PSY 2250 Exam One: Chapters 1-3

Baby biographies

(Darwin) Several scholars began to observe their own children's growth and development. Most influential

Hypothesis

A prediction/educated guess

Theory

Following on observation on certain phenomenons Ex) garver's obersved phenomenon is her students do better if they rewrite their notes more than one time- the more you write your notes the better your grade will be.

Genetic uniqueness between identical and fraternal twins.

Fraternal twins: Mom has two ovum come out at the same time, and then both ovum get fertilized. Non identical because there are 2 different ovums and 2 different sperms. Identical twins: comes from one zygote, when there is a uniqueness and the zygote splits. Identical = same genes.

Freud's legacy

Instincts: inborn biological forces that motivate behavior Unconscious motivation: not aware instincts drive us, so motivation is unconscious Id: born with, psychotic wild child/ irrational/ selfish/impulsive . Seek immediate gratification Ex) infant crying= wants to be fed Superego: can't get everything you want; internalized moral standards. Develops over time ( between 3-6 years old) Ego: how the world sees us. Rational side of humans that tries to find a realistic way to have our instincts met. Cognitive processes- perception, learning, problem solving

Reinforcement

Occurs when a consequence strengthens a response. Increases the likelihood it'll happen again. Two types: 1. Positive. Occurs when something pleasant or desirable has been added to the situation and the behaviors strengthened. Ex)give a child a star or cookie to reward them 2. Negative Behavior will increase but you don't add something positive, negative will take away. Occurs when something unpleasant or undesirable is removed from the situation or avoided after the behavior occurs and the behavior's strengthened. Ex) seat belt makes a loud noise, to get rid of the noise, put the seatbelt on.

Determination of sex chromosome

The 23rd chromosome XX- only females XY- only males The male determines the sex of the baby. If a y sperm hits the ovum it'll be a boy and if a x hits the ovum then its a girl

Gene expression

The activation of particular genes in particular cells in the body at a particular time; gene expression converts genotypes into phenotypes Genes in an environment: interact to determine physical and psychological development.

Why do psychologists love to study twins?

They like to study if traits are hertiable and what else is contributing to the twin if they do not share the same trait. Ex) one twin is left handed while the other is right handed. Psychologists want to study this and determine why their traits are different. Ex) highly heritable= share the trait due to nature factors. Psychologists look at heritable index, the stronger the number= more genetic from parents. Intelligence is heritable

Data collection

Verbal reports, behavior observation: (naturalist/ structured observation), physiological measurements.

The heritability of different traits

We look at all psychological traits to determine what's nurture and what's nature. Physical traits are more heritable rather than psychological traits Ex) height, weight, hair color, etc

Science in psychology.

We use science to backup our claims. (A soft science)

Mircosystem

an immediate physical and social environment in which the person interacts face-to-face with other people and influences and is affected by them

Mesosystem

connections between microsystems, family and school

Research Methods

cross-sectional: performance of people of different age groups or cohorts are compared at one time. longitudinal: one cohort or group of individuals is assessed repeatedly over time. Creates time of measurement effects; technological improvements from one time of the measurement to the next , might be the cause for the time of increase cross sequential: combines both cross sectional and longitudinal. Cohort: a group of individuals born at the same time. Ex) baby boomers

Punishment

decreases the likelihood of a behavior 1. Positive Occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is the consequence of a behavior. Ex) a child is spanked for misbehaving 2. Negative occurs when a desirable stimulus is removed following the behavior. Ex) timeout, grounded, taking something away you want.

Egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view Ex) Christmas present for dad from 5 year old girl scenario

Macrosystem

in the bioecological model, the larger cultural and social context within which the other systems are embedded Ex) beliefs about the law, mortality, the larger society.

Observational learning

learning by observing others

Latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Vicarious reinforcement / punishment

observing someone else receive a reward or punishment

Periods of the Lifespan/ conceptualizing the life span

prenatal: conception to birth infancy: birth - 2 y/o preschool: 2 - 5 y/o middle childhood (second childhood period): 6 - 10 y/o adolescence: 10 - 18 y/o. puberty until relative independence. emerging adult: 18 - 25 y/o. a newer classification. early adulthood: 25 - 39 y/o. middle adulthood: 40 - 64 y/o. late adulthood: 65 + y/o.

Stages of Cognitive Development

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

Exosystem

social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development Ex) a parent has a bad day at work, affects everything at home and affects people inside the home and family.

