Pilates Flash Cards
What is a Lever?
A bar or other device pivoted on a fixed point (fulcrum) in order to lift something or force something open
What is Newton's 1 Law: Inertia?
A body at rest stays at rest and a motion stays in motion until acted on by an external force. The greater an object's mass, the greater it's inertia.
Combined Loading
A combination of 2 or more forces. Like Compression and Torsion
What is Depressed Scapulae?
A condition where the scapulae lie in a chronic state of depression as noted by the superior borders lying closer to T2 . Normally, the superior border lies between T1 & T2 .
What is Elevated Scapulae?
A condition where the scapulae lie in a chronic state of elevation as noted by the superior borders lying above T1 ( they should lie between T1 & T2 )
Torque
A force causing rotation. This rotary equivalent of force factors in distance as well as weight
What are Gliding Joints?
A synovial joint characterized by generally flat articulating surfaces Ex :facet joints of the vertebrae, acromio-clavicular joint
Saddle Joint
A synovial joint characterized by two concave articulating surfaces permitting all movements but rotation Ex thumb, sterno - clavicular
Ellipsoid / Condyloid Joint
A synovial joint which is a reduced ball and socket configuration -significant rotation is largely excluded
Ball and Socket Joint
A synovial joint which permits movement in all directions Ex : Hip, shoulder
Hinge Joint
A synovial joint which permits movement only in one plane Ex : Elbow, Fingers
What is a Pivot Joint?
A synovial joint with a ring of bone around a peg. Ex: C1 vertebra rotates around C2
What is an example of Shearing?
A truck too tall trying to pass through an underpass anyway
When is a pelvis is neutral?
ASIS is in line with the PSIS horizontally and in line with the pubis symphysis vertically
Superior
Above
What is Flat Back?
Absence of spinal curves, usually w/ a posteriorly tilted pelvis
Examples of 2nd Class Levers in the Body
Achilles Tendon lifting the heel and taking the weight of the body onto the ball of the foot
What are two actions of the Rhomboids?
Adduct Scapulae, Downwardly Rotate Scapulae
Newton's 2: Movement & Force
An object/body moves because a force makes it move, and the speed of movement depends on force
Kyphosis: Relatively Short Muscles?
Anterior Deltoids , Pectoralis Major , Pectoralis Minor
Name Newton's 3 laws and examples
Any object sitting still or moving will stay that way unless a force acts upon it . 1 If a force acts on an object , it will cause acceleration of that object , and the amount of force required depends 2 on the mass of the object . Example : pushing a 50 lb. cart requires hore force than a 20 lb. cart . For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction . A rocket blasting off is one example .
What are the Lower Body Landmarks?
Asis, Psis, Head of Femur, Knee Joint, Malleolus
Lateral
Away from the midline of the body
What is a fulcrum Lever?
Axis of Rotation or the pivot point of the action in the body, this is the joint
Inferior
Below , relative to another object
Match the muscle to its type : Parallel
Biceps Brachii , Hamstrings
Antagonist
Blocks the action of an agonist. Muscle that potentially or actually oppose or resist a certain movement
Contralareral
Both limbs moving on opposite sides
Ipsilateral
Both limbs moving same side
Bilateral
Both sides of the body performing the same movement at the same time. Bicep curls simultaneously. Same movement at the same time
Reciprocal
Both sides performing the same movement but at alternating times ex : when performing bicep curls with both arms ,one arm is bent while the other is straight
Stabilizer
Braces a joint against movement
What is main flexor of the elbow?
Brachialis
Examples of Fusiform muscles?
Brachioradialis
What are 4 landmarks used to discern head placement?
C7, Mandible, Occipital & Bone Ears
Agonist/Prime Mover
Causes an action. The primary muscle affecting a desired joint movement
Where is the COG on a person with a long torso legs?
Center of Gravity is HIGHER
Where is the COG on a person with a short torso and long legs ?
Center of Gravity is LOWER
Direction of the spinal curves?
Cervical anterior, Thoracic posterior, Lumbar anterior
What are the 4 Parts of the spine?
Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum
Medial
Closer to the midline of the body
Abdominals Performing a sit up
Concentric
Hip Extensors: Standing up from a chair
Concentric
Hip Flexors: A punter kicking the football
Concentric
Triceps Pushing a door open
Concentric
Vasti of the Quadriceps Climbing stairs —1- Walking down stairs -2-?
