Pilates Flash Cards

What is a Lever?

A bar or other device pivoted on a fixed point (fulcrum) in order to lift something or force something open

What is Newton's 1 Law: Inertia?

A body at rest stays at rest and a motion stays in motion until acted on by an external force. The greater an object's mass, the greater it's inertia.

Combined Loading

A combination of 2 or more forces. Like Compression and Torsion

What is Depressed Scapulae?

A condition where the scapulae lie in a chronic state of depression as noted by the superior borders lying closer to T2 . Normally, the superior border lies between T1 & T2 .

What is Elevated Scapulae?

A condition where the scapulae lie in a chronic state of elevation as noted by the superior borders lying above T1 ( they should lie between T1 & T2 )

Torque

A force causing rotation. This rotary equivalent of force factors in distance as well as weight

What are Gliding Joints?

A synovial joint characterized by generally flat articulating surfaces Ex :facet joints of the vertebrae, acromio-clavicular joint

Saddle Joint

A synovial joint characterized by two concave articulating surfaces permitting all movements but rotation Ex thumb, sterno - clavicular

Ellipsoid / Condyloid Joint

A synovial joint which is a reduced ball and socket configuration -significant rotation is largely excluded

Ball and Socket Joint

A synovial joint which permits movement in all directions Ex : Hip, shoulder

Hinge Joint

A synovial joint which permits movement only in one plane Ex : Elbow, Fingers

What is a Pivot Joint?

A synovial joint with a ring of bone around a peg. Ex: C1 vertebra rotates around C2

What is an example of Shearing?

A truck too tall trying to pass through an underpass anyway

When is a pelvis is neutral?

ASIS is in line with the PSIS horizontally and in line with the pubis symphysis vertically

Superior

Above

What is Flat Back?

Absence of spinal curves, usually w/ a posteriorly tilted pelvis

Examples of 2nd Class Levers in the Body

Achilles Tendon lifting the heel and taking the weight of the body onto the ball of the foot

What are two actions of the Rhomboids?

Adduct Scapulae, Downwardly Rotate Scapulae

Newton's 2: Movement & Force

An object/body moves because a force makes it move, and the speed of movement depends on force

Kyphosis: Relatively Short Muscles?

Anterior Deltoids , Pectoralis Major , Pectoralis Minor

Name Newton's 3 laws and examples

Any object sitting still or moving will stay that way unless a force acts upon it . 1 If a force acts on an object , it will cause acceleration of that object , and the amount of force required depends 2 on the mass of the object . Example : pushing a 50 lb. cart requires hore force than a 20 lb. cart . For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction . A rocket blasting off is one example .

What are the Lower Body Landmarks?

Asis, Psis, Head of Femur, Knee Joint, Malleolus

Lateral

Away from the midline of the body

What is a fulcrum Lever?

Axis of Rotation or the pivot point of the action in the body, this is the joint

Inferior

Below , relative to another object

Match the muscle to its type : Parallel

Biceps Brachii , Hamstrings

Antagonist

Blocks the action of an agonist. Muscle that potentially or actually oppose or resist a certain movement

Contralareral

Both limbs moving on opposite sides

Ipsilateral

Both limbs moving same side

Bilateral

Both sides of the body performing the same movement at the same time. Bicep curls simultaneously. Same movement at the same time

Reciprocal

Both sides performing the same movement but at alternating times ex : when performing bicep curls with both arms ,one arm is bent while the other is straight

Stabilizer

Braces a joint against movement

What is main flexor of the elbow?

Brachialis

Examples of Fusiform muscles?

Brachioradialis

What are 4 landmarks used to discern head placement?

C7, Mandible, Occipital & Bone Ears

Agonist/Prime Mover

Causes an action. The primary muscle affecting a desired joint movement

Where is the COG on a person with a long torso legs?

Center of Gravity is HIGHER

Where is the COG on a person with a short torso and long legs ?

Center of Gravity is LOWER

Direction of the spinal curves?

Cervical anterior, Thoracic posterior, Lumbar anterior

What are the 4 Parts of the spine?

Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum

Medial

Closer to the midline of the body

Abdominals Performing a sit up

Concentric

Hip Extensors: Standing up from a chair

Concentric

Hip Flexors: A punter kicking the football

Concentric

Triceps Pushing a door open

Concentric

Vasti of the Quadriceps Climbing stairs —1- Walking down stairs -2-?