Sociocultural perspective (vygotsky)

the importance of society and culture in promoting children's cognitive growth Didn't agree with piaget, believes its more about the people around you and what they teach you rather than the stages. It will be different around the world because people are raised in different settings and cultures, and some have different factors affecting them. Cognitive development is shaped by the sociocultural context in which it occurs and grows out children's interactions with members in their cultures

Define prenatal diagnosis

Can get this beforehand to see statistically the likeihood of what you can pass to offspring.

Sex-linked inheritance

Certain things we inherit that are only inherited through the 23rd sex chromosome

Constructivism

Development is the interaction between biological maturation and experiences. Believe that children actively construct their own understandings of the world based on thier experiences.

Continuity v discontinuity

Developmental changes gradually (continuity) Developmental changes abruptly (dis)

G. Stanley Hall

First developmental psychologist Labeled adolescence as storm and stress; began a stereotype that is still common today

Goals of Developmental Psychology

Describe: traces changes of functioning with age; both normal and individual differences in development. Explain: the tentative explanation of why behaviors or development is occurring. Predict: identify factors that help us predict development. Optimize: what issues could happen and how we can help it progress positively.

Examples of genetic diseases

-hemophilia: inherit from sex linked -sickle cell disease -Huntington's disease: recessive gene pair carriers -phenylketonuria (PKU)

The genetic code: zygote, chromosomes, genes, mitosis, meiosis

-zygote: when sperm and ovum unite, 1 sperm reaches an ovum (egg) and zygote forms. Contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, 46 chromosomes together = one set from mom and one set from dad The last pair of chromosomes divide differently and determine the gender -chromosomes: thread like bodies in the nucleus of each cell that contains genes.

7 assumptions dev = development

1) dev is a lifelong process Change and develop through lives 2) dev is multidirectional Can grow or decline Ex)language development. 3) dev involves gains and losses 4) dev is characterized by lifelong plasticity (ability to change in response to environment.) Plasticity: the capacity to change in response to experience whether negative or positive, we learn to change Neuroplasticity : the brain's ability to change or heal 5) dev is shaped by its historical-cultural context (ex. Great Depression) Historical events can affect the development of people. 6) dev is multi influenced (nature & nurture). What's inherited vs how the environment affects us 7) dev must be studied by multiple disciplines. There are other things we need to consider such as; politics, environment, physics, religion, and culture

What are the 3 factors that influence the differences? (Twin study)

1. Genes (heritable) some just aren't heritable 2. Shared environment 3. Non- shared environmental influences.

What makes a good theory?

1. Internally consistent: can't generate a contradictory hypothesis 2. Falsifiable: can be proven wrong 3. Supported by data: do the research and back it up with data

Psychoanalytic theory

A theory developed by Freud that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior

Activity-Passivity

Active shaping own environment/ passive having the world shape them

Extinction

Alternative to punishment, not rewarding a behavior so the behavior will disappear Ex) a kid wants a piece of candy in the store and has a tantrum, if you ignore the behavior it will go away. Don't reward because then when they are older they will always have a tantrum to get what they want.

Case study

An in depth examination of an individual of a small number of individuals typically carried out by gathering info from a number of sources

Conservation

At this stage kids cannot do conservation tasks, cannot recognize certain properties of an object or substance do not change when its appearance is altered or changed. Ex) 5 year old and 10 year old cake difference scenario

Life Expectancy

Average today is 78 years old. In the 1900's it was 47 years old.

Watson: Classical Conditioning

Behaviorism: human development and functioning based on observations of overt behavior than on speculations of unbelievable, cognitive, and emotional processes (unconscious/ irrelevant) Classical conditioning: a simple form of learning in which a stimulus that had no effect on an individual comes to elicit response through its association of stimulus that already elicits a response ex) Pavlov dog example, pg 41

Bronfenbrenner's biological model

Harder theory to test A developing person with unique biological and psychological traits is a part of a series of developmental systems. Each of these systems influence a person and it affects their development.

Bandura: social cognitive theory

Humans are cognitive beings and thought processes play a critical role in learning, behavior, and development

Piaget: cognitive development theory

Influence by the baby biographies Starts to record everything about his sons, looks at physical development but also cognitive development Ex) at young ages kids may call all animals doggies or kitties but with experience they will develop cognitive skills and learn about the different animals

Factors of nature vs nurture

Maturation: biological unfolding of the individual of what's inherited. Genes: hereditary material passed Environment: stimulating events that affect us; economic status/pollution/etc Learning: permanent change in behavior.

Nature vs Nurture

Nature: influences of heredity, universal maturation processes, guided by genes and biological influences (hormones, neurotransmitters). What's inherited. Nurture: Influences change in response to the environment. (socioeconomic status, learning). Interplay of both: how biological and environmental forces act and interact to make us what we are; nothing is 100% nature because of environmental factors.