Concentric , Eccentric
Hammer a nail triceps working concentrically or eccentrically
Concentrically on hammer down
Hammer a nail biceps working concentrically or eccentrically?
Concentrically on lift up
Forward Head
Condition where the head lies forward of the plumb line
Ligaments
Connect bones to bones
Tendons
Connect muscles to bones
Match the muscle to its type : Linear
Corachobrachialis , Anterior Tibialis , Sartorius
What is the ideal firing pattern when curling up from supine ?
Deep neck flexors Longus Colli & Longus Capitis, Sternocleidomastoid
Frontal
Divides the body into front and back parts. Abduction and Adduction
The diaphragm contracts during exhalation by moving up or down?
Down
Hip Flexors: Lowering legs to the floor from supine
Eccentric
Triceps Lowering oneself into a push up
Eccentric
Examples of 3rd Class Levers in the Body
Elbow Joint : Elbow joint = Fulcrum Biceps Muscle = Force Weight in hand = Load
What are third class levers of the body?
Elbow, knee
Lordosis : Relatively Short Muscles?
Erector Spinae, Hip Flexors
What is Lordosis?
Exaggerated curve of the lumbar spine, with anteriorly tilted pelvis, extension
What is Kyphosis?
Exaggerated curve of the thoracic spine beyond normal flexion
What Causes of a forward head?
Excessive extension of the cervical spine ;Increased flexion of the spine at the T1 / C7 joint ;Tight cervical extensors, tight Sternocleidomastoid
Hyperextended
Extension of a joint beyond what is considered normal
Lordosis: Relatively Long Muscles?
External Obliques , Hamstrings
Supination
External rotation of the radio humeral joint OR raising the medial aspect of the foot
What are Pennate Muscles?
Fibers run at a direction to the angle of pull so that a large number of fibers can be concentrated on a single tendon Ex : Gastrocnemius , Gluteus Maximus Generally, the strongest muscles in the body.
What are Fusiform Muscles?
Fibers run more parallel to the tendon to which they attach and concentrate fewer fibers on the tendon than pennate muscles . Ex : BicepsBrachii ,Sartorius. Produce less force than pennate muscles
What is Fascia?
Fibrous connective tissue that encases muscles, bones, tendons, ligaments
Life examples of 3rd Class Levers
Fingernail clippers , tweezers inside door handle of a car
How do you describe the supported pelvic position ?
Flexing the lumbar as much as necessary to connect the hips to the ribs
Lateral Flexion
Flexion of the spine in the coronal/frontal plane, side bending
Newton's 3: Opposite Forces
For every action, there ia an equal and opposite reaction. Forces always come in pairs.
Concurrent Force
Force delivered at an angle to direction of pull . With regard to muscles , the muscle fibers run at an angle to the direction of pull .
Parallel Force
Force delivered from 2 or more sources in line with direction of pull
Linear Force
Force delivered in direction of pull
What are Examples of Pennate Muscles?
Gastrocnemius, Gluteus Maximus , Rectus Femoris
Extension
Generally, to straighten the joint OR to move the limb posterior of the midline
What is the head of the humerus joint?
Glenohumeral, deep joint
Lateral Tilt : Relatively Short Muscles?
Glute Medius high side, Quadratus Lumborum high side
Lateral Tilt : Relatively Long Muscles?
Glute Medius low side, Quadratus Lumborum low side
Match the muscle to its type : Concurrent
Gluteus Corachobrachialis Sartorius Pectoralis Gluteus Maximus , Pectoralis Major Biceps Anterior types , same
What is the most powerful hip extensor?
Gluteus Maximus
What is the ideal firing pattern hip extension ?
Gluteus Maximus , Hamstrings , Erector Spinae opposite side , Erector Spinae same side
Name three extensors of the hip joint
Gluteus Maximus All 3 hamstrings
What muscle should fire first in hip abduction?
Gluteus Medius
What is the ideal firing pattern for leg abduction ?
Gluteus Medius , Tensor Fascie Latae , QL ( same side ) Abdominal Muscles
Name 4 abductors of the femur
Gluteus Medius, Gluteus Minimus, TFL, Sartorius
What are 3 abductors of the femur?
