POUL final exam
importance of the falcon/hawk's body weight in falconry
A fat hawk is not always a happy hawk as that weight can put unnecessary stress on ankles and create Bumblefoot problems. Moult weight should not be obese, and flying weight is not starvation too little fat can lead to poor health and poor feather quality
passager
A passage bird is one trapped from the wild before it was 12 months of age or, more simply, an immature wild bird caught during first migration
hunting techniques, killing methods and mantling
Ambush-Dash and Grab Aerial Pursuit- Used by Peregrine. Sky drop Soaring- Looking for food by riding thermals Piracy- Taking smaller bird's food- Eagles Hovering/ kiting- Glide on wind- Americal Kestrel, Kites Plunge Diving- Osprey Perch- Red tailed hawk Cooperative Hunting- Harris Hawk Wildfires- Look for scattering prey- Swainson Hawk Killing Methods: Blows from the feet, talons cause internal injuries, suffocation, cervical dislocation (rare), and eating (small prey can be swallowed). Mantling: larger raptors often steal from smaller raptors. To prevent this a smaller raptor will kill its prey and spread its wings to cover its prey
hemochromatosis
An iron storage disease- a problem commonly seen in toucans and mynahs that are not fed a low iron diet in captivity.
the importance of vultures in the ecosystem and preventing disease
Because of their role as nature's garbage disposers, vultures are able to keep the environment clean and free of contagious diseases by disposing of carrion that would otherwise be a breeding ground for disease, preventing animals from being contaminated Vultures also help control livestock diseases such as brucellosis, tuberculosis, and anthrax by disposing of infected carcasses.
eurasian collared dove and the rapid spread of this invasive species
Brought to the Bahamas in the 1970s by a breeder, he was robbed and let the rest of his birds go...spread to florida by 1987. Don't know what will happen to native birds because it is an invasive species (may compete with the Mourning dove) quickly spread throughout Florida and across continental US
crop milk production, its composition, evolutionary advantage and general nutrient value relative to human and cow milk
Production: 1. Prolactin stimulates hypertrophy of epithelial cells in crop (Crop is lined with proliferating basal zone to epithelium) Cell replacement (basal zone to epithelium) 2. Cells sloth off out of crop (crop milk) 3. Prolactin decreases closer to fledging Composition: Prolactin cells contain a large amount of lipids and proteins Mixed with water Evolutionary adv. & general nutrient value comparison can produce own milk for young rapid development of altricial chicks (high nutritional content) High nutritious with greater levels of fat and protein than human or cow milk
keel bone and coracoid bone
keel bone: -keeled sternum (breastbone) -supports large breast muscles needed to power flight coracoid bones: -elongated and strengthened -prevent collapse of skeletal system during powerful downstroke of flight
pigeon species
large number 20% threatened 12 extinct
dollar value of illegal wildlife trade and its value relative to other organized illegal trade
$5 to $20 billion annually. Just behind black marketing of drugs, weapons, and human trafficking.
methods birds use to get into the air
***most energy used in take off!*** 1. large birds: jump off tree/cliff and "glide" 2. medium birds: take a running start, build up speed, and take off -- "taxiing" like airplane 3. small birds: can jump, flap wings, and take off at the ground from stand still
the threats to the United States from illegal wildlife smuggling
-introduction of non-native invasive species -disease transmission
falconry
A Medieval sport of hunting with falcons which is the art of training falcons to hunt and return
how birds attract mates, typically female is choosing the male based on his genetic potential
*factors used to attract females are typically visual and/or acoustic based -display of feathers -inflated throat pouches -display of nest building/decorating skills -flight displays -dance -song
basic functions of proventriculus
-"true stomach" -acts like human stomach -HCl and pepsin aid in digestion (pepsin breaks down protein)
BirdLife International
--global partnership of conservation organizations whose mission is to conserve birds, their habitats, and global biodiversity -helps assess the worldwide status of all bird species -one of the partners for the production of the IUCN Red List
as a family, the high level of extinction and proportion of parrots threatened with extinction
-19 extinct -97 threatened out of 355
basic functions of crop
-1st place of chemical digestion -breakdown of starch -saliva softens food -storage of food (for offspring - regurgitation) -slowly releases food for digestion as needed
potential impact of climate change on bird numbers
-24 critically endangered species threatened by climate change -biggest impacts coming from storms/floods and droughts -bird species likely to be most impacted initially would be island-dwelling, oceanic, and coastal bird species, as well as Arctic and Antarctic species
pets
-3rd most numerous non-aquatic pets (after cats and dogs) -over a billion dollars of direct revenue in US -ornamental and backyard chickens and game birds kept
basic functions of small intestine
-3rd phase of chemical digestion -pH raised for digestion -nutrient absorption -enzymes released -bile released to emulsify fats
general recommended feeding guidelines
-80-85% of the bird's caloric intake be from appropriate pellets -15-20% fruits, vegetables, nuts, or other human food. -Keep away from highly processed and fatty foods and instead go with pasta, cooked lean meat, and plain whole grain cereal. -offer fatty and junky foods sparingly -should not need vitamin and mineral supplements or grit -foods to be avoided includes chocolate, avocado, milk
reasons to be optimistic about bird conservation in general
-88% of critically endangered bird species have received targeted conservation action and over 70% of these species have seen beneficial results -species are being down-listed on IUCN Red List -growing public awareness -land being set aside to preserve critical habitats
African Greys
-Adept at talking -Enjoy human physical contact -highly empathetic -sense and respond to their owners' moods -easygoing and adaptable -hypocalcemia -growl loudly
species of parrots known for their talking ability
-African Greys -Amazons -Eclectus Macaws -cockatoos
know the purpose of the AFA
-American Federation of Aviculture -to represent all aspects of aviculture and to educate the public about keeping and breeding birds in captivity. -legislative awareness
emus
-Australia - nomadic -3 toes -eat seeds, fruit, insects, and young green foliage -male takes full responsibility for the incubation and care of the offspring incubates for 56 days without eating, drinking, or defecating -once chicks hatch, male becomes very aggressive and often drives away female -raised commercially for several products meat similar to beef feathers and egg shells used in jewelry and crafts skin, oil (most valuable part of bird)
number of recognized bird species and how this number compares to reptilian, amphibian, and mammalian species
-BirdLife recognizes 10,052 bird species -more bird species than reptilian (8,734), amphibian (6,347) and mammalian (5,488) species
define CITES and know its purpose
-Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora -Establishes international controls over trade in wild plant and animal species (as well as products derived from them)
functions of estrogen and progesterone
-Estrogen: -promotes sexual behavior in female birds -stimulates development of oviduct -stimulates liver to synthesize egg yolk components -stimulates oviduct to produce egg albumen and shell Progesterone: -essential for stimulation of LH surge necessary for ovulation -stimulates the breakdown of the stigma -also stimulates oviduct to produce egg albumen components
general characteristics of the kakapo
-Heaviest Parrot -Large wings but flightless -Native to New Zealand -herbivore -good climber -nocturnal -distinctive, musty smell that attracts predators -Booms can be heard 5 km away
taxonomy (Neornithes, Palaeognathae, Neognathae, Galloanserae, Neoaves)
-Neornithes (modern birds) [divided into two clades...] -Palaeognathae & Neognathae [Neognathae can be further subdivided into...] -Galloanserae (landfowl & waterfowl) & Neoaves
world distribution of parrots in general terms
-Southern hemisphere -most found in South America and Australia -typically found in lowland tropical forests, open forests, and savanna ecosystems
ratites
-a group of flightless birds -evolved from a common flighted ancestor -no predators so no need to fly, invest in size and behavior rather than flight (less energy)
advantages of a pelleted diet
-advantage in manufacturing in that all the ingredients are ground to make the diet, mixed, and then cast into uniform pellets -uniform, consumable, provide a complete and balanced diet
definition of a bird
-all feathered animals -hollow bones -warmblooded
importance of nutritional research prior to placing specimens of bird species in captivity
-anatomy varies greatly across bird species -birds will die in captivity as a result of being fed improper diets -research needs to include detailed examination of digestive tracks of specimens that have died to determine what the species is capable of digesting -nutrient levels need to replicate those in the wild diet -ensures nectar-feeding lories aren't fed seeds simply because they're parrots
toe arrangements in birds
-anisodactyl feet: 3 toes forward, one back (most perching birds) -syndactyl feet: same as anisodactyl, but with two toes fused from base to middle -zygodactyl feet: 2 middle toes forward, 2 outside toes back (heterodactyl if toes 3 & 4 point forward and 1 & 2 are backward) -pamprodactyl: all toes point forward webbed feet: totipalmate: all four toes webbed palmate: three toes webbed semipalmate: webbing only extends partway up the toes from their base