Concentric , Eccentric

Hammer a nail triceps working concentrically or eccentrically

Concentrically on hammer down

Hammer a nail biceps working concentrically or eccentrically?

Concentrically on lift up

Forward Head

Condition where the head lies forward of the plumb line

Ligaments

Connect bones to bones

Tendons

Connect muscles to bones

Match the muscle to its type : Linear

Corachobrachialis , Anterior Tibialis , Sartorius

What is the ideal firing pattern when curling up from supine ?

Deep neck flexors Longus Colli & Longus Capitis, Sternocleidomastoid

Frontal

Divides the body into front and back parts. Abduction and Adduction

The diaphragm contracts during exhalation by moving up or down?

Down

Hip Flexors: Lowering legs to the floor from supine

Eccentric

Triceps Lowering oneself into a push up

Eccentric

Examples of 3rd Class Levers in the Body

Elbow Joint : Elbow joint = Fulcrum Biceps Muscle = Force Weight in hand = Load

What are third class levers of the body?

Elbow, knee

Lordosis : Relatively Short Muscles?

Erector Spinae, Hip Flexors

What is Lordosis?

Exaggerated curve of the lumbar spine, with anteriorly tilted pelvis, extension

What is Kyphosis?

Exaggerated curve of the thoracic spine beyond normal flexion

What Causes of a forward head?

Excessive extension of the cervical spine ;Increased flexion of the spine at the T1 / C7 joint ;Tight cervical extensors, tight Sternocleidomastoid

Hyperextended

Extension of a joint beyond what is considered normal

Lordosis: Relatively Long Muscles?

External Obliques , Hamstrings

Supination

External rotation of the radio humeral joint OR raising the medial aspect of the foot

What are Pennate Muscles?

Fibers run at a direction to the angle of pull so that a large number of fibers can be concentrated on a single tendon Ex : Gastrocnemius , Gluteus Maximus Generally, the strongest muscles in the body.

What are Fusiform Muscles?

Fibers run more parallel to the tendon to which they attach and concentrate fewer fibers on the tendon than pennate muscles . Ex : BicepsBrachii ,Sartorius. Produce less force than pennate muscles

What is Fascia?

Fibrous connective tissue that encases muscles, bones, tendons, ligaments

Life examples of 3rd Class Levers

Fingernail clippers , tweezers inside door handle of a car

How do you describe the supported pelvic position ?

Flexing the lumbar as much as necessary to connect the hips to the ribs

Lateral Flexion

Flexion of the spine in the coronal/frontal plane, side bending

Newton's 3: Opposite Forces

For every action, there ia an equal and opposite reaction. Forces always come in pairs.

Concurrent Force

Force delivered at an angle to direction of pull . With regard to muscles , the muscle fibers run at an angle to the direction of pull .

Parallel Force

Force delivered from 2 or more sources in line with direction of pull

Linear Force

Force delivered in direction of pull

What are Examples of Pennate Muscles?

Gastrocnemius, Gluteus Maximus , Rectus Femoris

Extension

Generally, to straighten the joint OR to move the limb posterior of the midline

What is the head of the humerus joint?

Glenohumeral, deep joint

Lateral Tilt : Relatively Short Muscles?

Glute Medius high side, Quadratus Lumborum high side

Lateral Tilt : Relatively Long Muscles?

Glute Medius low side, Quadratus Lumborum low side

Match the muscle to its type : Concurrent

Gluteus Corachobrachialis Sartorius Pectoralis Gluteus Maximus , Pectoralis Major Biceps Anterior types , same

What is the most powerful hip extensor?

Gluteus Maximus

What is the ideal firing pattern hip extension ?

Gluteus Maximus , Hamstrings , Erector Spinae opposite side , Erector Spinae same side

Name three extensors of the hip joint

Gluteus Maximus All 3 hamstrings

What muscle should fire first in hip abduction?

Gluteus Medius

What is the ideal firing pattern for leg abduction ?

Gluteus Medius , Tensor Fascie Latae , QL ( same side ) Abdominal Muscles

Name 4 abductors of the femur

Gluteus Medius, Gluteus Minimus, TFL, Sartorius

What are 3 abductors of the femur?

