Psy 301 exam #3

Mark Teixeira

formerly of the New York Yankees

confidence will not overcome what...?

incompetence

Pep Talks

- Guidelines for a coach's successful pregame talk: (a) Give them a plan. (b) Make them believe they can win. (c) Do not lie. (d) Be yourself. (e) Use humor.

Passion and Sport: Key Findings

- Harmonious Passion is related to positive affect, positive emotions, and flow. - HP is associated with high-quality coach-athlete relationships. - HP is related to higher levels of life satisfaction. - HP is related to enhanced concentration. - HP is related to participation in regular physical activity. - Obsessive Passion is related to negative emotions (especially shame). - OP has no association with coach-athlete relationships. - OP is related to greater risk taking in choosing dangerous, unhealthy behaviors. - An autonomous personality is related to HP, whereas a controlling personality is related to OP - There is no association between obsessive passion and coach-athlete relationships

Factors That Prevent Flow From Occurring

Preventive Factors - Nonoptimal physical preparation and readiness: •Injury •Fatigue •Not feeling good physically - Nonoptimal environmental or situational conditions: •External stresses •Unwanted crowd response •Uncontrollable influences of the event - Lack of confidence or a negative mental state: •Negative thinking •Self-doubt •No control of mental state - Inappropriate focus: •Thinking too much •Worrying about what others are doing •Frustration with teammates' effort - Problem with precompetitive preparation: •Poor precompetitive preparation •Distraction before competition •Interruption to precompetitive preparation - Lacking motivation to perform: •No goals •Lack of challenge •Low arousal or motivation - Nonoptimal arousal level before competition: •Not feeling relaxed •Feeling too relaxed - Negative team play and interactions: •Team not performing well •Not feeling part of the team •Negative talk within the team - Performance going poorly: •Unforced errors •Poor technique •Things not going as planned Disruptive Factors - Nonoptimal environmental and situational influences: •Stoppage in play •What the opposition is doing •Negative refereeing decisions •Inappropriate, negative, or no feedback - Problems with physical readiness or physical state: •Lack of physical preparation •Injury during the competition •Fatigue - Problems with team performance or interactions: •Negative talk on the field •Team not playing well •Lack of team interactions - Inappropriate focus: •Worrying about competitor's ability •Daydreaming •Loss of concentration - Doubting self and putting pressure on self: •self-doubt • putting pressure on self

Areas in Which to Set Goals

Goals can be set in many areas, including individual, team, and psychological skills.

State self-confidence

is the belief of certainty that individuals have at a particular moment about their ability to succeed

Trait self-confidence

is the degree of certainty individuals usually have about their ability to succeed

individuals who see their anxiety as facilitative...? (Eubank and Collins, 2000)

more likely to use both problem-focused and emotion-focused coping

If a script is perceived as neutral...?

no changes occur

Somatic anxiety should be treated with...?

physical relaxation

Football is the...?

prime revenue-producing sport for most universities

Type of Imagery

athletes describe 4 types of imagery: 1. visual 2. kinesthetic 3. auditory 4. olfactory -use visual and kinesthetic imagery most often

Every reward has...?

both controlling and informational aspects

Autonomy-supportive behaviors

by coaches are teachable interventions have been developed to help coaches use autonomy-supportive coaching to a greater degree and consequently facilitate their athlete's intrinsic motivation

Performance accomplishments are the most powerful way to build...?

confidence

the factor most consistently distinguishing highly successful from less successful athletes is...?

confidence

the most important relationship for practitioners is the one between...?

confidence and performance

Early stages of learning what is the most desirable reinforcement?

continuous and immediate reinforcement

Watson and Shannon (2013)

provide excellent guidelines for conducting systematic observations, including when, where, and what to observe for both individual- and team-sport athletes

Instructional Feedback

provides info about: - specific behaviors that should be performed - levels of proficiency that should be achieved - the performer's current level of proficiency in the desired skills and activities

People who don't cope effectively with the pressure of competitive sport may have...?

decreases in performance, mental distress, and even physical illness

Formal and informal meetings with coaches and athletes are opportunities for the PST consultant to...?

enhance communication and build rapport

self-determination theory (SDT)

focuses on three basic psychological needs: effectance, relatedness, and autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 1994) - SDT focuses on intrinsic motivation

Who said focus on effort instead of winning?

former UCLA basketball coach John Wooden

Post, Williams, Simpson, and Berning (2015) (PETTLEP)

found that physical practice and PETTLEP imagery plus physical practice outperformed the PETTLEP imagery alone and control groups, although PETTLEP imagery alone outperformed the control group

Two of the leading researchers in the area of resilience are...?