arboreal v. cursorial origin of flight
-arboreal hypothesis: the ancestors of modern birds lived in trees and started flying by gliding down from branch to branch -cursorial hypothesis: basal bird species ran along the ground with their forearms outstretched for balance as they ran for prey or from predators --> feathers created lift that would take the animal off the ground
significance of parrots ingesting clay
-basis has not been definitively concluded -may be related to neutralizing the toxins ingested with their food -may be a source for sodium
characteristics of theropod dinosaurs
-bipedal -carnivorous -feathered (dinosaur fuzz and branching feathers) -hollow bones -some laid eggs in nests -similar respiration (air sacs)
bird watching
-bird watching revenue is probably the largest component of this bird economic commerce -1 in 4 Americans are bird watchers -one of the most common hobbies around the world -expense = equipment, food, lodging, transportation
hearing-resolving ability relative to humans
-birds have a hearing range capability roughly equal to ours (except many species may not be able to hear low frequency sounds as well as humans) -however, birds can process noise faster and break it into components (resolving) -distinguish sounds that are much closer in time than humans (humans may hear something as one note, whereas birds may hear up to ten separate notes)
the fact that female birds can store sperm (necessary because of short fertilization window)
-birds only have 15 minute window for fertilization to occur (shortest ovulation window of all vertebrates) -sperm must enter before albumen forms or it can't get fertilized --> storage ensures that sperm are available when ovum is ovulated -storage also eliminates need for repeated copulations (lowers risk of predation) -storage has led to sperm selection
repercussions of reduced bird numbers
-birds play vital roles in our ecosystem; the loss of birds indicates a degradation of habitats -rodent carcass cleanup --> decrease disease -spread seeds -pollinate plants -control insect populations -help crop yields -provide fertilizer -reduction of recreational activities (bird-watching)
ability to see in color and UV spectrum
-birds' color vision far exceeds humans -birds have ability to see in the ultraviolet range (plumage can appear very colorful with UV reflection)
male reproductive characteristics -internal testes -production of a lot of sperm compared to other animals to make up for increased sperm mortality -quick maturation time of avian sperm
-both testes enlarge during mating season (1-3% of body weight) -internal testes: must produce 4-8x as much sperm since most dies (too hot internally) -sperm matures quickly (about 9-15 days vs. human 75 days) because no storage capability, short female window, and short ejaculatory tract
the significance of closed versus open leg bands on parrots
-closed=parrot was born in captivity (can be babies stolen from wild nests) -open=imported birds (sometimes captive-bred birds that were not banded at a young age)
issues to be confronted in the future
-conservation of entire ecosystems and migratory corridors so world view rather than one location or one country: migrations across nations so need agreement across many countries -challenge of conserving island bird species: threats on islands are usually because of invasive species clean, efficient, and renewable energy sources is not always good for birds (wind generated energy) -many pet bird species do not have sustainable populations in captivity: determining conditions needed to successfully reproduced was difficult and never accomplished -unwanted birds: birds put in sanctuaries because owners relinquish them because of changes in family structure, finances, noise, etc.
evolution of flightless birds (advantages and disadvantages)
-de-evolved from ancestors who did fly -before many predators, being flightless was an advantage because it used less energy -other advantages: no size restrictions, large enough to defend themselves -found in closed, isolated ecosystems (New Zealand, Hawaii) with few predators --> successful until more humans and predators came
methods used by wildlife smugglers
-deceptively declared on customs forms using look-alike, unprotected species as the listed species -declared as captive-bred species which often exempts them from stringent regulations -illegal species will be mixed with legal species or hidden in a shipment of legal species
things to consider before buying a parrot (type of parrot, commitment duration, and cost)
-type of parrot (what kind of attention do you want to give to the parrot) -commitment duration (large parrots live 80-90, medium live 30-60, small live 10-20) -cost (larger and less available costs thousands, smaller $25)
the success of peregrine falcon recovery program in comparison to the ongoing difficulties in reestablishing whooping crane and California Condor populations due to collisions with power lines and being shot (whooping crane) and lead poisoning
-despite various breeding programs, Whooping Crane are still considered critically endangered with only a few hundred remaining; biggest source of mortality is collision with power lines, and many are shot -the ban of DDT and the Peregrine Fund (used to breed & release Peregrine Falcons) lead to the removal of the species from the Endangered Species List -success of Peregrine Fund resulted in switching focus to conserving birds of prey worldwide --> California Condor (wild condors monitored by identification numbers on wing bands) -California Condors face the threat of lead poisoning (lead shot in animals like deer, scavenged by condors)
ecosystem service
-ecosystem services that birds provide to humans -foragers of insects, seed dispersers, pollinators, granivores (consuming and destroying weed seeds - preventing growth) -raptor control rodent populations, clean up carcasses, prevent diseases
importance of education and research in preserving birds
-education: successfully interacting -research: provides knowledge
different strategies (methods) for incubation -- including brood parasitism
-eggs must be kept 90-99 degrees F 1. parents build nest & one or both transfer heat to eggs by sitting on them 2. egg may be held on the feet of male parent and kept warm by abdominal skin contact (penguins) 3. female of one species lays eggs in nest of another species and the host species incubates them (BROOD PARASITISM) 4. eggs may be buried in a mound of decaying vegetation 5. put eggs in soil/sand near thermal vent 6. desert birds provide shade for eggs to cool
kiwis
-evolved in the absence of mammals on the island of New Zealand - considered a national symbol -small: size of a football -have no breast bone at all rather than an unkeeled sternum -able to detect worms, spider, larvae, and beetles by shoving their long, thin bill just under the surface of the ground - excellent sense of smell and perception of vibration -accumulate large fat deposits in order to withstand long breeding season -monogamous for life -North Island Brown kiwi and Little Spotted Kiwi - male incubates -Great spotted, Tokoeka, okarito Brown kiwi - male and female incubates -vulnerable, endangered, near threatened
problems with seed based diets
-excessive in fat -low in fiber and low in sodium -calcium and other vitamins and minerals
structural colors
-feather structures can create different colors from different angles -reflected light can change color -genetics control colors -some feather colors only visible in UV light
basic functions of ceca
-fermentation of food particles, in particular leafy plant material -beginning of large intestine where food is acted on by cecal secretions, bacteria, and fungi --> nutrient absorption
Archaeopteryx
-first fossil animal with feathers -discovered in Bovaria in 1861 -reptile with teeth -had flight feathers on forelimbs and long tail
functions of feathers
-flight -insulation --social signaling -camouflage -food collection -sensory reception -sound collection
unkeeled sternum
-flight generates tremendous stress on the skeleton so the flight muscles must be solidly attached to the skeleton -an enlarged sternum (keel) allows for this -ratites have flat or absent keel bones (scientists believe it has been lost as a result of the birds adopting a flightless lifestyle)
concept of "lift" and anatomical structure of the wings that create lift
-front of wing is thick (bones and muscle) -back of wing is thin and lightweight (feathers) -wing gently curves downward, so back of wing is lower than the front of wing -air that is deflected over top of wing: creates suction that lifts wing up -air that is deflected underneath is inhibited by downward slope of wing and pushes lightweight feathers up -air flowing over top of wing is faster, so it exerts less pressure than slower moving air under wing -wing is lifted by difference in pressure
basic functions of gizzard
-grinding -mechanical digestion -very muscular to tear food apart (since birds are toothless) -more muscular in seed-eating birds (less muscular in meat-eaters) -some birds consume rocks/sand to help break down food -protected by cuticle
Carolina parakeet range and extinction
-had a range across the eastern half of the US (NY-FL) -going from abundant to extinct in 100 years, cause is a mystery -habitat degradation from agriculture, became agricultural pests, easy to kill in large numbers
potential sites (digestive organs) for bacterial fermentation of ingested leafy plant material
-hoatzin: uses enlarged CROP as rumen (bacteria digest plant material) -rhea: CECUM is where plant material is digested by bacteria (must eat feces for nutrients) -ostrich: enlarged LARGE INTESTINE provides for digestion of plant material
the need for torpor in humming birds
-hummingbirds need to get enough food to support daytime activities as well as gain enough energy reserves to survive the night with no food intake -enter a state of torpor during the night to conserve energy -during torpor, birds decrease their heart rate and respiration rate to allow their body temps to decrease to ambient levels