Gluteus Medius, Tensor Fascie Latae, Sartorius

Examples of Eccentric Contractions

Going downstairs or laying a baby down is an eccentric contraction of the biceps .

Examples of Concentric Contractions

Going upstairs is a concentric contraction of the quadriceps ; picking up groceries is a concentric contraction of the biceps .

Name 4 Adductor of the femur

Gracilis Pectineus Adductors Longus , Brevis , magnus

The main pulling force we experience on earth is?

Gravity

Name four bony landmarks when doing posture analysis from the side

Greater Trochanter, Acromion of Scapulae, ASIS /PSIS of Femur Knee

DPA: A prone leg extension , the most commonly overused muscle is the?

Hamstrings

Anterior Tilt : Relatively Long Muscles?

Hamstrings , Abdominal Muscles

Posterior Tilt : Relatively Short Muscles?

Hamstrings , Abdominal Muscles

If the pelvis is posteriorly tilted , which muscles are tight , short or overactive ?

Hamstrings , External Obliques

Examples of Fusiform muscles acting in groups?

Hamstrings , Quadriceps ( The 3 vasti )

If the pelvis is Anteriorly tilted which muscles are long weak or underactive ?

Hamstrings External Obliques

What is an example of tension?

Hanging from a tree

Synergist

Helps perform the action of the main mover.

Posterior Tilt : Relatively Long Muscles?

Hip Flexors ( one joint ) , Erector Spinae

Anterior Tilt : Relatively Short Muscles?

Hip Flexors , Erector Spinae

If the pelvis is anteriorly tilted, which muscles are tight, short or overactive ?

Hip Flexors, Erector Spinae, Quadratus Lumborum

If the pelvis is posteriorly tilted, which muscles are long, weak or underused?

Hip Flexors, Erector Spinea

Where do the TFL and Gluteus Maximus insert into?

IT Band

In ideal alignment, where should the ear lobe fall?

In line with the midpoint of the shoulder

The Infraspinatus and the Teres Minor are both external rotators of the humerus , and their antagonists , which are internal rotators?

Infraspinatus Teres Minor internal Subscapularis Teres Major

Nerves

Innervate all muscles in the body

The muscle of inhalation between the ribs?

Intercostals

Pronation

Internal rotation of the radio humeral joint OR raising the lateral aspect of the foot

Abdominals Holding a plank

Isometric

Hip Extensors: Holding a deep squat

Isometric

Hip Flexors Holding one's leg out to the side Isometric

Isometric

Name 3 points the line of gravity should pass through in the human body . ( side view )

Just forward of Malleolus Greater Trochanter of Femur Middle of the Ear

Someone with a long/short torso and short/long legs may have more trouble with the Roll Up .

LONG torso and SHORT legs.

What is Scoliosis?

Lateral Curvature of Spine

What is scoliosis?

Lateral Curvature of the Spine

In a pull up , the prime mover for shoulder extension

Latissimus Dorsi, Elbow flexion is Biceps

What 3 muscles insert into the thoracolumbar fascia?

Latissimus Dorsi, Gluteus Maximus, Transversus Abdominis

Name two synergists in shoulder flexion

Latissimus Dorsi, Long Head of Triceps

What muscle that can help prevent forward head posture?

Levator Scapulae

Levers convert a ——— Force into a ——Force?

Linear Force into a Rotary Force

Coronal /Frontal Plane

Longitudinal Plane which divides the body (head, torso, limbs) or its parts into front and back halves or parts Abduction and Adduction****

Sagittal Plane

Longitudinal Plane which divides the head and torso into left and right parts ( not halves , per se )

Sagittal Plane

Longitudinal Plane which divides the head and torso into left and right parts. **Flexion and extension****

Name 2 muscles that depress the scapulae

Lower Trapezius Pectoralis Minor

Name four bony landmarks posture analysis from the front

Mandible , Acromion of Scapulae , ASIS, Rib Cage

Name two muscles that retract the scapulae

Middle Trapezius Rhomboids

Median Plane

Midline longitudinal plane dividing the head and torso into right and left halves

Adduction

Movement toward the midline of the body

Isometric

Muscle contracting but not changing length against a force

Eccentric Contraction

Muscle lengthening against a force

Concentric Contraction

Muscle shortening against a force

Unloaded

No force acting on the object

The External Obliques rotate the torso to the same / opposite side?