Single gene pair inheritance

One pair of genes: one pair from mom and one from dad, inherit half and half. Where we look at all genes aren't equal: dominant & recessive

Self- efficacy

One's belief in his or her own ability,

Gene-environment correlations *ON TEST AND FINAL EXAM*

Our genetic makeup influences our type of experiences we see and have. Passive: parents give the child both their genes and home environment compatible with those genes. The home environment in which the child is exposed is correlated with their genotypes. Evocative: a child's gene evokes certain reactions from others, the child is naturally trying to get their needs met. Active: as a child ages, they get involved with activities they like.

Epigenesis

Over and above birth Effects? Environmental factors such as stress, diet, alcohol, etc. effects whether or not particular genes are expressed.

How do humans develop

Physically - growth of body and organs Cognitively- changes in language, learning, memory, perception, problem solving and other mental processes. Psychosocially- changes in personal and interpersonal aspects (motives, emotions, relationships, personality)

Sex-linked characteristics

Polygenic traits: most important characteristics are influenced by multiple pairs of genes interacting with multiple environmental factors Mutations: a new gene appears that neither biological parent has- a change in the structure or arrangement of one or more genes that produce a new phenotype Chromosome abnormalities: occurs when a child received too many or too few chromosomes at conception. Not anything environmental that causes it. At conception, it occurs but it will express itself later down in life. Examples of what can happen) Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, fragile x syndrome

Sample selection

Sample: small group we study, hope it generalizes into the larger population. Population: a well defining group, entire group you want to study Random sample: any member of the designated population has an equal chance of being selected to participate

Gain stability loss model

Some aspects of development follow gain/stability/loss model, but not ALL.

Research Ethics

Standards of conduct that investigators are ethically bound to honor to protect the research participants from physical or psychological harm.

Darwins theory of evolution

Starts with species hereditary and has a theory about it: 1. Genetic variation There are variations about our language 2. Adaptation variables Some genes aid in adaptation more than others 3.natural selection Genes that aid in adapting to the environment will pass to future generations.

Correlational method

Statistical measurement to see if there is a relationship between 2 variables. -positive: ex) the more notes you take=the higher your grade is -negative: ex) the more absences you have= the lower your grade will be How to tell which one is stronger? The number closest to either -1.0 or +1.0

Temperament and personality

Study who we are and the traits we have. -personality can only be tested after age 2, but babies are born with a temperament not a personality. We know that genes or nature influence these traits. Identical twins have a higher concordance rate rather than fraternal twins.

Genes-environment interactions

The effects of our genes depend on what kind of environment we experience and how we respond to the environment depends on what genes we have.

Genotype

The genetic blueprints; the genetic makeup of what a person inherits

Species hereditary

The genetic endowment that members of a species have in common

Experiment

The goal is to have the independent variable cause a change in the dependent variable Only way to show cause and effect? 1. Random assignment Each participant has an equal chance of being placed into one of the experimental or controlled conditions 2. Experimental control 3. Manipulation of the independent variable There should be more than one experimental group

Concordance rates

The percentage of paired study in which one member displays the trait and the other does too. If it's high it is more nature oriented rather than genetically influenced. Intellectual abilities: high numbers show that there is a high genetic capacity

Phenotype

The physical characteristics a person eventually has

Behavioral genetics

The scientific study of nature v nurture

Prenatal detection of abnormalities

Ultrasound- easiest and most common method. Sound waves are used to scan the womb and create a visual image of the fetus Amniocentesis- riskier, used to detect chromosome abnormalities. A needle is inserted into the abdomen to gather and sample amniotic fluid, and the fetal cells are analyzed Chronic villus sampling- genetic materials are studied but can be done earlier than amniocentesis (when the baby is smaller), a catheter is inserted into the vagina and cervix into the chorion. The chorion is the outermost membrane surrounding an embryo. Material blood sampling- test for various chemicals, getting the blood sample from mom and then you can get an idea if anything is happening to the baby. Preimplantation- when a woman is going to do in vitro fertilization; conception occurs outside the body, the baby is conceived in a Petri dish to create the zygote. Can do genetic testing there in order to determine the healthiest zygote to place back into the mother.

Defense mechanisms

Unconscious coping devices to help psychic conflicts -repression: removing unacceptable thoughts/traumatic memory -regression: retreating to earlier, less traumatic stage of development Ex) stressed with work, school, life

Scientific Method

a belief that researchers should allow systematic observations (data) to determine if their observations or theories are correct.

Skinner: operant conditioning

a learner's behavior becomes either more or less probable depending on the consequences it produces