Gluteus Medius, Tensor Fascie Latae, Sartorius
Examples of Eccentric Contractions
Going downstairs or laying a baby down is an eccentric contraction of the biceps .
Examples of Concentric Contractions
Going upstairs is a concentric contraction of the quadriceps ; picking up groceries is a concentric contraction of the biceps .
Name 4 Adductor of the femur
Gracilis Pectineus Adductors Longus , Brevis , magnus
The main pulling force we experience on earth is?
Gravity
Name four bony landmarks when doing posture analysis from the side
Greater Trochanter, Acromion of Scapulae, ASIS /PSIS of Femur Knee
DPA: A prone leg extension , the most commonly overused muscle is the?
Hamstrings
Anterior Tilt : Relatively Long Muscles?
Hamstrings , Abdominal Muscles
Posterior Tilt : Relatively Short Muscles?
Hamstrings , Abdominal Muscles
If the pelvis is posteriorly tilted , which muscles are tight , short or overactive ?
Hamstrings , External Obliques
Examples of Fusiform muscles acting in groups?
Hamstrings , Quadriceps ( The 3 vasti )
If the pelvis is Anteriorly tilted which muscles are long weak or underactive ?
Hamstrings External Obliques
What is an example of tension?
Hanging from a tree
Synergist
Helps perform the action of the main mover.
Posterior Tilt : Relatively Long Muscles?
Hip Flexors ( one joint ) , Erector Spinae
Anterior Tilt : Relatively Short Muscles?
Hip Flexors , Erector Spinae
If the pelvis is anteriorly tilted, which muscles are tight, short or overactive ?
Hip Flexors, Erector Spinae, Quadratus Lumborum
If the pelvis is posteriorly tilted, which muscles are long, weak or underused?
Hip Flexors, Erector Spinea
Where do the TFL and Gluteus Maximus insert into?
IT Band
In ideal alignment, where should the ear lobe fall?
In line with the midpoint of the shoulder
The Infraspinatus and the Teres Minor are both external rotators of the humerus , and their antagonists , which are internal rotators?
Infraspinatus Teres Minor internal Subscapularis Teres Major
Nerves
Innervate all muscles in the body
The muscle of inhalation between the ribs?
Intercostals
Pronation
Internal rotation of the radio humeral joint OR raising the lateral aspect of the foot
Abdominals Holding a plank
Isometric
Hip Extensors: Holding a deep squat
Isometric
Hip Flexors Holding one's leg out to the side Isometric
Isometric
Name 3 points the line of gravity should pass through in the human body . ( side view )
Just forward of Malleolus Greater Trochanter of Femur Middle of the Ear
Someone with a long/short torso and short/long legs may have more trouble with the Roll Up .
LONG torso and SHORT legs.
What is Scoliosis?
Lateral Curvature of Spine
What is scoliosis?
Lateral Curvature of the Spine
In a pull up , the prime mover for shoulder extension
Latissimus Dorsi, Elbow flexion is Biceps
What 3 muscles insert into the thoracolumbar fascia?
Latissimus Dorsi, Gluteus Maximus, Transversus Abdominis
Name two synergists in shoulder flexion
Latissimus Dorsi, Long Head of Triceps
What muscle that can help prevent forward head posture?
Levator Scapulae
Levers convert a ——— Force into a ——Force?
Linear Force into a Rotary Force
Coronal /Frontal Plane
Longitudinal Plane which divides the body (head, torso, limbs) or its parts into front and back halves or parts Abduction and Adduction****
Sagittal Plane
Longitudinal Plane which divides the head and torso into left and right parts ( not halves , per se )
Sagittal Plane
Longitudinal Plane which divides the head and torso into left and right parts. **Flexion and extension****
Name 2 muscles that depress the scapulae
Lower Trapezius Pectoralis Minor
Name four bony landmarks posture analysis from the front
Mandible , Acromion of Scapulae , ASIS, Rib Cage
Name two muscles that retract the scapulae
Middle Trapezius Rhomboids
Median Plane
Midline longitudinal plane dividing the head and torso into right and left halves
Adduction
Movement toward the midline of the body
Isometric
Muscle contracting but not changing length against a force
Eccentric Contraction
Muscle lengthening against a force
Concentric Contraction
Muscle shortening against a force
Unloaded
No force acting on the object
The External Obliques rotate the torso to the same / opposite side?