OPPOSITE

What the Upper Body Landmarks?

Occipital Bone, Mandible, 7th Cervicale vertebrae, Acromion of scapula, Bottom of Rib Cage (12th), Vertebral border to scapula and Inferior angle scapula

3 Bony landmarks on the head?

Occipital, Maxilla, Mandible

Name 3 bony landmarks on the head

Occipital, maxilla, mandible

What is a ventral?

Of or on the abdomen of an animal/plant

Unilateral

One side only moving ex. right arm only performing biceps curls

A hip flexor that originates in the lumbar spine and inserts into the femur

PSOAS

Name two synergists in shoulder flexion

Pectoralis Major Anterior Deltoid

Name two synergists in horizontal adduction of the humerus

Pectoralis Major, Corachobrachialis

What three muscles that adduct the humerus?

Pectoralis Major, Latissimus Dorsi, Teres Major

If someone is kyphotic which muscles are tight , short or overused ?

Pectoralis Major, Neck Extensors, Sternocleidomastoid

Transverse Plane

Perpendicular to the longitudinal planes. Divides the body into upper and lower halves or parts Rotation*

What is an example of Bending?

Picking up something from the ground

What is the problematic of the deep lateral rotators?

Piriformis

Joint

Point of articulation between 2 bones. Joints are fulcrums (pivot points) of action by muscles.

Name two synergists in horizontal abduction of the humerus

Posterior Deltoid Teres Minor

Name the actions of the ankle joint

Pronation, Supination, Inversion, Eversion

Lifting your leg off of a table starting at 90 degrees uses primarily which hip flexor ?

Psoas Major

The four points that delineate the pelvic floor?

Pubis symphysis, coccyx, Ischial tuberosity, sits bones on other side

Muscles push or pull?

Pull

Examples of an Isometric Contraction

Pushing against a concrete wall is an isometric contraction of the triceps ; holding your body off the ground while tying a shoe is an isometric contraction of the quadriceps

How does the forearm bones rotate?

Radius revolves around the ulna

Mechanical Advantage

Ratio that measures the benefits ( efficiency) of using one type of lever over another ex . 1st & 2nd cl ass levers have a mechanical advantage over 3rd class levers

When kneeling , if a client cannot achieve a neutral pelvis , it is likely that _________ is very tight .

Rectus Femoris

Name 3 muscles involved in torso flexion

Recuts abdominal, external oblique, internal obliques

If someone is kyphotic , which muscles are long weak or underused ?

Rhomboids Middle Trapezius , Upper back Erector Spinae , Neck Flexors ( but NOT sternocleidomastoid )

Name 3 muscles that elevate the scapulae

Rhomboids Upper Trapezius Levator Scapulae

Which muscles contract concentrically when you rotate your ribcage to the right ?

Right internal obliques and Left external obliques

Lateral / External Rotation

Rotating a bone away from the midline of the body

Lateral /External Rotation

Rotating a bone away from the midline of the body

Medial / Internal Rotation

Rotating a bone towards the midline of the body

The Internal Obliques rotate the torso to the same/opposite side?

SAME

DOA: In a curl up from supine , the most commonly overused muscle is?

SCM

Flexion and Extension occur in this plane. Divides the body into right and left parts

Sagittal

Cervical Sidebending muscles used?

Scalenus Anterior, Medius, & Posterior Inferior, Iliocostalis, Splenius Capitis

Name four bony landmarks posture analysis from the back

Scapulae , Acromion of Scapulae, PSIS , Ankle

Life examples of 1st Class Levers

Scissors, Crowbars, See -Saws

Agonists and Antagonists of the Knee Joint Flexors

Semimembranosus, Semitendinosus, Biceps Femoris

The three muscle that insert into Pes Anserinus tendon attachment are?

Semitendinosis, Gracilis, sartorius

What muscle keeps the scapula from winging?

Serratus Anterior

Name a muscle that protracts the scapulae

Serratus Anterior , Pectoralis Minor

How to fix a scapula Winging?

Serratus Anterior needs to be strengthened

Name 3 signs of Scoliosis

Shoulder height, hip height differential, Rotation of Ribcage differential

What is an example of Compression?