factors that predispose animal species to endangerment
-if a species is considered dangerous -if a species is in competition with humans for resources (ex: forest birds have suffered due to deforestation) -if a species has something of value to humans (pets, furs, skin, feathers) -if a species has a specialized diet -if a species has a small geographical range / population is concentrated in one small area (ex: species went from common to critically endangered after an intense hurricane) -if the species of bird is flightless
why birds are so efficient in extracting oxygen from air compared to humans (in general terms)
-inspired air takes two full respiratory cycles before it is expired -birds can continue gas exchange between breaths with air left in air sacs -air sacs allow for the lungs to be constantly bathed in oxygen-rich blood during both inspiration and expiration -birds have O2 rich air in lungs 100% of the time! -countercurrent gas exchange is active (more efficient than passive diffusion)
feather use by humans
-insulation -ornamentation -sports (fishing, arrows, etc.) -writing instruments -animal feed ingredient -dust removal
the fact that most male birds lack an intermittent organ; why a few birds still have retained a penis
-lack of intermittent organ in 97% of bird species --> cloacal kiss copulatory event hypotheses: 1. water damage prevention -water birds have retained penis -copulation on water occurring by cloacal kiss could result in sperm being washed away -sperm might come in contact with water, causing sperm damage 2. sperm competition -for male birds that incubate and care for offspring, the investment is only worthwhile if the offspring represent his genetics -can force delivery of sperm -can scrape away stored semen present from previous male competitors to ensure paternity
distinctive anatomical features of parrots (foot arrangement, use as hands and beak structure)
-large downward-curved upper mandible that ends at a point and an upward curving lower madible (appearance of overbite) -zygodactyl foot arrangement meaning that their first and fourth toes of their foot point backwards, while the middle two digits point forward. -use their feet as hands
factors that cause endangerment
-leading cause: habitat destruction (caused mostly by farming and logging) -invasive non-native plants or animals -overhunting/collection and human-caused catastrophes -environmental contamination/pollution (ex: DDT)
controversies and unanswered questions related to birds evolving from theropod dinosaurs
-limited molecular biology evidence linking dinosaurs and birds -research met with skepticism because protein material is normally quickly degrades after an animal dies and is rarely found in fossils more than a few hundred thousand years old -opposing finger data (modern bird fingers and theropod fingers do not match up -- I,II,III vs. II,III,IV)
cues for reproduction
-long term: changing time of daylight (photoperiod) --> spring, warmer (long day breeder) -medium term: adequate food supply, enough territory -short term: nest site, mate, courtship *long, medium, and short cues must all be right for successful reproduction **for birds near equator with no day change, just use medium and short cues
agriculture
-meat and eggs produced by birds are the largest sources of animal protein produced and eaten by humans -chickens (87%), turkeys (6.7%), ducks (4%), geese, pigeons, quails, pheasants, ostriches, and emus
overall basics of sound production by the syrinx
-membranes and labia restrict air movement --> vibrations are created and sound is produced -songbirds have many more pairs of muscles than non-songbirds -vocalization
common problems encountered by parrot owners
-messiness -ability to escape if the flight feathers are not clipped -noise -boredom and feather picking is root cause -provide at least 12 hours of sleep -night frights
hovering
-most costly form of flight -flying into a head wind at a speed equal to that wind so there is no net forward movement -hummingbirds are the only truly specialized hovering birds
ability to detect motion relative to humans
-motion sensitivity in birds is much better than that of humans -resolve movements faster than 100 hertz -critical for birds as they maneuver around obstacles during rapid flight and search for food (or avoid becoming food)
ostriches
-native to central and southern Africa inhabiting the savanna and desert environments -male maintains loose pair bond with major hen and 7 minor females -major hen and minor hens deposit eggs into nest with dominant hen's eggs in the center -male and major hen incubate (male at night) -farmed commercially for feathers (fashion), leather (boots, shoes, clothes, and accessories), meat (served in restaurants), and oil (skin care)
limited taste ability in birds
-not well developed in birds -relatively few taste buds compared to other animals (24-350 compared to 9000 in humans) -exception: hummingbirds taste sugar (need more energy) -specific appetite for salt -only drink water within 10 degrees of their body temp
most bird species are monogamous
-over 90% are monogamous -function as a unit to raise offspring -so prevalent in birds because reproductive success depends on both parents working to provide enough food for the survival of their offspring -monogamous pairs typically look the same physically
reasons birds are placed in rescue facilities
-owners are no longer or temporarily unable to care for their birds due to things like military service, health reasons, old age, or moving from a house to an apartment -life event changes such as the death of an owner, loss of a job, a marriage, or birth of a child -behavioral problems -people buy them rashly and end up not wanting them
food source for lories and lorikeets
-pollen and nectar, supplemented with fruits
feather color of most parrots
-predominant parrot feather color is green
basics of feather maintenance
-preening -barbicels are reattached to make wings aerodynamic
reduce death of birds as a land/home owner
-preserve wetlands -create living brush piles -selective logging -leave food producing trees with nest cavities -allow areas to grow naturally (edges) -plant native bird producing shrubs -plant food plots -nest boxes and provide water sources -limit use of pesticides -hunt on a reserve
molting
-process of feather loss and subsequent replacement -worn and damaged feathers cannot be repaired, they must be replaced (at least once a year) -new feather pushes older feather from the follicle --> cells of new feather mature, become filled with keratin, and die -molting process halts during breeding period -can happen rapidly during non-breeding periods (allows birds to have highly efficient feathers by the time they need to migrate for winter)
IUCN Red List
-provides taxonomic, conservation status, and geographic distribution information for all known plants and animal species
the necessity and difficulty of achieving pair bonded pairs of parrots in captivity
-typically pair with a mate for life -results in strongly pair-bonded birds -non-bonded pairs will show no togetherness (preening one another, roost together, defend their territory together)
cassowaries
-rainforests of New Guinea and Surrounding islands, NE Australia -casque: soft, foam like helmet structure - use is unknown -5-6 spike like wing quills on each wing for defense, also have claw or major digit on their wings -eat mainly fruits -females are largers -males attract females with low frequency booming call -males exclusively incubate and tend to chicks for up to one year -solitary in the wild: have no serious predators besides humans -Northern population is threatened and southern is endangered -threats include habitat loss, fragmentation, and human exposure -chicks bond strongly to humans but are very aggressive once they reach maturity -shy and seldom seen: like to defend themselves if confronted -considered one of the most dangerous animals kept in zoos based on frequency and severity of injuries incurred by zoo keepers
visual acuity of birds
-reflects degree of resolving power of the visual processing system -2.5 to 3 times better than humans (especially for preying birds) -most birds can resolve the details of an image that is about 3x further away from them than we can -larger visual fields = less visual acuity (possibly not much greater than that of humans)
function of air sacs
-respiration is twice as efficient as humans -most species have 9 air sacs -take in high volume of air per breath (3x larger volume of air than humans) -hold air and allow for the highly efficient, continuous unidirectional flow of air through the lungs
Eclectus Parrot
-reverse sexual dimorphism - female is brighter color -native to Indonesia and N. Australia -thought male and females were different species -1 female with 2-3 males, spend times in cavity with young so males bring her food -hairlike feathers -don't use feet as much when eating can tell health of male from beak - all yellow if unhealthy not attention seekers less maintenance
signs that a bird may be sick
-ruffled feathers and sleeping excessively=very sick -daily monitor food consumption and feces appearance: -little feces, and the fecal portion of the droppings become very dark green, almost black in appearance, very sticky -diarrhea -stained green or yellow urate portion
rheas
-run very quickly as a way to escape predators -males will court 2-12 females: fight until dominant male emerges winner will choose territory and make nest male incubates (become broody and so protective the female may not get back to lay more eggs) remain protective once they hatch -considered near threatened -commercially raised for eggs, feathers, meat, leather, and oil -Greater Rhea native to Brazil Lesser Rhea native to Argentina, Chile, and Peru
reproduction in birds is seasonal, based largely on food availability
-seasonal growth of reproductive organs -shrunk most of the time to eliminate weight burden
other things you can do to help birds
-share your interest in birds with others: promote, support organizations
purchasing a parrot?