Steven Southwick and Dennis Charney

Not only do athletes respond differently to pressure, but the type of..?

sport or task they perform is critical factor in how they react

Positive or Negative reinforcement which is preferred by sports psy?

sport psychologists highly recommend a positive approach to motivation to avoid the potential negative side effects of using punishment as the primary approach

during breaks in the action (when to use imagery)

sporting events have extended breaks in the action during which an athlete can use imagery to prepare for what's ahead

Wakefield, Smith, Moran, and Holmes

reviewed 15 yrs of PETTLEP research

Mallett & Hanrahan, 2004

study investigating sustained motivation of elite athletes found that athletes were driven mainly by personal goals and achievements rather than financial incentives

Taylor (1995)

summarized the strengths and limitations of both subjective and objective assessments in evaluating athletes' mental skills

scientific experiments

support of imagery is impressive and clearly demonstrates the value of imagery in learning and performing motor skills

outcome-oriented collective efficacy (collective efficacy)

the confidence in the team's ability to obtain a goal or win a game

process-oriented collective efficacy (collective efficacy)

the confidence in the team's skills to accomplish processes that could lead to success

For the best results, implement PST in...?

the off-season

choking

the result of attentional disturbances caused by self-focus or distraction

Good performance of a particular skill does not preclude the use of imaging...?

the usefulness of imagery continues as long as one is performing one's skill

athletes and exercisers have begun using imagery to help...?

their performances and make their experiences more enjoyable

Continued pressure sometimes causes burnout in sport & exercise and can lead to...?

ulcers, migraine headaches, and hypertension

Suinn (1993)

used a technique known as visuomotor behavior rehearsal (VMBR), which combines relaxation with imagery. Research with skiers using VMBR showed increases in the neuromuscular activity of the muscles used for skiing; similar performance increases occurred in karate performers who used VMBR

Golf is a closed sport that is...?

very predictable and not time stressed

Coping Techniques Used By Athletes

(At least 40% of the athletes reported) using the following: - Thought control (ex; blocking distractions) - Task focus or narrowing - Rational thinking and self-talk - Positive focus and orientation (focusing on belief in one's ability) - Social support (encouragement from coach, family, and friends) - Precompetitive mental preparation and anxiety management (mental practice, precompetition routines, relaxation strategies) - Time management (making time for personal growth and daily goals) - Training hard and smart (applying work ethic, taking responsibility for one's training)

How Imagery Works: 5 Theories

(Sport psychologists have proposed five explanations of this phenomenon) - Psychoneuro-muscular Theory - Symbolic learning theory - Bioinformational theory - Triple code model - Psychological explanations

Benefits of Self-Confidence

(a) Arouses positive emotions- When you feel confident, you are more likely to remain calm and relaxed under pressure (b) Facilitates concentration- you feel confident, your mind is free to focus on the task at hand. When you lack confidence, you tend to worry about how well you are doing or how well others think you are doing. (c) Affects the setting and pursuit of challenging goals- Confident people tend to set challenging goals and pursue them actively (d) Increases effort- How much effort someone expends and how long the individual will persist in pursuit of a goal depends largely on confidence (e) Affects game strategies (play to win versus play to lose)- People in sport commonly refer to "playing to win" or, conversely, "playing not to lose."Confident athletes tend to play to win: not afraid to take chances, take control of the competition to their advantage. When athletes are not confident, they often play not to lose: are tentative and try to avoid making mistakes (f) Affects psychological momentum- Athletes and coaches refer to momentum shifts as critical determinants of winning and losing (g) Affects performance- positive relationship exists between confidence and performance

several types of self-confidence in sport (vealey & knight, 2002)

(a) Confidence about one's ability to execute physical skills (b) Confidence about one's ability to use psychological skills (ex; imagery, self-talk) (c) Confidence about one's ability to use perceptual skills (ex; decision making, adaptability) (d) Confidence in one's level of physical fitness and training status (e) Confidence in one's learning potential or ability to improve one's skill