Sitting slumped in a chair

Describe the shape of the thoracic spine & # of vertebrae

Slight Posterior Curve 12 vertebrae

Describe the shape of the lumbar spine & the # of vertebrae

Slight anterior curve 5 vertebrae

What is the neutral shape of the cervical spine & # of vertebrae

Slight anterior curve, 7 vertebrae

In the lower leg , the gastrocnemius is superficial to the

Soleus

Someone with a ————- torso and ————. legs may have more trouble holding their straight legs off the floor .

Someone with a SHORT torso and LONG legs may have more trouble holding their straight legs off the floor .

Advantages of 3rd Class Levers

Speed and Range of Motion, over strength

Cervical Extension muscles used?

Splenius Capitia & Cervicis,Semispinalis Capitis & Cervicis, Longissimus, Traps, Multifidus

Advantages of 2nd Class Levers

Strength

Advantages of 1st Class Levers

Strength or Speed depending on where the fulcrum ( joint ) is

Anteriorly Tilted

Superior portion of an object/bone lies anterior to its inferior portion

Posteriorly Tilted

Superior portion of an object/bone lies posterior to its inferior portion

What is the ideal firing pattern for abduction of the humerus ?

Supraspinatus , Middle Deltoid , Upper Trapezius opposite side , Upper Trapezius same side

The top of the scapulae should lie between which thoracic verterbrae?

T1-12

DPA: In a side lying femoral abduction test , the most commonly overused muscle is?

TFL

Name three internal rotators of the femur

TFL Adductors longus , brevis , magnus Pectineus

Abduction and Adduction occur in which plane ?

The Coronal /Frontal Plan

Force

The EFFORT can also be known as the ACTION

Flexion and Extension occur in which plane ?

The Sagittal Plane

Rotation occurs in which plane ?

The Transverse Plane

What is Mass?

The amount of matter something contains

What is the Center of Gravity?

The center of mass of an object , not necessarily the geometric center of the object . ex : a perfect sphere made of cork has its COG and its geometric center in the same spot . The same sphere made of half cork and half LEAD would have a COG shifted towards the lead side though the geometric center would still be the same

What is the Line of Gravity?

The direction of the earth's pull on object /body

What causes Compression?

The effect produced by forces pressing against each other

Tension

The effect produced by forces pulling against each other

Distal

The far end of a bone/muscle. Farther away from the center of the body

3rd Class Lever

The force (muscle) lies between the fulcrum (joint) and the load (resistance). They give the advantage of speed of movement rather than strength. Fingernail clippers, tweezers, inside door handle of a car

1st Class Lever

The joint (fulcrum) lies between the muscle (force) and the load (resistance). The most efficient type of lever. located.They give the advantage of strength or speed, depending on where the fulcrumis. Example: Scissors, Crowbars, See-Saws

Examples of 1st Class Levers in the body

The joint between the skull and the atlas vertebrae ( C1 ) of the spine ; The pelvis on the head of the femur

2nd Class Lever

The load (resistance) lies between the fulcrum (joint) and the force (pulling muscle). They give the advantage of strength Wheelbarrow

What is Weight?

The measure of the pull of gravity on matter

Origin of muscle

The muscle attachment at the fixed bone.

Proximal

The near end of a bone/muscle. Closer to the center of the body

Shear

The strain produced by pressure in the structure of a substance, its successive layers being shifted laterally over each other

What is a Base of Support?

The surface upon which an object / body stands or rests

Load

The weight that resists the pull of your muscles, resistance

Kyphosis: Relatively Long Muscles?

Thoracic Erector Spine , Deep Neck Flexors

Flexion

To bend or decrease the angle between the bones of the joint

Bending

To force out of straightness

Abduction

To move a bone away from the midline

Rotation occurs in this plane. Divides the body into top and bottom parts

Transverse

What is the main extensor of the elbow?

Triceps

T/F ALL of the rotator cuff muscles stabilize the head of the humerus in the glenoid cavity?

True

Inversion

Turns the sole of the foot inward and elevates the medial border of the foot

Eversion

Turns the sole of the foot outward so that the lateral border is elevated

Torsion

Twisting, especially of one end of a thing while the other is fixed

Forearm: what revolves around the Radius

Ulna

DPA: In a humeral abduction test , the most commonly overused muscle is?

Upper Twist

Agonists and Antagonists of the Knee Joint Extensors

Vastus Intermedialis , Vastus Medialis , Vastus Lateralis

Life examples of 2nd Class Levers

Wheelbarrow

What is an example of Torsion?