-should never be rash -should involve the whole family -never buy an un-weaned baby parrot
large variation between species in the sense of smell
-size of olfactory bulbs vary widely (many of them were small and not well-developed) -some smell nothing, some smell everything -ex: homing pigeons use olfactory cues to return home; vulture can smell decaying carcass from miles away
unihemispheric slow wave sleep
-sleeping with one eye open and half of the brain awake -allows birds to detect approaching predators while still getting rest
reasons for lack of bird fossils
-small, hollow bones result in poor fossilization; as prey animals, remains are often scattered -water birds and bones in volcanic ashes fossilize best
clipping wing feathers (why do it and how)
-so it will not fly out of a window if it is out of its cage -clip the 7 primary flight feathers on each wing, use scissors to make a clean cut, cut the primary flight feathers about two inches from where they meet the tips of the primary coverts.
auricular feathers
-specialized feathers that cover the ear -adapted to minimize flight turbulence, while not impeding sound transmission
household hazards for pet parrots
-standing water -lead paint -the kitchen (fumes from overheated non-stick pans, hot sauce, electrical cords) -bedrooms (human might roll on top of parrot)
general characteristics of macaws as pets
-strikingly beautiful colored plumage -weigh over 3 pounds -because of their bold appearance, intelligence and friendliness, the macaws have been highly desired as pets -make excellent life-long companions -very mouth and beak tactile and explore with their mouths and tongues -playful, incredibly loyal, adaptable, highly trainable, and like a fair amount of physical contact -can get over excited (constricted pupils) -generate loud noises -high-fat diet
number of birds currently considered threatened
-the % of threatened birds (extinct in wild, critically endangered, endangered, and vulnerable) is 12.67% -1 out of every 8 bird species faces high risk of extinction -682 species listed as vulnerable
the importance of toys
-they provide the bird with mental stimulation and physical activity when owners are away at work or school -key ways to prevent behavioral issues related to boredom
evolutionary advantages (functions) for the development of feathers
-to provide insulation (transition from coldblooded to warmblooded) -flight (developed later) -attraction (attract a mate) -defense from predators (camouflage; central tail feathers likely used as anti-predator defense mechanism)
reasons birds migrate
-to take advantage of milder climates -to increase food resources (go where food is plenty) --> successful breeding -to reach adequate nesting sites with ample space, protection, and resources to raise young
current population trends for birds
-total bird populations decreased by 20 to 25 percent (research from 2002, based on changing patterns of land use by humans) -40.3% of birds have declining populations -44.4% have stable populations -only 6.2% have increasing populations -mean population trends for birds in Europe and US combined have decreased by 16% since 1970
nictitating membrane
-transparent third eyelid that lies beneath other two eyelids -can be swept across eye to clear the surface of the eye of any debris and to moisten the eye
size of avian eyes, eye shape, and eye position
-very large eyes relative to body size; take up most of head (50% or more) -not typically spherical; most are flat (larger field of view); tubular-shaped in nocturnal species (allow for night vision); spherical eyes are common in daylight hunters (provide better visual acuity) -position varies; most are positioned on the side of their heads toward the center of the head --> can see up to 300 degrees (woodpeckers have 360 degree vision because eyes are high up on sides of heads)
advantage of vocal communication over visual communication
-vocal communication can be transmitted for longer distances and can be transmitted while the sender and receiver both can be hidden in vegetation
basic functions of large intestine
-where urine and feces are excreted together as uric acid -white part: urine -brown part: feces *conserves much more water than humans
reduce death of birds due to window collisions and pets and cats
-window collisions: 2nd largest human associated source of avian mortality. can be reduced by utilizing stripe and grid patterns of clear UV - reflecting and absorbing window coverings, one way films, decals -keep cats inside
current phylogenetic relationships between birds are based both on structural (MORPHOLOGICAL) similarity and MOLECULAR genetic data and are constantly evolving
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plant material is the most widely consumed food item -- within this category, seeds and fruit are the most commonly consumed
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the fact that birds are walking on their toes rather than on equivalent feet
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the fact that female birds can manipulate offspring sex ratios
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the two most important senses for birds are vision and hearing (similar to humans)
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two methods of bird sexing and advantages or disadvantages of each method
1. DNA sexing -genetic analysis is performed using a blood sample to detect the presence of a sex-specific gene -advantage is that non-invasive and relatively cheap -disadvantage is that only the sex of the bird is determined, and no assessment of the actual reproductive capability of the bird is made. 2. Laparoscopic surgery -small incision is made so a laparoscope can be inserted into the body cavity on the left side of the bird to determine if an ovary or testes is present -the advantage is that assessment of reproductive maturity is made and anatomical structural defects in the reproductive tract may be detected -the disadvantage is the cost and the risk associated with anesthesia
stages of training a raptor for falconry
1. Manning the bird- capture, initial weight, getting used to the equipment and the falconer 2. Flying to the fist- Using leash and treats to train bird to fly to the fist 3. Lure training- Longest phase. Use leather lure that is designed to simulate what you want the bird to hunt to train it to hunt, build endurance, and get it used to exchanging prey for treats 4. Entering (set the prey)- First kill is very important. Bird should be hungry. Use live but compromised prey and allow the bird to eat it.