Sport Confidence Model: Key Components

(a) Factors influencing sport confidence: It is hypothesized that organizational culture as well as demographic and personality characteristics influence sport confidence (b) Sources of sport confidence: Achievement, self-regulation, and social climate factors (c) Constructs of sport confidence: Sport confidence varies on a continuum from more trait-like to more state-like, as opposed to either purely trait or state self-confidence (d) Consequences of sport confidence: These consequences refer to athletes' affect (A), behavior (B), and cognitions (C)

Robust Self-Confidence Characteristics

(a) Multidimensional-Robust sport confidence consists of several types of sport confidence, such as belief in your abilities, performance outcomes, coping skills, and physical and mental preparation. (b) Malleable- The person is responsive and reacts to confidence-debilitating factors and has the ability to bounce back quickly after a setback or dip in confidence. (c) Durable -Confidence is long lasting, resistant to change, and solid. Developed. Robust sport confidence can be developed over time and grow stronger. (c) Protective- Robust sport confidence can act as a buffer against debilitating factors such as losing, injury, pressures, and expectations. (d) Strong set of beliefs- An underlying belief exists that you can do it and that you are the best (borderline arrogance rather than outright arrogance).

implementing PETTLEP Imagery

(a) physical- athlete should adopt the correct stance, wear the same clothing as that worn in competition, and hold any implements that would be used in competition (b) environment- athlete should use imagery in the environment where the competition is held. When this is not possible, videos, photographs, or a similar environment can be used as a substitute (c) Task- image of performing the task should be identical to the actual performance of the task (d) Timing-Imagery- should be completed in real time (e) Learning-Imagery- should reflect the learning stage of the athlete, so changes in imagery should occur as the athlete becomes more proficient at the task (f) Emotion- emotions one normally feels when competing and performing the task should be included in the imagery (g) Perspective- athlete should perform imagery using either an internal perspective or an external perspective depending on the athlete's preference and type of skill

Recommendations for Imagery Use (cont.)

(e) Athletes should be in a good mood when using imagery. (f) The speed of imagery depends on the situation. Specifically, when learning, developing, or refining a skill, use slow-motion imagery. Realtime imagery can be used when athletes are concerned with tempo or relative timing. Fast-motion imagery can energize athletes and improve focus. (g) Use as many senses as are relevant when practicing imagery. (h) Athletes need to practice imagery regularly (at least a few times per week) and usually over several months to become proficient and make it effective.

Sources of Efficacy

- "Performance accomplishments" (a) Accomplishments are the most dependable source. (b) Successful experiences raise the level of self-efficacy, while failure results in lowered efficacy - "Vicarious experiences"(modeling): Seeing others or modeling influences efficacy - "Verbal persuasion" from oneself and others (coaches, teachers, peers) can enhance feelings of self-efficacy - In "imaginal experiences", individuals can generate beliefs about personal efficacy or lack of efficacy by imagining themselves or others behaving effectively or ineffectively in future situations - "Physiological states" influence self-efficacy when they are associated with aversive physiological arousal, poor performance, and perceived failure - "Emotional states", or moods, are a source of efficacy information

Extrinsic Rewards

- Advocates of extrinsic rewards argue that rewards increase motivation, enhance learning, and increase the desire to continue participation. - the motivation comes from other people through positive and negative reinforcements

Assessing self-confidence

- "Sport Confidence Inventory" presents a more formal and detailed assessment of self-confidence levels. To score your overall confidence, add up the percentages in the three columns and then divide by 10. scale assesses confidence in both physical and mental terms - recent development in the measurement of sport confidence is known as "sport confidence profiling". Allows athletes to construct a picture of themselves rather than forcing them to respond to fixed measures in a questionnaire - Confidence profiling uses motivational interviewing emphasizes the athlete-centered approach. This approach can provide a strong foundation from which individualized, athlete-centered, confidence-building interventions could be developed.

