Prose Fiction Concepts and Terms

Situational Irony

A situation where the opposite of what is expected to happen happens.

Extended Metaphor (Conceit)

Establishes a principal subject (comparison) and subsidiary subjects (comparisons). The As You Like It quotation ("All the world's a stage") is a good example, the world is described as a stage, and then men and women are subsidiary subjects further described in the same context.

Third Person Omniscient

The narrator is outside of the story and sees the events through the eyes of all characters. He knows what they all are thinking and his knowledge is extensive. The narrator speaks in the third person and can know and explain anything that happens in the story and what the characters in it know, think, feel, and experience.

Static Character

a character who does not change

Dramatic Irony

a situation in which the reader knows more than what the characters know.

Foil

A character in a story who contrasts with another character, making the latter's attributes clearer and more distinctive. In literature, a foil is a character that is presented as a contrast to a second character; this is done to point to or show an advantage of some aspect of the second character. An obvious example is the character of Dr. Watson in Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories. Watson is a perfect foil for Holmes because his relative obtuseness makes Holmes's deductions seem more brilliant.

Sympathetic Character

A character whose circumstances evoke sympathy from the reader for that character. An author may make a character sympathetic in order to contribute to the point he is making by manipulating the reader to be "on the character's side."

Simile

A comparison of two unlike things using the word "like" or "as."

Hyperbole

A figure of speech (a form of irony) in which exaggeration is used for emphasis or effect; an extravagant statement. Adjective: hyperbolic.

Synecdoche

A figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole (for example, ABCs for alphabet) or the whole for a part ("England won the World Cup in 1966"). Synecdoche is often treated as a type of metonymy.

Metonymy

A figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another with which it is closely associated (such as "crown" for "royalty"). Metonymy is also the rhetorical strategy of describing something indirectly by referring to things around it, such as describing someone's clothing to characterize the individual.

Unreliable Narrator

A narrator in a first-person narrative who cannot be completely trusted to relay information accurately or to understand what is going on. This can also apply in a third-person narrative if narrator is another character addressing the reader directly.

External Conflict

A problem or struggle between two forces, such as two characters or against the elements. There are three significant forms.

Internal

A problem or struggle within one character. There is one significant form.

Motif

A recurring word, phrase, image, object, or action that creates unity throughout a text and may also reinforce its theme.

Allusion

A reference within a literary work to an event or person from history or another literary work. For example, a reference to one's "Achilles' Heel" is an understood comment about one's weakness. Knowledge of mythology allows the reader to understand the message behind the allusion. The Bible is often used as a source of allusion. (see SUPPLEMENTAL HANDOUT on BIBLICAL ALLUSIONS)

Irony

A rhetorical device, literary technique, or situation in which there is an incongruity or discordance that goes beyond the simple and evident meaning of words or actions.

Flashback

A shift in time to the past. This device is connected to the Narration mode of development (see Non-Fiction Unit notes).

Verbal Irony

A situation in which a character says the opposite of what he means.

Theme

A statement of truth about life or human nature. A theme statement must be written in a complete sentence.

Allegory

A story that acts as an extended metaphor. Characters, objects, and actions in the story have additional meanings separate from and outside of the story itself. An allegory is different from a symbol because a symbol presents additional levels of meaning that are centered on a single character, object or action, and the symbol is only a part of the story (although it may be a very important part); these additional levels of meaning are the story.

Symbol

A symbol is something that is itself but also represents or stands for something else. A flag is a piece of cloth that can be seen, felt, and experienced through the senses, but it also represents a country or community. In literature, symbols are usually used in this way, with something tangible also representing something abstract, on a different level of meaning.

Comedy

A work in which an ordinary person is the protagonist and is involved in events and circumstances that are amusing or satirical.

Tragedy

A work in which the protagonist is a person of higher stature and faces a personal struggle that leads to his downfall. The 'tragic hero' is often found within these works of literature.

Inference

An understanding about what is happening based upon information that is given indirectly (an understanding derived from "reading between the lines").