OPPOSITE
What the Upper Body Landmarks?
Occipital Bone, Mandible, 7th Cervicale vertebrae, Acromion of scapula, Bottom of Rib Cage (12th), Vertebral border to scapula and Inferior angle scapula
3 Bony landmarks on the head?
Occipital, Maxilla, Mandible
Name 3 bony landmarks on the head
Occipital, maxilla, mandible
What is a ventral?
Of or on the abdomen of an animal/plant
Unilateral
One side only moving ex. right arm only performing biceps curls
A hip flexor that originates in the lumbar spine and inserts into the femur
PSOAS
Name two synergists in shoulder flexion
Pectoralis Major Anterior Deltoid
Name two synergists in horizontal adduction of the humerus
Pectoralis Major, Corachobrachialis
What three muscles that adduct the humerus?
Pectoralis Major, Latissimus Dorsi, Teres Major
If someone is kyphotic which muscles are tight , short or overused ?
Pectoralis Major, Neck Extensors, Sternocleidomastoid
Transverse Plane
Perpendicular to the longitudinal planes. Divides the body into upper and lower halves or parts Rotation*
What is an example of Bending?
Picking up something from the ground
What is the problematic of the deep lateral rotators?
Piriformis
Joint
Point of articulation between 2 bones. Joints are fulcrums (pivot points) of action by muscles.
Name two synergists in horizontal abduction of the humerus
Posterior Deltoid Teres Minor
Name the actions of the ankle joint
Pronation, Supination, Inversion, Eversion
Lifting your leg off of a table starting at 90 degrees uses primarily which hip flexor ?
Psoas Major
The four points that delineate the pelvic floor?
Pubis symphysis, coccyx, Ischial tuberosity, sits bones on other side
Muscles push or pull?
Pull
Examples of an Isometric Contraction
Pushing against a concrete wall is an isometric contraction of the triceps ; holding your body off the ground while tying a shoe is an isometric contraction of the quadriceps
How does the forearm bones rotate?
Radius revolves around the ulna
Mechanical Advantage
Ratio that measures the benefits ( efficiency) of using one type of lever over another ex . 1st & 2nd cl ass levers have a mechanical advantage over 3rd class levers
When kneeling , if a client cannot achieve a neutral pelvis , it is likely that _________ is very tight .
Rectus Femoris
Name 3 muscles involved in torso flexion
Recuts abdominal, external oblique, internal obliques
If someone is kyphotic , which muscles are long weak or underused ?
Rhomboids Middle Trapezius , Upper back Erector Spinae , Neck Flexors ( but NOT sternocleidomastoid )
Name 3 muscles that elevate the scapulae
Rhomboids Upper Trapezius Levator Scapulae
Which muscles contract concentrically when you rotate your ribcage to the right ?
Right internal obliques and Left external obliques
Lateral / External Rotation
Rotating a bone away from the midline of the body
Lateral /External Rotation
Rotating a bone away from the midline of the body
Medial / Internal Rotation
Rotating a bone towards the midline of the body
The Internal Obliques rotate the torso to the same/opposite side?
SAME
DOA: In a curl up from supine , the most commonly overused muscle is?
SCM
Flexion and Extension occur in this plane. Divides the body into right and left parts
Sagittal
Cervical Sidebending muscles used?
Scalenus Anterior, Medius, & Posterior Inferior, Iliocostalis, Splenius Capitis
Name four bony landmarks posture analysis from the back
Scapulae , Acromion of Scapulae, PSIS , Ankle
Life examples of 1st Class Levers
Scissors, Crowbars, See -Saws
Agonists and Antagonists of the Knee Joint Flexors
Semimembranosus, Semitendinosus, Biceps Femoris
The three muscle that insert into Pes Anserinus tendon attachment are?
Semitendinosis, Gracilis, sartorius
What muscle keeps the scapula from winging?
Serratus Anterior
Name a muscle that protracts the scapulae
Serratus Anterior , Pectoralis Minor
How to fix a scapula Winging?
Serratus Anterior needs to be strengthened
Name 3 signs of Scoliosis
Shoulder height, hip height differential, Rotation of Ribcage differential
What is an example of Compression?