Percentage of sport psy. consultants and olympic athletes that used imagery at the United States Olympic Training Center

- 100% of sport psychology consultants - 90% of Olympic athletes - 97% of these athletes believe that imagery helped their performance - 94% of the coaches of Olympic athletes used imagery during their training sessions - 20% used it at every practice session

Evaluate Imagery Skill Level (Imagery Training Program, ITP)

- 1st step in setting up imagery training is to evaluate the athlete's or student's current level of imagery skill - Individuals differ in how well they can image, so it is important to assess their initial imagery ability - imagery is a mental process and not directly observable - sport psychologists use questionnaires to try to discern the various aspects of imagery content - Tests of imagery date back to 1909 when the Betts Questionnaire on Mental Imagery was first devised - Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire (Issac, Marks, & Russell, 1986) was developed to measure visual imagery as well as kinesthetic imagery - The Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised (Gregg, Hall, & Butler, 2010) provides an updated measure of visual and kinesthetic movement imagery. - Hall and colleagues (1998) developed the Sport Imagery Questionnaire, which contains questions about the frequency with which individuals use various types of imagery - These imagery questionnaires can be used to evaluate various aspects of imagery ability and use; the practitioner chooses the most appropriate instrument for a specific situation

Self-Awareness of Arousal

- 1st step toward controlling arousal levels is to be more aware of them during practices and competitions - involves self-monitoring and recognizing how emotional states affect performance - thoughts and feelings are distinctly different when playing well compared with playing poorly - You must increase your awareness of your psychological states before you can control your thoughts and feelings - How individuals cope with anxiety is more important than how much anxiety they have - study of the self-awareness of arousal states has started to focus on whether these states are felt as facilitative or debilitative - it has been found that elite athletes generally interpret their anxiety as more facilitative than nonelite athletes do - Once you are aware of your optimal arousal, you can employ arousal regulation (reduction, maintenance, induction) strategies - People who see their anxiety typically perform better and cope more effectively with anxiety

Practice Phase (3 Phases of PST Programs)

- 3 primary objectives: 1. to automate skills through overlearning 2. to teach people to systematically integrate psychological skills into their performance situations 3. to simulate skills people will want to apply in actual competition. - Learning psychological skills should progress from practices and simulations to actual competitions - Log books help athletes chart progress and provide feedback for improvement Ex; After every practice, athletes record how tense they felt, what relaxation procedure they used, and whether their relaxation tech. helped

Functional Significance of the Event

- 3rd major element in Cognitive Evaluation Theory - how the reward will affect intrinsic motivation depends on whether the recipient perceives it to be more controlling or more informational - although the reward's message seems to be about the athletes' competence, the players may perceive that the coach is giving them rewards to control their behavior - must be clear to participants that a reward provides positive information about their competence and is not meant to control their behavior - perceived choice, competence, autonomy (self-determination), and positive feedback bring out the informational aspect, whereas rewards, deadlines, and surveillance make the controlling aspect salient

Extrinsic Motivation

- 4 types of extrinsic motivation: -integrated regulation-Integrated regulation is the most developmentally advanced form of extrinsic motivation - Identified regulation-The behavior is highly valued, accepted, and judged by the individual and thus is performed willingly, even if the activity is not pleasant in itself - Introjected regulation- the individual is motivated by internal prods and pressures; however, the behavior is still not considered self-determined because it is regulated by external contingencies - External regulation-The behavior is completely controlled by external sources such as rewards and constraints

Smith's Five Phases of Stress Management Training

- 5 phases; 1. Pretreatment assessment (During this phase, the consultant conducts personal interviews to assess the kinds of circumstances that produce stress, the player's responses to stress, and the ways in which stress affects performance and other behaviors.) 2. Treatment rationale (During the treatment rationale phase, the idea is to help the player understand his stress response by analyzing personal stress reactions and experiences.) 3. Skill Acquisition (participants receive training in muscular relaxation, cognitive restructuring, and self-instruction) 4. Skill rehearsal (consultant intentionally induces different levels of stress) 5. Posttraining evaluation (variety of measures are used by the consultant to assess the effectiveness of the program. These include self-monitoring of emotional states and cognitive events by the athlete, performance measures that might be expected to improve with stress reduction, and standardized trait and state anxiety inventories)

Negative Side of Flow

- A potential negative consequence might be the development of a dependence on an activity once associated with a flow experience. - Some surfers were found to be addicted to the euphoric feelings they experienced and were willing to continue to surf despite family commitments, injury, or potential death to replicate these sensations

Support of Punishment (cont.)