feather picking (three major categories and the causes for each, and telling the difference between mate vs. self-inflicted feather picking
1. behavioral- habit, result of boredom, owners' attention to it makes it worse, most common 2. environmental- caused by dry air, allergens, and new environmental stimuli, spray with water and provide weekly bathing opportunity to prevent 3. medical- metal toxicosis, with lead and zinc toxicity the most common, skin infections, vitamin A deficiency, impacted feathers, thyroid problems, and obesity
basic functions of oviduct segments
1. capture of ovulated ovum 2. transport of ovum (and eventual expulsion from body) 3. storage of spermatozoa (site of fertilization and early embryo development) 4. secretion of protein around ovum (albumen) 5. encasement of ovum and protein layer 6. addition of fluids into encased ovum 7. secretion of shell 8. secretion of shell pigments 9. secretion of cuticle 10. expulsion of completed egg *takes place in 24-30 hours
major anatomical and physiological adaptations for flight
1. efficient respiratory and cardiovascular system 2. no bladder 3. reproductive system shrinks until mating season 4. no eye muscles, teeth, small brain 5. eyes take up 50% of head 6. hollow bones (heavier the bird, hollower its bones) -- feathers weight more than bones 7. not head or tail heavy -- center of gravity (no tail bone) 8. fused bones together for strength 9. wing bones are fused 10. tail feather steers bird
9 categories for IUCN Red List (and which are considered threatened for extinction)
1. not evaluated 2. data deficient 3. least concern 4. near threatened 5. vulnerable* (high risk) 6. endangered* (very high risk) 7. critically endangered* (extremely high risk) 8. extinct in the wild** 9. extinct *considered threatened for extinction in the wild *considered threatened for extinction
types of feathers
1. remiges: primary and secondary flight feathers 2. retrices: large tail feathers 3. contour: major body covering (outside edge is aerodynamic with barbs, barbules, barbicels making up the vane) 4. down: soft, fluffy feathers that are underneath contour feathers; trap air and provide insulation 5. filoplumes: hairlike feathers scattered throughout plumage to monitor the movement and position of adjacent veined feathers 6. bristles: located near eyes and bill; aid in protection of eyes, food collection, and sensory perception (research is limited) 7. ear coverts / auricular feathers
two examples of economical flight
1. thermals (birds will ride a thermal, gaining elevation within the thermal, until the warm air begins to cool with elevation and stops rising) 2. dynamic soaring (use of wind speed near the surface of water) 3. flying in formation (reduction in wind resistance)
reasons for birds laying eggs with specks of color
1. to blend in; protection from predators (used by ground birds especially) 2. identification (allows birds to be able to find her eggs; also allows birds to notice if another bird lays eggs in their nest)
the basics of training racing pigeons
23-25 days - weaning early for independence 40 days - learning to trap (feed in morning and only get food at night if go in trap) 50 days - imprinting on home loft 75 days - "Fly in Formation" (will leave and explore area) 90 days - ranging 120 days - tossing (basketing and liberation)
genetic progenitor of commercial turkeys and wild turkeys rose for gourmet market
248.5 million birds that make $5 billion 200,000 in captivity to provide gourmet meat
how many toes do most ratites have?
3 ostriches has 2
requirements/procedures for becoming a falconer
3 classes of license (apprentice, general, master). Fill out application for department of natural resources for state. Federal exam Have to build a hawk house
the number of toes of each ratite
3 toes on most; ostriches have 2 toes
world-wide distribution of raptors
300 species throughout the world, with the exception of Antarctica and a few isolated oceanic islands.
pheasants kept in captivity as pets by hobbyists, or commercially for hunting preserves orfor the gourmet food market
50 million landfowl raised commercially-released for hunting hobbyist raise them for entertainment, food, and preservation of the species
Imprinting in birds
A primitive form of learning in which some young animals follow and form an attachment to the first moving object they see and hear.
haggard
A raptor that was over 1 year old when it was taken from the wild, or a wild raptor that is over one year old.
accipiter vs buteos
Accipiter: The Accipiters, or forest hawks, have short, rounded wings convenient for their dash-and-grab hunting style. They vary in size, with the largest about crow-sized. Sharp-shinned Hawk, Cooper's Hawk, and Northern Goshawk are a few examples of Accipiters. Buteos: Buteos include large, wide-winged, short-tailed hawks that prefer forest with open areas for soaring. Red-tailed Hawks and Harris's Hawks fall into this category.
raptor diversity in body size and prey consumed
California Condor having a wingspan of nearly 10 feet and weighing over 20 pounds, while the Sharp-shinned Hawk weighs only 3-7 ounces and has a 20-inch wingspan raptors prey on animals of various sizes, with the larger eagles, such as the Golden Eagle, capable of taking prey as large as a coyote or pronghorn antelope. Smaller raptors, like the American Kestrel, feed on small prey like grasshoppers and mice.
sources of raptors for falconry
Catch wild raptor - are legal ones to catch Buy from Breeder - master can have more birds - Common cost $100s and rare $1000s
Cecile Steele and the establishment of the poultry industry
Cecil Steele started the poultry industry by ordering some chickens and getting more than she ordered, she began selling them and that is how she established the poultry industry. Spread to others and the Delmarve broiler industry was founded
local club pigeon racing (racing terms such as counter mark, liberator, etc) how is the winner of the race determined?
Countermark: contains the bird's band number and this elastic band is placed on the bird's leg Liberator: paid individual not affiliated with any of the racers who transports the birds to the designated race starting point and releases them at the designated time Winner is determined by the bird with the fasted speed in yards per minute
crow hawking
DIFFICULT AND RISKY -If your raptor gets a crow, a group of crows will likely come and mob your raptor if you don't get to your raptor fast enough to protect it so it isn't killed -Hunter needs to be in good physical condition to get to raptor on time. -Raptor needs to be able to SUCCESSFULLY bring down a crow.
ratites evolved from flighted ancestors
DNA still has some linked to flighted birds. No predators=no need to fly
characteristics(anatomical differences, feeding styles, initiation of flight) of the 2 categories of ducks (dabbling vs. diving)
Dabbling-legs at the center of the body, tip their head first into the water, suck in water through their bill. Can leap directly off the surface of the water. Omnivorous. Tolerant and adapted to humans in their environment Diving-smaller and more compact, legs are shorter and set back farther. Small narrow bills for eating plants and crustaceans. Strong feet propel them under water. Need a runway of land or water to take flight
behavior modification and training in parrots, general guidelines on what to do and what not to do
Dos: -start with verbal commands while using a firm tone and direct eye contact -focus on the positive -be consistent -address repeated bad behavior Don'ts: -punish the parrots -teach it to do something and then try to train him not to do it anymore
the gains in efficiency of the broiler and laying hen industry over time
Efficiency in converting vegetable mass to meat. Scientific reasons from universities and the industry, nutrition and disease advancements.
Egyptians -mass production of chickens, Greeks and Romans use of chickens
Egypt- first for display purposes, large scale incubation using bricks and fire Greeks-cockfights, then meat and eggs Greeks introduced chickens to Romans- entertainment, food, and divination
near extinction and recovery
End of 19th century near extinction conservation and
differences between Asiatic and European breeds of chickens
Europeans were very small and Asiatic were larger
birds occupy every kind of ecological niche and have evolved different strategies (senses, beak structure, use of tools and other animals, etc)
Examples: -hummingbirds: some flowers are very long so only hummingbirds can eat out of them -owls: use sense of hearing to catch prey -vultures: use sense of smell to detect decaying flesh -finches: all adapted different beaks to eat different variety of seeds -shorebirds: some have short bills for surface prey; some have thick bills to turn over stones to find prey; others have long, thin bills to probe deeper in sand Tools: -strong feet can impale animals on barb wire, thorns, cactus spikes -drop shells on rocks to crack them -crows use thorns and sticks to probe trees for grubbs; store food and save it for later Other animals: -cow birds: eat insects off cows -oxpeckers: live on animals (don't nest) --> eat scabs and ear wax and drink animal blood
in many cases birds can be legally imported to the United States and this is regulated by what organization?