Suspense

Circumstances in a plot that evoke anticipation in the reader. Suspense is used by authors to generate interest and excitement. This device is almost always connected to mood.

Setting Imagery

Colorful language used to describe a character's surroundings in such a way as to create a specific effect. The purpose goes beyond merely providing information about the time and place. The purpose is to create a stronger connection between the character and his surroundings, for example, creating a gloomy setting picture to parallel, or reflect a character's gloomy mood.

Imagery

Creative, colorful, descriptive language that is used for the purpose of creating a vivid mental picture (image). Imagery can be literal or figurative, and is always used to create a specific effect in the reader's mind.

Dramatic Structure

Gustav Freytag (July 13, 1816 - April 30, 1895), a German dramatist and novelist, divided drama into five acts. Freytag is known for his analysis of the structure of ancient Greek and Shakespearean drama. His format is often not applicable when analyzing modern works. Whereas Aristotle saw the drama with three parts (beginning, middle, and end), according to Freytag, a drama is divided into five parts, or acts: a. exposition b. rising action c. climax (or turning point) d. falling action e. dénouement (comedy) or catastrophe (tragedy) Freytag's analysis of dramatic structure is sometimes represented by means of a visual aid known as Freytag's Pyramid. Although Freytag's analysis of dramatic structure is based on five-act plays, it can be applied (sometimes in a modified manner) to short stories and novels as well. Because of their length, short stories may or may not follow this pattern. Some do not follow patterns at all. For example, modern short stories only occasionally have an exposition. More typical, though, is an abrupt beginning, with the story starting in the middle of the action (in medias res). As with longer stories, plots of short stories also have a climax, crisis, or turning point. However, the endings of many short stories are abrupt and open and may or may not have a moral or practical lesson. As with any art form, the exact characteristics of a short story will vary by author.

Foreshadowing

Information given in a text that prepares the reader for future parts of the text. This information may be subtle or overt. Some examples of foreshadowing include the creation of a mood that hints at upcoming events or the presence or appearance of objects or facts not previously known.

Figurative Language

Language that is not literal; additional meaning is present. There are several elements of figurative language.

Dead Metaphor

One in which the sense of a transferred image is absent. Examples: "to grasp a concept" and "to gather what you've understood" use physical action as a metaphor for understanding. Most people do not visualize the action — dead metaphors normally go unnoticed. Some people distinguish between a dead metaphor and a cliché. Others use "dead metaphor" to denote both.

In Medias Res

Starting a story in the middle and giving necessary exposition as the story unfolds (through dialogue, flashback, narration, etc.)

Narrator

The actual "teller" of the story. He will be a first or third person narrator. The "teller" of prose is called a narrator, while the "teller" of poetry is called a speaker.

Mood

The atmospheric feeling the reader gets from a work. A mood may be mysterious, suspenseful, eerie, happy, etc. (see SUPPLEMENTAL HANDOUT on TONE and MOOD)

Tone

The attitude of the author toward his subject. The author may be critical, appreciative, etc. (see SUPPLEMENTAL HANDOUT on TONE and MOOD)

Person vs. Society

The character struggles against a group or society.

Person vs. Nature

The character struggles against natural forces or elements outside of human creation or control.

Person vs. Person

The character struggles against the will or actions of another character.

Person vs. Self

The character struggles within herself to make a decision, reach a conclusion, or overcome a part of herself.

Metaphor

The concept of understanding one thing in terms of another. A metaphor is a figure of speech that constructs an analogy between two things or ideas; the analogy is conveyed by the use of a metaphorical word in place of some other word. For example: "The streets were a furnace, the sun an executioner." (Cynthia Ozick, "Rosa")

Tenor

The concept, object, or person meant.

Denotation

The dictionary definition of a word. It is a literal definition without the addition or influence of emotion or experience.

Vehicle

The image that carries the weight of the comparison.

Protagonist

The main character of the story and the "owner" of the central conflict. The protagonist should be a dynamic character, as he will undergo some character change as a result of struggling with his conflict. He may come out better or worse in the end.

