds, and tornadoes. Lasts about 10-20 minutes, but may last much longer for some storms -dissipating stage: Rainfall decreases in intensity. Some storms produce a burst of strong winds during this stage. Lightning remains a danger.
Recognize main threats (types of violent weather) associated with thunderstorms
Thunderstorms A local storm produced by a cumulonimbus cloud, with lightening and thunder, and usually accompanied by strong gusts of wind, heavy rain, and sometimes hail.
Violent Weather
Thunderstorms Tornadoes Severe Winds Tropical Cyclones Blizzards and Ice Storms
Difference between a tornado watch and tornado warning, as well as what you might for if you heard your area what under one of these?
Tornado Watch: conditions are favorable for severe weather to develop. Best thing to do is to stay informed. Tornado Warning: a tornado has been sighted or indicated by weather radar. TAKE ACTION. Go into a residential safe room or underground shelter.
Meteorologists describe the intensity of some phenomena according to a scale or index, including the Enhanced Fujita scale or Sadder-simpson scale. Be able to match the scale with the atmospheric phenomena associated with it.
Tornado: Rated on the Enhanced Fujita Scale EF0 weak EF1 weak EF2 significant/ strong EF3 significant/ strong EF4 significant/ violent EF5 significant/ violent EF1 and EF2 are most common but cause the least amount of death. EF4 and EF5 are rare but cause the most deaths. Safari-Simpson Scale: Hurricane wind scale Category 1: some damage..some damage to homes Category 2: extensive damage to home...major roof and siding damage Category 3: devastating damage...removal of rood and gables Category 4: catastrophic damage.. severe damage to roof and walls Category 5: catastrophic damage roof failure..wall collapse etc..
Polar
Tundra climate Frost Ice climate Covers about 19% of earths land
What is the impact of size and uneven distribution of the Earths Oceans on climate? Approximate percentage of Earths water in oceans, surface waters, ground water, soil moisture, and the atmosphere.
Water is not distributed evenly across earth. The ocean contains about 97% of water. Freshwater comprises less than 3%, and most of that is locked up in ice or lies below the surface. The freshwater that humans and animals depend on represents less than 1% of all water.
How are Dew Point Temperature and Relative Humidity related to each other and temperature?
We measure moisture in the air through Dew Point and Relative Humidity.
What is the difference between weather and climate?
Weather is the state of the atmosphere with respect to heat or cold, wetness or dryness, calm or storm, clearness or cloudiness; weather is short term Climate is the statistical collection of weather conditions at a place over period of years; Climate is long term "Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get."
Describe whether or whether not the Earth is experiencing warming over the past century, what evidence is there for this, and what has caused any changes?
Yes the earth has experienced warming. -most parts of the earth have warmed, though a few areas are unmeasured and a few have cooled. -Historical observations demonstrate climate changes in surface temperature, sea ice, mountain glaciers, sea level, and other parts of our climate system. These changes are all consistent with a warming planet resulting form increases greenhouse gases. These changes are NOT consistent with long term variations in our climate. -2013 IPCC said that the warming of the climate is unequivocal (clear and indisputable) -98% of scientists agree that warming/ CO2 increase over the last century results, in great part, from human activity. It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-2oth century. _Temps. over the last 2 decades are warmer than any other period in the past millennia. The rate of change is alarming. -Globally averaged surface air temperatures, arctic summer sea ice extent, Northern hemisphere spring snow cover,and globally averaged sea levels have changed.
Cone of depression
a depression in the water table formed by rapid ground water withdrawal.