- A strong expectation of cooperation and a strong animosity toward wrongdoers exist, and thus the use of punishment to deter future cheating or wrongdoing is supported (Goodman, 2006). - Individuals who cheat should be punished because they are not sharing, helping, and cooperating with others (Walsh, 2000). - Cheaters, although benefiting in the short run, will receive a significantly lower reward in the future because of their wrongdoing (e.g., violators of Major League Baseball's substance abuse policy will likely never make it into the Hall of Fame). - Assigning punishment to wrongdoers assures others (e.g., teammates) that all individuals are held accountable for their actions and their effect on others (Radzik, 2003). - It appears acceptable for coaches to deter inappropriate or unacceptable behaviors through significant and timely punishment because this sends a signal to potential violators that they will suffer the consequences if they don't follow the rules established by their team. - Findings from 157 studies showed that individuals experiencing corporal punishment are at a negligible risk for developing emotional and behavioral problems (Paolucci & Violato, 2004)

social support coping (categories of coping)

- A third category of coping - not as popular as the other two - social support coping occurs when one turns to others for assistance and emotional support in times of stress

which Psychological Skills to Include

- After the assessment comes the decision about which psychological skills to emphasize during the program - should be based on the coaches' & athletes answers to these questions (ex; How many weeks of practice or preseason are available?) - sufficient time and commitment are not available for a comprehensive training program, it is best to prioritize objectives and emphasize a few skills initially rather than superficially working on all the needed skills. - Skills are qualities to be obtained (ex; self-awareness, confidence - •Methods are procedures or techniques for developing psychological skills (ex; arousal regulation, imagery, goal setting).

Goal-Setting Practices of Coaches (cont.)

- Although coaches used performance, process, and outcome goals, they tended to favor performance and process goals. - The main reason for setting goals was to provide purpose and direction, followed by player improvement and fostering team cohesion (team goals). - Goal barriers were seen as physical (ex; injury), psychological (ex; lack of confidence), and external (ex; parental overinvolvement - The most important aspect of goal commitment was personal enjoyment

Building Coaching Efficacy

- An intervention program to enhance coaching efficacy targeted 1. commitment, 2. communication, 3. concentration, 4. control 5. confidence

Assessing athletes' mental skills

- Assess strengths and weaknesses (either objectively or subjectively). - Use psychological assessment techniques (performance profiling, oral interviews, psychological inventories). - Consider the unique demands of the sport. - Observe athletes competing and practicing. - Obtain the perspectives of other parties involved (e.g., coaches, athlete trainers). - evaluating athletes' psychological strengths and weaknesses, bear in mind that not only psychological factors influence performance - some professional teams have started to hire a "performance team" consisting of experts in physiology, biomechanics, and psychology to get an integrated view of predicting athlete performance as well as developing optimal training regimens. - peak performance can be more often achieved by integrating how an athlete thinks and feels, how she moves, and how her body reacts than by any one of these alone - 2 clues that an athlete might benefit from mental training are that the athlete performs better in practice than in competition or performs more poorly in important competitions than in unimportant ones - An oral interview and written psychological inventories can provide useful subjective and objective information - After the interview and psychological inventories the evaluator should give feedback to each athlete to highlight her specific psychological strengths and weaknesses in sport performance

during personal time (when to use imagery)

- Athletes can use imagery at home or in any other appropriate quiet place - athletes should try to set aside 10 mins at home so that they do not break their imagery routine - Some people like to image before they go to sleep; others prefer doing it when they wake up in the morning

Uses of Imagery

- Athletes can use imagery in many ways to improve both physical and psychological skills. - Uses of imagery include: (a) improving concentration (b) enhancing motivation (c) building confidence (d) controlling emotional responses (e) acquiring and practicing sport skills and strategies (f) preparing for competition (g) coping with pain or injury (h) solving problems

Why PST is Important?

- Athletes feel that psychological factors primarily account for day-to-day fluctuations in performance - Traditionally, athletes spend little time training and practicing psychological skills - "in the zone"= where everything comes together effortlessly and performance is exceptional - Mental & Emotional components often overshadow and transcend the purely physical and technical aspects of performance - importance of mental skills is seen in the highly valued attribute of "mental toughness" - Mental toughness= athlete's ability to focus, ability to rebound from failure, ability to cope with pressure, determination to persist in the face of adversity, and mental resilience - PST targets building & developing these mental skills critical for athletic success - coaches consider sport to be at least 50% mental when competing against an opponent of similar ability, and certain sports (ex; golf, tennis, and figure skating) are consistently viewed as 80% to 90% mental. - Summer & Winter Olympic Games demonstrate the minute differences that result in gold, silver, and bronze medals or no medals at all. Michael Phelps, who won a race by 1/100th of a second in the 2008 Olympics and lost another race by 1/100th of a second in the 2012 Olympics

when recovering from injury (when to use imagery)