Fish and Wildlife Service
essentials of feeding racing pigeons
Fresh clean water (1.5- 2 inches deep) Seed based but need to provide nutrients through the grit; typically fed this twice a day as much as they can eat for 10 minutes
diclofenac and the Asian vulture crisis
From 1992-2007, populations of three vulture species, the White-rumped,, Indian,, and Slender-billed Vultures in South Asia (specifically India, Pakistan, and Nepal) fell by more than 95 percent, prompting the IUCN to classify their status as critically endangered. This decline was due to secondary exposure to diclofenac, an anti-inflammatory drug given to cattle, a main source of food for the local vultures. After the vultures consumed dead cattle that had been treated with this drug, they became ill and died from renal failure. The environment also began to show the repercussions of using this drug. With fewer vultures, the presence of carrion increased. With the plentiful food supply, rats and feral dog and cat populations increased, leading to a rabies outbreak that later became a human health concern. India, specifically, has the highest rate of human rabies infection in the world, and dog bites are the main source. Fortunately, in this case, diclofenac has been banned in India, Nepal, and Pakistan, but there are still other drugs being used that may be detrimental to these already threatened species. Studies are being conducted to determine what is suitable and safe to use in the environment.
IUCN
International Union for Conservation of Nature -world's oldest and largest environmental organization
Cockatoos
Large cockatoos can be very demanding They love attention and especially like to be held and petted. they bond very strongly to one individual and become protective
historical perspective (symbolism and use in wars - both for messages and for espionage, famous pigeons)
Messages - Romans, greeks, middle east and africa, faster than men in war, Espionage - in war used to relay messages back to their home countries Religion - symbol of love, purity, peace, used for sacrifice, holy spirit, wedding Food- romans and greeks breed for more meat
passenger pigeon most abundant bird to extinction
Most abundant bird species to EVER exist (~ 5 billion) Extinction due to overhunting and the birds inability to prosper outside of flock (power of packs and importance of social structure of flock)
mourning dove and hunting
Most widespread native N. american species, Migratory bird Hunting is allowed, high reproductive rate = stable population Leading game bird shot each year (northern states it is a songbird and can not be killed)
two phases of homing ability
ORIENTATION: when released at a new location, they orient and head off towards the direction of home, using the sun's compass and magnetic field NAVIGATION: used closer to home with odor cues, memory, and eyesight allowing them to navigate home
Falconry Equipment
Perches: stake in ground to serve as a perch Hoods: covers eyes to keep bird calm during transport Bells: worn around ankle(s) to help find raptor throughout the hunt Bewit: soft leather strap where bells are attached Jess: leather strap attached to leg connected to a swivel to the leash Lure: piece of leather decorated to make it look like the particular game to be hunted Leash: to hold bird in hand or tie to perch Scales: to weigh the falcon
introduction of chickens in the Americas Polynesians or Europeans
Polynesians may have came first. Polynesians-west coast, Europeans-east.
mating behavior of most ducks and the term philopatric
Sexual dimorphism Philopatric-they will return to the nest at their own birth site Seasonal monogamy linked to food availability females use stored fat for incubation males are nutritionally deficit from defending nest site
Project Sea Hunt
Study for pigeons doing search-and-rescue for the Coast Guard (on the bottom of helicopters) were 93% accurate
unusual drinking method
Suction method- siphon through one continuous draft instead of scooping in beak and letting water get pulled by gravity
methods used to teach a bird to talk, and for eliminating language and noises not desired
Teaching: -repetition -have another talking bird or child learning to talk in the house rewarded by treats -try to provide a reference or meaning to the word or a contextual application Eliminating language: -ignore it -focus on more pleasing words or sounds
the term soft billed bird what it means in the pet trade
The term 'softbill' was developed in part to provide a name to a collection of birds that were not parrots, but kept by humans as caged-bird pets. Toucans, jays, etc. HEMOCHROMATOSIS
screaming in parrots why it happens and how to prevent it
Why it happens- part of their natural flock behavior How to prevent it- anticipate it and prevent it before it happens, followed by redirecting the parrot's focus on something else
Different perches?
Wood: -ideal -parrots can chew on them which provides activity and helps maintain beak health -downside is that they are hard to clean and must be replaced Plastic: -easy to clean -fairly durable -slippery unless textured, which then makes them harder to clean Cement/conditioning perches: -good as one perch in the cage -should never be the only perch provided because that would lead to sore feet Electric heated thermo perches: -good for cool locations Rope perches: -vine-like, soft textured, and swing -frayed rope cannot be ingested by parrot
eyess
Young bird, typically taken from a nest. Very tame. Raised from nesting. Have to teach everything about flying and hunting. More versatile with what you can teach it to hunt. Less likely to run away
functions of the lure
a piece of leather decorated to make it look like the particular game to be hunted A falconer swings the lure round and round on a cord for the falcon to chase for exercise.
counter current blood flow in the legs
able to keep comfortable in freezing waters. cooler blood is warmed by the warm blood coming from the body. Are able to dilate and constrict their vessels in foot and control the amount of blood shunted to the legs and feet
advantages and disadvantages of flight
advantages: -escape from predators -colonize new areas (trees), move longer distances to relieve overcrowding -find more food disadvantages: -uses tons of energy -lost dexterity of hands b/c of wings -body size restriction (max size approx. 35 lbs, min size just under 2 grams) -low surface area --> hard to regulate body temp
how is training a raptor for falconry accomplished
an arduous process of reward not punishment
geese and swans have longer legs than ducks and are adapted to a more terrestrial lifestyle
and so they don't have to tip over in water
define or describe: bantam chicken, American Standard of Perfection, broiler vs layer, dual purpose (utility type) chicken
bantam chicken-smaller version of other breeds; popular as pets American Standard of Perfection-a publication that describes the standard physical appearance, coloring, and temperament for all breeds of poultry broiler-for meat layer-for eggs utility type- breeds that are viable as layers or for meat
specialized anatomy of raptors
beak shape - curved upper bill, spoon shaped lower bill - Mandibular notch and receptacle on lower, can break bones of prey Feet and Talons (how usually kill prey) - massive feet, very large and strong - 3 toes forward and 1 back - sharp talons Eyes - more forward - binocular vision - skinny head so 270-360 degree view - resolving power 8-10x better Nictitating Membrane Supraorbital Ridge - bony protuberance above the eye, don't know what evolved for - possibly for protection from underbrush - possibly as visor since most are not in forests
ratites have flat or absent keel bones
because they don't have large flight muscles
nesting behavior
build flimsy nests (twigs and vegetation) on trees or ledges Mostly monogamous and lay 1-2 small eggs. 2 eggs per clutch but can make up to 8 clutches a year Short incubation time but fast fledging, rapid development (altricial chicks) because both parents produce crop milk