Sitting slumped in a chair
Describe the shape of the thoracic spine & # of vertebrae
Slight Posterior Curve 12 vertebrae
Describe the shape of the lumbar spine & the # of vertebrae
Slight anterior curve 5 vertebrae
What is the neutral shape of the cervical spine & # of vertebrae
Slight anterior curve, 7 vertebrae
In the lower leg , the gastrocnemius is superficial to the
Soleus
Someone with a ————- torso and ————. legs may have more trouble holding their straight legs off the floor .
Someone with a SHORT torso and LONG legs may have more trouble holding their straight legs off the floor .
Advantages of 3rd Class Levers
Speed and Range of Motion, over strength
Cervical Extension muscles used?
Splenius Capitia & Cervicis,Semispinalis Capitis & Cervicis, Longissimus, Traps, Multifidus
Advantages of 2nd Class Levers
Strength
Advantages of 1st Class Levers
Strength or Speed depending on where the fulcrum ( joint ) is
Anteriorly Tilted
Superior portion of an object/bone lies anterior to its inferior portion
Posteriorly Tilted
Superior portion of an object/bone lies posterior to its inferior portion
What is the ideal firing pattern for abduction of the humerus ?
Supraspinatus , Middle Deltoid , Upper Trapezius opposite side , Upper Trapezius same side
The top of the scapulae should lie between which thoracic verterbrae?
T1-12
DPA: In a side lying femoral abduction test , the most commonly overused muscle is?
TFL
Name three internal rotators of the femur
TFL Adductors longus , brevis , magnus Pectineus
Abduction and Adduction occur in which plane ?
The Coronal /Frontal Plan
Force
The EFFORT can also be known as the ACTION
Flexion and Extension occur in which plane ?
The Sagittal Plane
Rotation occurs in which plane ?
The Transverse Plane
What is Mass?
The amount of matter something contains
What is the Center of Gravity?
The center of mass of an object , not necessarily the geometric center of the object . ex : a perfect sphere made of cork has its COG and its geometric center in the same spot . The same sphere made of half cork and half LEAD would have a COG shifted towards the lead side though the geometric center would still be the same
What is the Line of Gravity?
The direction of the earth's pull on object /body
What causes Compression?
The effect produced by forces pressing against each other
Tension
The effect produced by forces pulling against each other
Distal
The far end of a bone/muscle. Farther away from the center of the body
3rd Class Lever
The force (muscle) lies between the fulcrum (joint) and the load (resistance). They give the advantage of speed of movement rather than strength. Fingernail clippers, tweezers, inside door handle of a car
1st Class Lever
The joint (fulcrum) lies between the muscle (force) and the load (resistance). The most efficient type of lever. located.They give the advantage of strength or speed, depending on where the fulcrumis. Example: Scissors, Crowbars, See-Saws
Examples of 1st Class Levers in the body
The joint between the skull and the atlas vertebrae ( C1 ) of the spine ; The pelvis on the head of the femur
2nd Class Lever
The load (resistance) lies between the fulcrum (joint) and the force (pulling muscle). They give the advantage of strength Wheelbarrow
What is Weight?
The measure of the pull of gravity on matter
Origin of muscle
The muscle attachment at the fixed bone.
Proximal
The near end of a bone/muscle. Closer to the center of the body
Shear
The strain produced by pressure in the structure of a substance, its successive layers being shifted laterally over each other
What is a Base of Support?
The surface upon which an object / body stands or rests
Load
The weight that resists the pull of your muscles, resistance
Kyphosis: Relatively Long Muscles?
Thoracic Erector Spine , Deep Neck Flexors
Flexion
To bend or decrease the angle between the bones of the joint
Bending
To force out of straightness
Abduction
To move a bone away from the midline
Rotation occurs in this plane. Divides the body into top and bottom parts
Transverse
What is the main extensor of the elbow?
Triceps
T/F ALL of the rotator cuff muscles stabilize the head of the humerus in the glenoid cavity?
True
Inversion
Turns the sole of the foot inward and elevates the medial border of the foot
Eversion
Turns the sole of the foot outward so that the lateral border is elevated
Torsion
Twisting, especially of one end of a thing while the other is fixed
Forearm: what revolves around the Radius
Ulna
DPA: In a humeral abduction test , the most commonly overused muscle is?
Upper Twist
Agonists and Antagonists of the Knee Joint Extensors
Vastus Intermedialis , Vastus Medialis , Vastus Lateralis
Life examples of 2nd Class Levers
Wheelbarrow
What is an example of Torsion?