- Athletes have been trained to use imagery with relaxation exercises to reduce anxiety about an injury - used imagery to rehearse performance as well as the emotions they anticipate experiencing on return to competition, thereby staying sharp and ready for return - Positive images of healing or full recovery have been shown to enhance recovery - Ievleva and Orlick (1991) found that positive healing and performance imagery were related to faster recovery times

Recommendations for Imagery Use

- Athletes of all ages can benefit from imagery interventions. - Encourage less-skilled athletes to use imagery. - Images should be positive rather than negative. - Encourage athletes to use imagery during the times it is used less often, such as in the off-season, during practices, and during the early part of a competitive season.

Responding With Confidence

- Athletes should focus on responding to mistakes and errors with control and confidence rather than reacting with emotion or unproductive behaviors - Vealey and Vernau (2013) use the acronym ACT to represent accepting, centering, and thinking: (a) Accept: Accept the bad feelings of a poor performance or mistake. Own your feelings rather than suppressing them. (b) Center: Center yourself physically through a confident posture and deep breathing (exhale the tension and negative thoughts). (c) Think: Use your prepared self-talk strategy. Focus your thoughts on controllable things and the process of performance

When Do Athletes Image? (Imagery in Sport: Where, When, Why, and What)

- Athletes use imagery before, during, and after practice; outside of practice; before, during, or after competition; and for injury rehabilitation. - athletes use imagery more frequently during competition and practice than during injury rehabilitation - imagery is used for rehabilitation purposes, the focus tends to be on motivation to recover and to rehearse rehabilitation exercises. (faster healing)

Imagery Perspective

- Athletes usually take either an internal or external perspective for viewing their imagery - perspective used depends on the athlete and the situation - elite athletes favored an internal perspective - Olympic athletes indicated that they used both internal and external imagery - Hardy and his colleagues (Hardy & Callow, 1999; White & Hardy, 1995) argued that task differences may influence the use of each perspective - external imagery has superior effects on the acquisition and performance of skills that depend heavily on form for successful execution - internal perspective is predicted to be superior for the acquisition and performance of tasks that depend heavily on perception and anticipation for successful execution - tasks varying along the continuum of open and closed sports may be affected by internal and external imagery - important thing appears to be getting a clear, controllable image regardless of whether it is from an internal or an external perspective

Coping Findings From Olympic Athletes (Greenleaf, Gould, & Dieffenbach, 2001)

- Athletes who prepared for unexpected events (ex; bad call by an official, loud roommates) were more successful than athletes who did not prepare for these events. - Psychological skills (ex; mental preparation, mental skills, use of routines) are important for effectively coping with psychological (ex; anxiety, loss of concentration, lack of confidence) and nonpsychological (ex; poor housing, injury) stressors. - A delicate balance existed between training and overtraining, which was seen as critical to success. All athletes reported on the importance of some aspect of mental preparation and stated that mental preparation had a positive effect on performance. - Negative factors that were perceived to undermine Olympic performance included departures from the normal routine, media distractions, coach issues, injury, and overtraining

Flow Model: Essential Elements of Flow

- Balance of challenge and skills (most important part of Csikszentmihalyi's definition of flow is the balance between one's perceived skill and challenge) - Complete absorption in the activity (participant is so involved in the activity that nothing else seems to matter) - Clear goals (This clarity of intention facilitates concentration and attention) - Merging of action and awareness (athlete is aware of her actions but not of the awareness itself) - Total concentration on the task of hand (Crowd noises, opponent reactions, and other distractions simply don't matter) - Loss of self-consciousness (Performers report that their ego is completely lost in the activity itself) - A sense of control (athlete is not actively aware of control; rather, he is simply not worried by the possibility of lack of control) - No goals or rewards external to the activity (athlete participates purely because of the activity itself, without seeking any other reward) - Transformation of time (time seems to speed up, although for some it slows down) - Effortless movement (athlete is performing well yet is not really thinking about it and doesn't appear to be trying too hard) - These elements represent the essential features of optimal performances, which athletes have described as "hot," "in a groove," "on a roll," or "in the zone," a special state where everything is going well

Sport and Situation Specific Inventories

- Baseball Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (Albrecht & Feltz, 1987) - The Officials Stress Test (Goldsmith & Williams, 1992 - The Gymnastics Efficacy Measure (McAuley, 1985)