Connotation

The meaning that the word takes on with emotion and experience added. It is the feeling that a word gives in addition to its definition. For example: Consider these two sentences. "He was a zealous promoter of the cause." "He was a fanatical promoter of the cause." The words "zealous" and "fanatical" mean essentially the same thing and are listed as synonyms in a thesaurus. However, "zealous" is generally seen as a positive enthusiasm, while "fanatical" is generally seen as negative. Another example of synonymous words with different connotations is "giggle," "chuckle," "chortle," and "guffaw."

Characterization

The method used by a writer to develop a character. The method includes (1) showing the character's appearance, (2) displaying the character's actions, (3) revealing the character's thoughts, (4) letting the character speak, and (5) getting the reactions of others. (a. The method by which characters are presented by authors; b. The types of characters developed by an author)

First Person Point of View

The narrator is a character in the story and refers to himself as "I." This sees the events from his own perspective. The narrator speaks in the first person and the reader can only know or experiences things that this character knows, thinks, feels, and experiences.

Third Person Limited

The narrator is outside of the story and sees the events through the eyes of only characters. His knowledge is limited. The narrator speaks in the third person, but the focus is on only one character, and the reader can only know or experience things that this character knows, feels, and experiences.

Third Person Objective

The narrator speaks in the third person and can know and explain anything that happens in the story externally but does not or cannot comment on what a character is thinking or feeling; no internal information about characters is available.

Antagonist

The opposing force in the conflict. The antagonist may be another character, the protagonist himself, forces of nature, society in general, or whatever is causing the struggle.

Point of View

The perspective from which the story is told, or, the story teller's relationship with the story. The point of view often affects the reader's perceptions of what happens in the story because who the story teller is and what he knows affects our view of the events and characters (see SUPPLEMENTAL HANDOUT on POINT OF VIEW). There are several forms of point of view.

Dominant Impression

The predominant thought, image, effect, or feeling that comes out of a work. The dominant impression of any written work is achieved through language. THIS IS NOT THE SAME AS MAIN IDEA.

Conflict

The problem faced by the main character, or protagonist. The antagonist is the opposing force in that conflict. Though the main conflict is the central issue for the main character, other conflicts may exist within a work. There are two specific types of conflict.

Setting

The time and place in which the story unfolds, as well as significant backdrop circumstances, such as a war or other specific time in history. The details of setting can contribute only in a minor way to the plot, merely providing a backdrop against which the events take place, or, the setting can become a major force in the plot, directing characters' decisions and shaping what happens to them.

Hyperbole

The use of exaggeration for the purpose of creating a specific effect.

Personification

The use of human characteristics to describe non human beings or things.

Onomatopoeia

The use of words that sound like the sound they describe or depict, such as "whoosh" or "bang".

Implied or Unstated Metaphor

This is a metaphor not explicitly stated or obvious that compares two things by using adjectives that commonly describe one thing, but are used to describe another comparing the two. For example: "Golden baked skin," comparing bakery goods to skin or "green blades of nausea," comparing green grass to the complexion of a nauseated person or "leafy golden sunset" comparing the sunset to a tree in the fall.

Annotate

To respond in writing to what is read; to take notes on the ideas created, the devices used, and how the two connect. This is a concept that requires the reader to "read actively" and identify syntactical concepts and recognize literary element use that subsequently aids the understanding of the main idea of the text. (see SUPPLEMENTAL HANDOUT on NOTES ON WHAT TO ANNOTATE WHEN READING ACTIVELY).

Round Character

a character who is multidimensional; we see more than one side of his nature.

Flat Character

a character who is one dimensional; we only see one side of who he is.

Dynamic Character

a character who undergoes a significant change of heart or nature; this is caused by conflict and struggle.

Indirect Characterization

the author presents a character through the character's own thoughts, his actions, his dialogue with other characters, or through the thoughts and comments of other characters about him. Here, the reader has to infer what the character is all about instead of being told directly.

Direct Characterization

the author tells you directly about a character