Wringing out a towel
Are all fibers of the deltoid active in abduction of the humerus?
Yes
What are second class levers In the body?
ankle joint lifting body up to ball of foot. Wheelbarrow
What is the lateral hamstring?
biceps femoris
Joint ranges of motion are important because a . We They serve as as a baseline
c . They serve as a baseline for general standards of normal movement
What is the MOST mobile section of the spine?
cervical spine
Real life third class lever?
crane
Is it easier/harder to perform a Roll Up with longer legs?
easier
Compression
effect produced by forces pressing against each other
Tensior
effect produced by forces pulling against each other
What are 3 examples of hinge joints in the body?
elbow, fingers, knee
Name 3 muscles involved in torso extension
erector spinae, quadratus lumborum, latissimus dorsi
As a group , the erector spinae work BILATERALLY to?
extend the spine
Name 3 muscles involved in torso rotation
external obliques, internal obliques, erector spinae
Name 3 muscles involved in torso lateral flexion
external obliques, internal obliques, quadratus lumborum
What is the standard way to line up a plumb line on a subject?
front of the malleolus because regardless of postural deviation, this point will be the same on all people
The standard point that is the same for all people in posture analysis?
greater trochanter of femur, malleolus, acromium of shoulder, ear
Is it easier/harder to perform a " Teaser " with longer legs?
harder
What are 2 actions of the Sartorius?
hip abductor & hip flexor
What are Knock - Knees?
lateral rotation of the femurs , supination of the feet & hyperextension of the knees w/lateral rotation, the axis of the knee joint is oblique to the coronal plane & hyperextension results in adduction at the knees. genu valgum
A lever converts a linear force into a rotary force
lever torque
What are bow legs?
medial rotation of femurs , pronation of feet , and hyperextension of knees - when femurs medially rotate, the axis of motion for flexion and extension is oblique to the coronal plane - from this axis , hyperextension occurs in a posterolateral direction , resulting in a separation at the knees and apparent bowing of the legs . Known as " genu varum " .
The depth of the hip socket makes it more /less stable than the shoulder, at the same time allowing for more /less range of motion .
more & less
Example of a first class lever: In the body?
occiput ( head ) on cervical spine. Seesaw
Ventral
on the abdomen of an animal/plant
Dorsal
on the back on animal/plant
Name five flexors of the hip joint
rectus femoris psoas all adductors tensor fascia latae Sartorius
What is a Winging Scapulae?
scapula is slightly upwardly rotated and anteriorly tipped
What are 2 examples of ball and socket joints in the body?
shoulder & hip
What are the four attachment points of the muscles of the pelvic floor
sits bone R sits bone L pubis symphysis coccyx
What are the major role of the multifidus?
stabilize spine against force especially rotation
What is the most superficial of the neck flexors?
sternocleidomastoid
Cervical Flexion muscles used?
sternocleidomastoid, Longus Colli & Capitis, Platysma, Scalenus Anterior
Cervical Rotation muscles used?
sternocleidomastoid, levator scapula, Splenius capitis & cervicis,Longissimus,multifidus, Rectus Capitis Posterior Major
What are the muscles of the rotator cuff?
supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis
Define forward head posture?
the weight of the head is no longer positioned over the body's COG and thus weighs ( more /less ), straining the muscles of the ( chest /back ) and forcing the chest to move ( forwards /backwards ) in space to offset the forward weight of the displaced head .
What is the LEAST mobile section of the spine?
thoracic spine
Rotation occurs in what plane?
transverse plane
What abdominal muscle that does NOT cause spinal movement when it contracts
transversus abdominis
Name the abdominal muscles from the deepest to the most superficial
transversus abdominis, internal obliques, external obliques rectus abomini
The _____of the quadriceps extend the knee , while only the _____ flexes the hip .
vasti and rectus femoris
If you go to the moon , your mass or weight will change?
weight
How much does the head weigh?
10-14lbs
How many ribs does the Thoracic spine have?
12 ribs
The vertebral border of the scapulae should be how many inches away from the spine?
3-4"
Most joints in the body are what class levers?
3rd
Most movements in the body are which class of levers ?
3rd class levers
Number vertebrae in the coccyx?
4 vertebrae fused
Number of sacral vertebrae?
5 vertebrae fused