Making Punishment Effective (cont.) (Martens, Christina, Harvey, & Sharkey, 1981)

- Be consistent by giving everyone the same type of punishment for breaking similar rules. - Punish the behavior, not the person. Convey to the individual that it's his behavior that needs to change. - Allow athletes to have input in making up punishments for breaking rules. - Do not use physical activity or conditioning as a punishment. (However, research by Bandealy and Kerr, 2013, revealed a great deal of individual differences with regard to using physical conditioning as punishment: While most athletes reported negative emotional responses such as embarrassment and humiliation, a small percentage perceived it as an effective way to enhance motivation and team cohesion.) - Make sure the punishment is not perceived as a reward or simply as attention. - Impose punishment impersonally—do not berate people or yell. Simply inform them of their punishment. - Do not punish athletes for making errors while they are playing. - Do not embarrass individuals in front of teammates or classmates. - Use punishment sparingly, and enforce it when you use it. - Do not punish other teammates for an individual's mistake. - Make sure punishment is age appropriate - Make certain that athletes understand the reason for punishment

Behavior Modification and Cognitive Behavior Therapy

- Behavior modification and cognitive behavior therapy (which incorporate cognitive change methods such as self-talk and mental rehearsal) can be combined and integrated to produce even greater performance enhancements - methods that can be used in cognitive behavior therapy and behavior modification, including goal setting, self-monitoring, behavioral rehearsal, prompting, positive reinforcement, and cuing (Luiselli, 2012)

Who should conduct PST (sport psychologist or coach)?

- Both can do so as long as they recognize their limits. - Recognize potential conflicts of interest when coaches implement programs

Breath Control (Somatic Anxiety Reduction Techniques)

- Breath Control: - Proper breathing is often considered key to achieving relaxation - breath control is physically oriented relaxation technique - one of the easiest, most effective ways to control anxiety and muscle tension - When you are calm, confident, and in control, your breathing is likely to be smooth, deep, and rhythmic - When you're under pressure and tense, your breathing is more likely to be short, shallow, and irregular - Performing under pressure, they often fail to coordinate their breathing with the performance of the skill. - breathing in and holding your breath increases muscle tension - breathing out decreases muscle tension (ex; most discus throwers, shot-putters, and baseball pitchers learn to breathe out during release) - Learning proper breath control can help an athlete regain and maintain control during high-anxiety situations

PST Effectiveness (cont.)

- Brown and Fletcher (2016) conducted a review of the PST literature by investigating 35 empirical studies that assessed the effects of psychological and psychosocial interventions on sport performance. The major findings included the following: (a) Both psychological and psychosocial interventions significantly enhanced sport performance, although psychosocial interventions produced the largest positive effects (b) performance effects lasted about a month after the completion of the intervention (c) effects were greater when coaches delivered the intervention (d) effects were somewhat greater for males than for females - Educationally based PST enhances sport performance. - Intervention must be individualized, employed systematically over time, and multimodal (combining different psychological skills such as imagery, self-talk, and goal setting

improve concentration (Uses of Imagery)

- By visualizing what you want to do and how you want to react in certain situations, you can prevent your mind from wandering - You can imagine yourself in situations in which you often lose your concentration (ex; after missing an easy shot in basketball, forgetting a step in an aerobic dance class, or forgetting how to complete a test to assess an injury) and then imagine yourself remaining composed and focused on the next play or step or test.

Expectations and Behavior Guidelines for Coaches (Horn, 2002; Solomon, 2010)

- Coaches should determine what sources of information they use to form preseason or early-season expectations for each athlete. - Coaches should realize that their initial assessment of an athlete's competence may be inaccurate and thus needs to be revised continuously as the season progresses. - During practices, coaches need to keep a running count of the amount of time each athlete spends in non-skill-related activities (ex; waiting in line). - Coaches should design instructional activities or drills that provide all athletes with an opportunity to improve their skills - Coaches should emphasize skill improvement as a means of evaluating and reinforcing individual athletes rather than using absolute performance or levels of skill achievement.

Expectations and Behavior Guidelines for Coaches (cont.)