mating displays
dancing, elaborate nest building, singing, physical aggression, gift giving (colorful items, rocks), plumage flaring
feather pigments (carotenoid, melanin, porphyrins, psittacofulvins and the colors they produce) and the fact that carotenoids are injected while the rest are synthesized by the bird
carotenoid: -must be ingested with diet -red, orange, yellow, some blue & green melanin: -synthesized by bird -brown, black, grey porphyrins: -synthesized by bird -bright browns, green, magenta psittacofulvins: -synthesized by parrots -red, orange, yellow, pink *combinations of these pigments produce other colors
the role of the male in reproductionin each ratite
cassowaries-attract females with low booming call through the forest; males incubate the eggs kiwis-monogamous; males incubate, sometimes females and non-parents too rheas-males court 2-12 females, territorial, incubates eggs, protective emus-takes care of incubation and offspring, stay with young, become aggressive ostriches-bonds with major and minor hens; takes turns incubating with major
the geographic origin of each ratite
cassowaries-deep rain forests in New Guinea kiwis- New Zealand rheas-Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Peru emus-Australia ostriches-Central and Southern Africa
cladistics are not static; relationships change as new fossils are found
cladistics: classification focused on identifying shared derived traits among organisms (lead to near universal acceptance that birds evolved from dinosaurs)
starvation and accidents
collisions with cars, windows, and power lines are major causes of death in raptors
sexual dimorphism
distinct difference in size/appearance between male and female of a species (as well as difference between sexual organs themselves)
family names of ducks (drake, hen and duckling)
drake-male hen-female ducklings-babies, very precocious-follow mother
how duck hunting generates revenue for wetland conservation
duck hunters contribute millions in effort to be able to hunt the waterfowl. Duck stamps. Ducks Unlimited
reason for the domestication of junglefowl, two know early centers for domesticatingchickens
easy to move and transport.pakistan-indus valley. northern china
the importance of education and research in preserving birds
education-proper husbandry, vale of birds, promote conservation and restoration research-promote bird well being
the commercial aspects (products) associated with emus and ostriches
emu meat, egg shells for decoration, skin for clothing, and oil from their fat ostrich feathers, leather, meat, and oil
how kiwis find food
excellent sense of smell and perception of vibration
the ornamental chicken breeding craze
exploded in Britain and Europe, Boston
training an eyess vs a passager for falconry
eyess: Source - taken from nest or breeder Tameness - becomes tame and dependent on human Duration of Training - long - must teach bird to hunt as it wasn't taught by parents Size Limitation of Prey - can train to hunt much larger prey Chance of Losing Bird - low (imprint on you) passager: Source - caught during first migration Tameness - at best they tolerate you Duration of Training - short - bird knows how to hunt Size Limitation of Prey - what used to in wild -won't go after something tried before that didn't work Chance of Losing Bird - high (have for 1 hunting season)
flying from the fist
falconer will drive up close to the prey in a vehicle, roll down the window and let his raptor go walk in field - carry bird the entire time, remove hood for it to make dash ambush kind of hunting
four large, yellow, yolk-filled follicles
hierarchical follicles
Jesse Jewel and the establishment of the vertically integrated poultry industry
feed and seed owner who gave customers chicks and feed to raise them, then once the chickens were grown he bought the chickens back at a price to cover their credit and give the farmers a profit. Started vertical integration of the industry
yolk of an egg -- one large single cell
female gamete / ovum
death of ovarian follicles
follicular atresia (majority of small yellow and large white follicles)
family names for geese and swans (gander, gosling,etc)
gander-male goose-female gosling-babes
term used to describe bird species whose primary source of nutrition are seeds
granivores
the four jungle fowl species present in southeast Asia
green, grey, red, and sri lanka junglefowl
definition of galliformes (landfowl)
ground-dwelling birds that are relatively heavy bodied with well-developed flight muscles and short, rounded wings-allows explosive takeoffs. Precocial offspring
define lek
grounds where (polygamous) males gather to put on elaborate displays (including vocalizations, feather displays, strutting, flight displays, physical fighting, etc) to impress potential female mates
although many raptors are threatened only two species extinct
gualdalupe caracara reunion kestrel
Ornithurines give rise to modern birds, with modern birds arising in the last 5 million years
had superior flight capabilities in comparison to the basal avian species due to anatomical changes: -elongated coracoid bones & strengthened ribcage -keeled sternum to support flight muscles
family names for turkeys (tom or gobbler, hen, poult)
hatchlings-poults; cared for only by the mother young males-jakes; join male groups, but have to wait to breed because of stronger, older, more aggressive males young females-jennies; stay with mother or join other female group
toucans, toucanets, aracari
have long bills used for obtaining food in the wild and thermoregulation, but these bills are light weight and not that strong; SOFT BILLED
worldwide distribution of pigeons and doves
have spread to almost every habitat
game hawking
hunting pheasants, quail, pigeons, ducks ring up (gain altitude), wait on (fly in circular motion and get dog to flush birds), stoop (dramatic dive) falcon will bring it to ground and wait for hunter to get to prey Peregrine falcon
hunting and habitat fragmentation are serious threats to raptor populations
hunting raptors is a serious threat, as well as hunters shooting animals and raptors feeding on the corpse of the animal consuming lead bullets leading to poisoning habitat fragmentation reduces food sources and destroys nesting grounds, lack of nesting sites often limit raptor population growth
determinate vs. indeterminate egg layers
indeterminate: -birds don't have an egg limit per season -continue to produce eggs (replace clutch) if eggs are removed from nest determinate: -set number of eggs a female can produce per breeding season
most parrot pairs are?
long-term monogamous, with female incubating eggs, male getting food
peafowl kept as ornamental displays and pets, feral populations can be problematic
male populations can be problematic around breeding seasons because they become loners and are very territorial. They like to roam, eat ornamental plants, have large droppings, and loud calls, so sometimes they are unwanted by the community
the main threat to parrots?
man for pet trade and for food
Different parrot cages?
medical surgical grade stainless steel: -most expensive -doesn't rust and can last a lifetime -easy to clean and maintain wrought iron cages: -durable for a few years -non-toxic paint or a powder coat finish will be chipped off by most medium-large birds over time -rusts Heavy-guage wire: -cheapest -easily destroyed by large parrots -only for small birds *Solid unit cages are cheaper but the break down cages are worth the money
monocular vision and binocular vision (depth perception)
monocular vision: -vision with one eye -eyes on sides of head -can see 300 degrees binocular vision: -vision using both eyes -greater depth perception -head movement is important --> can't move eyes *once birds see something in their monocular vision, they turn their head to use binocular vision in order to determine depth of predator, food, etc.