Wringing out a towel

Are all fibers of the deltoid active in abduction of the humerus?

Yes

What are second class levers In the body?

ankle joint lifting body up to ball of foot. Wheelbarrow

What is the lateral hamstring?

biceps femoris

Joint ranges of motion are important because a . We They serve as as a baseline

c . They serve as a baseline for general standards of normal movement

What is the MOST mobile section of the spine?

cervical spine

Real life third class lever?

crane

Is it easier/harder to perform a Roll Up with longer legs?

easier

Compression

effect produced by forces pressing against each other

Tensior

effect produced by forces pulling against each other

What are 3 examples of hinge joints in the body?

elbow, fingers, knee

Name 3 muscles involved in torso extension

erector spinae, quadratus lumborum, latissimus dorsi

As a group , the erector spinae work BILATERALLY to?

extend the spine

Name 3 muscles involved in torso rotation

external obliques, internal obliques, erector spinae

Name 3 muscles involved in torso lateral flexion

external obliques, internal obliques, quadratus lumborum

What is the standard way to line up a plumb line on a subject?

front of the malleolus because regardless of postural deviation, this point will be the same on all people

The standard point that is the same for all people in posture analysis?

greater trochanter of femur, malleolus, acromium of shoulder, ear

Is it easier/harder to perform a " Teaser " with longer legs?

harder

What are 2 actions of the Sartorius?

hip abductor & hip flexor

What are Knock - Knees?

lateral rotation of the femurs , supination of the feet & hyperextension of the knees w/lateral rotation, the axis of the knee joint is oblique to the coronal plane & hyperextension results in adduction at the knees. genu valgum

A lever converts a linear force into a rotary force

lever torque

What are bow legs?

medial rotation of femurs , pronation of feet , and hyperextension of knees - when femurs medially rotate, the axis of motion for flexion and extension is oblique to the coronal plane - from this axis , hyperextension occurs in a posterolateral direction , resulting in a separation at the knees and apparent bowing of the legs . Known as " genu varum " .

The depth of the hip socket makes it more /less stable than the shoulder, at the same time allowing for more /less range of motion .

more & less

Example of a first class lever: In the body?

occiput ( head ) on cervical spine. Seesaw

Ventral

on the abdomen of an animal/plant

Dorsal

on the back on animal/plant

Name five flexors of the hip joint

rectus femoris psoas all adductors tensor fascia latae Sartorius

What is a Winging Scapulae?

scapula is slightly upwardly rotated and anteriorly tipped

What are 2 examples of ball and socket joints in the body?

shoulder & hip

What are the four attachment points of the muscles of the pelvic floor

sits bone R sits bone L pubis symphysis coccyx

What are the major role of the multifidus?

stabilize spine against force especially rotation

What is the most superficial of the neck flexors?

sternocleidomastoid

Cervical Flexion muscles used?

sternocleidomastoid, Longus Colli & Capitis, Platysma, Scalenus Anterior

Cervical Rotation muscles used?

sternocleidomastoid, levator scapula, Splenius capitis & cervicis,Longissimus,multifidus, Rectus Capitis Posterior Major

What are the muscles of the rotator cuff?

supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis

Define forward head posture?

the weight of the head is no longer positioned over the body's COG and thus weighs ( more /less ), straining the muscles of the ( chest /back ) and forcing the chest to move ( forwards /backwards ) in space to offset the forward weight of the displaced head .

What is the LEAST mobile section of the spine?

thoracic spine

Rotation occurs in what plane?

transverse plane

What abdominal muscle that does NOT cause spinal movement when it contracts

transversus abdominis

Name the abdominal muscles from the deepest to the most superficial

transversus abdominis, internal obliques, external obliques rectus abomini

The _____of the quadriceps extend the knee , while only the _____ flexes the hip .

vasti and rectus femoris

If you go to the moon , your mass or weight will change?

weight

How much does the head weigh?

10-14lbs

How many ribs does the Thoracic spine have?

12 ribs

The vertebral border of the scapulae should be how many inches away from the spine?

3-4"

Most joints in the body are what class levers?

3rd

Most movements in the body are which class of levers ?

3rd class levers

Number vertebrae in the coccyx?

4 vertebrae fused

Number of sacral vertebrae?

5 vertebrae fused