the economic importance of birds: bird watching largest component (1 in 4 Americans are bird watchers) agriculture (meat and eggs) pets (birds 3 most numerous non-aquatic pet) ecosystem service
most common hobby in the world,global tourism largest source of animal protein produced and eaten by humans pets, so lots of money spent on gaining info about birds essential environmental monitors, maintain ecosystems
issues to be confronted in the future: conservation of entire ecosystems and migratory corridors so world view rather than one location or even 1 country in most cases the challenge of conserving island bird species many pet bird species do not have sustainable populations in captivity dealing with unwanted captive pet birds
most extinction is from islands, because invasive species are introduced, reach carrying capacity creating safe and efficient energy. Have to protect the environment, so there is more ecotourism because ecotourism pays to for the protection of the species pollution and conservation Need to form one powerful umbrella organization Breeders selling all offspring and raising the offspring by hand is not good and not sustainable-Need a formal registry Overcrowding at bird sanctuaries, need to find new homes for unwanted birds
North American Wild Turkey the largest North American game bird: anatomical features of the head (snood, caruncles, etc) habitat and habits
mostly featherless head and upper neck-snood-floppy nose thing wattle- flappy neck caruncles- bumps on the side of head beard- tuft of bristle feathers from chest habitat- mix of mature forest and open agriculture areas; roost in tall trees males court and strut in groups of males- one dominant male polygamous
where the highest number of bird species are concentrated (in general-- not specific countries)
neotropics --> South America
Eyries
nests built in high places Raptor nest
difference between pigeons and doves
no differences only that pigeon is usually larger than dove
new world vultures
not related to old world vultures, similarities are a result of convergent evolution
conflict between humans and urban Canada geese, resolutions
nuisances at golf courses, farms, airports, and subdivisions. Overgrazing lawns and tons of droppings. Don't feed them, allow hunting, repellents, modify habitat, hazing
potential problems associated with feeding ducks items such as bread
offers little nutritional value for the birds, leads to unneeded weight gain and malnutrition and other health problems. Ducklings may end up preferring bread-bad. Bread can cause more algae growth. Moldy bread-could cause lung infection They need to be able to forage for food on their own,
finches with red and yellow feather colors
often vary in appearance based on their diet
Confuciusornis
oldest bird known to have a horny (modern) beak
domesticated and feral pigeons
originated from the blue barred rock dove
threats to waterfowl populations
over-hunting, degradation and drainage of wetlands, hybridization of species, lead poisoning
ovoviviparous v. oviparous
ovoviviparous: -internal fertilization -mom's blood doesn't nourish; yolk does -development of offspring occurs from nourishment of encased egg that is WITHIN the female's or male's body oviparous: -ALL BIRDS -internal fertilization -development of embryo occurs outside of mother's body within an encased egg that provides nutrients for development and growth
flight muscles
pectoralis major: -pulls wing down -larger muscle (uses the most energy fighting air resistance) pectoralis minor: -pulls wing up -smaller muscle (gliding saves energy)
polygyny vs. polyandry
polygyny: -more typical -one male mating with multiple females -no further role in reproduction beyond providing sperm polyandry: -one female mating with two or more males -female can eject sperm back out of UV junction if she determines a male's genetics unworthy
precocious vs. altricious chicks
precocious: -born with eyes open -born with feathers -independent when hatched (leave nest) -nest typically on the ground -take longer to become full adults (because food intake energy is divided) -synchronous hatch altricious: *majority of birds! -born with eyes closed -born without feathers -dependent on parents for food and warmth -nests are typically elevated -well-developed digestive track --> all food intake energy goes toward growth -develop much quicker than precocious birds (with a few weeks) -asynchronous hatch -many chicks die of starvation
anatomical differences between prehistoric birds and the birds of today
prehistoric: -no feathers -some had teeth -coldblooded modern: -feathers (note: single gene mutation results in nearly featherless chickens) -no teeth -warmblooded
the information on permanent pigeon bands
provides information to help you return a lost pigeon to its owner; contain letters and numbers unique to each bird example: AU 09 ATH 3002 AU: abbreviation indicating org. that issued the band 09: year pigeon hatched and band ATH: local pigeon club where registered 3002: specific number of the bird having this band
the two jungle fowl whose genetics are found in modern day domesticated chickens
red junglefowl and grey junglefowl
double clutching
removing one set of eggs to induce an animal to produce a second clutch and incubating the initial clutch elsewhere
reverse sexual dimorphism, and its importance in ensuring food for young
reverse sexual dimorphism of size females are 50-70% larger than males females prey on larger food than males, reducing competition and allowing for a more diverse food supply for young as only 10% survive to adulthood
one loft races
selected pigeons are shipped before imprinting on their home loft; once arriving to the race loft, they imprint and are trained here; in this kind of race, the first bird back to the loft is the winner
the term sexually dimorphic and reverse sexual dimorphism
sexually dimorphic- male is much more brilliantly colored reverse sexual dimorphism- female is much more brilliantly colored
general feather structure (shaft, barbs, barbules, barbicels, afterfeather)
shaft: entire base of feather barbs: lateral branches or filaments that project from each side of the rachis; make up vane of contour feathers barbules: 2 sets of microfilaments that project from barbs barbicels: tiny hooklets that hook the upper barbules with lower barbules; latching of barbicels forms a feather that is smooth and aerodynamic; can become detached like velcro and reattached when bird preens feathers afterfeather: at the base of large body feathers; miniature version of full-sized feather; can provide insulation
soft bills need what kind of cages and why?
softbills need large cages (length most important) as they fly rather than climb
backyard chicken flocks and the origin of the women's movement
staple of chicken production in the early 1900s. Women were the raisers of the chickens and eggs, and used their money as income that gave them some independence
drugs in pigeon racing (in general what are used and what are their effects)
started in Belgium using steroids the royal pigeon racing association bans the use of steroids and any other performance enhancing drug; generally they are used to enhance flight, muscle mass, increase endurance, etc.
how fossils are dated
stratigraphy (how deeply a fossil is buried in rock strata) and radioisotope dating
synchronous vs. asynchronous hatch
synchronous: -incubation period occurs at the same time, so they all hatch within 24 hours of each other asynchronous: -incubated at different times, so hatch extends over a period greater than 24 hours -often involves several days between first and last hatched -parents can spread the food demand out over time to maximize parental efficiency -results in natural size/dominance hierarchy of the hatchlings -late hatched, smaller chicks die due to lack of food, trampling, and siblicide
where the highest number of threatened bird species reside (in general terms-- not specific countries)
the Americas and Southeast Asia
the biological basis for homing ability
the Sun Compass - sense time adjust 15 degrees per hour to Earth's rotation Sensitivity to the Earth's magnetic field Sensitive to the force of the Earth's rotation Memorize area - visually sensitive to UV, infrared and polarized light have Nasal Sensitivity fly up, orientate themselves and do kinda of wavy pattern most of the way home then once see area remember head straight and fast home
convergent evolution
the evolution of similar traits in unrelated lineages (example: platypus has a duck-like bill, but is actually a mammal)
sibilcide
the killing of a sibling or siblings, as a behavior pattern The evolutionary drivers may be either indirect benefits for the genetic viability of a population or direct benefits for the perpetrators
survival after hatch -- parents kill babies when there is not enough food to feed everyone, but more typically, older siblings kill younger siblings
these extra babies are produced on the chance that every few years there will be enough food to feed everyone ("reproductive insurance policy")
the danger of keeping cassowaries in zoos
they are shy and don't like human interaction and so they are aggressive. They will kick and can tear human flesh with their dagger toes
eagles are large hawks
they are the largest hawks, with heavy bodies and large, powerful feet
things you can do to help birds help to reduce the death of billions of birds per year lost to window collisions and being consumed by pet cats as a landowner or homeowner things that you can do to enhance bird habitats share your interest in birds
they hit clear and reflective sheet glass should use stripe and grid patterns of clear uv-reflecting window covers Keep cats inside preserve wetlands plant stuff that will feed the birds, limit pesticide use hunt on hunting reserves
current major threats to bird populations
top three threats: agriculture, logging, and invasive species -people are the driving force for birds going extinct and being threatened
economic importance of birds
trillion-dollar plus bird economy exists in the world today -bird watching -agriculture -pets -ecosystem service
finches less demanding than parrots as pets
true
complete molt in ducks
twice a year; after and just before breeding system. Synchronous molting leaves them flightless for 2-5 weeks, which leaves them vulnerable
turkey vulture
uses sense of smell to locate food other vultures use sight
Amazons
very common and popular in the US as a mid-sized pet parrot exhibit excellent human speech and singing abilities They are outgoing, loyal, curious, excitable and playful. More adaptable and less prone to behavioral issues, compared to several other parrot species. Enjoy toys, especially ones that can be destroyed They are prone to obesity
lack of the right ovary and oviduct regression of the left ovary and oviduct in non-breeding periods
weight-reduction mechanism developed for flight purposes
conflict between raptors and pigeon owners
wild pigeons are highly prized prey animals so pigeon enthusiasts often kill federally protected raptors in the US in order to protect the pigeons from the raptors
biting in parrots, why it happens
young birds: -mouthing and tonguing to feel and explore mature birds: -can bite because something is wrong (they are sick, startled, frightened) -may bite due to elevated sex hormones and sexual behavior -may bite when feeling dominant