- Coaches should interact frequently with all athletes on their team to solicit information concerning athletes' perceptions, opinions, and attitudes regarding team rules and organization. - Coaches should try to create a mastery-oriented environment in team practices, focused on improvement and team play. - Coaches should communicate their expectations to athletes so that athletes are aware of how they are being evaluated. - Coaches should use concrete measures to evaluate athlete improvement in psychological factors, which are often difficult to objectively measure. For example, coaches could assess anxiety levels before critical moments to determine whether they were related to the amount of attention and feedback given to the athlete

Coaches' Expectations and Athletes' Performance: Stage 1

- Coaches usually form expectations of their athletes and teams - these expectations can come from an individual's race, physical size, gender, or socioeconomic status (called "person cues") - person cues to form judgments about an athlete's competence could certainly lead to inaccurate expectations - psychological characteristics were the most salient factors that coaches relied on to judge athletic ability - coaches believe that athletes at this level of competition are more likely to possess comparable levels of physical ability and thus it is psychological factors that really distinguish one athlete from another - coaches also use "performance information" , such as past accomplishments, skill tests, practice behaviors, and other coaches' evaluations - Assessing more than 200 coaches, Solomon (2010) found that these person and performance factors fall under 4 categories: (a) coachability (b) physical ability (c) being a team player (d) maturity - inaccurate expectations when they are inflexible, typically lead to inappropriate behaviors on the part of the coach

coaching expectation and athlete's performance

- Coaches' and teachers' expectations are very important. - A teacher's or coach's expectations can alter a student's or athlete's feelings and performance - head coaches provided more of all types of feedback to athletes for whom they had high expectations and that these athletes viewed their coaches more positively than did other athletes - coaches' expectations were a significant predictor of their athletes' performances - The expectation-and-performance process occurs in 4 stages

Coaches' Expectations and Athletes' Performance: Stage 2

- Coaches' expectations influence their behaviors regarding the: (a) Frequency and Quality of Coach-Athlete Interaction: ~ Coach spends more time with high-expectation athletes ~ warm & positive to them (b) Quantity and Quality of Instruction: ~ athletes expected less of correspondingly less time in practice drills ~ coach less persistent teaching difficult skills to low-expectation athletes (c) Type and Frequency of Feedback: ~ more reinforcement and praise for high-expectation athletes after a successful performance ~quantitatively less beneficial feedback to low-expectation athletes. More instructional and informational feedback given ti high-expectation athletes - quantity, and quality of feedback provided, teachers can exhibit their expectancies through the kind of environment they create

Collective Efficacy

- Collective efficacy refers to a belief or perception shared by members of the team regarding the capabilities of their teammates (rather than merely the sum of individual perceptions of their own efficacy). Collective efficacy is each individual's perception of the efficacy of the team as a whole - Collective efficacy has been found to be a strong predictor of team performance, and higher collective efficacy is predictive of reduced task anxiety, improved task engagement, and greater satisfaction

Building self-confidence

- Confidence can be built, however, through work, practice, and planning - Confidence can be improved in a variety of ways: focusing on performance accomplishments, acting confident, responding with confidence, thinking confidently, using imagery, using goal mapping, optimizing physical conditioning and training, and preparing - Manipulate or create situations that allow participants to succeed and have a sense of accomplishments - Focus on performance accomplishments (a) Successful behavior increases confidence and leads to further successful behavior. (b) Include good physical, technical, and tactical instructions. (c) Use game-pressure simulations.

Thinking Confidently

- Confidence consists of thinking that you can and will achieve your goals. - Positive self-talk can provide specific performance cues as well as keep motivation and energy high. - positive self-talk results in a more enjoyable and successful athletic experience - Focus on instruction and motivating thoughts. - Avoid judgmental thoughts. - Focus on remembering good performances, not poor ones

strategies to develop robust self-confidence (CONT.) (Beaumont, Maynard, and Butt, 2015)

- Consider individual differences among athletes and use different strategies for different athletes. - Sustain the development process by continuing to use the strategies for developing confidence, to monitor performance, and to set goals. - Influence the athlete environment by manipulating training and creating an environment that fosters belief and develops cues to help maintain robust sport confidence regardless of the situation. - Encourage stable beliefs by restructuring and reframing thoughts, focusing on your own thoughts, because those you can control.

Principles of Goal Setting (continued)

- Consider participants' personalities and motivations. (a) Consider factors such as achievement motivation (high versus low achievers), stages of achievement motivation, social comparison, task or ego orientation, and dispositional hope when setting goals. (b) Motivational climate also influences goal-setting effectiveness.

Controllability (Keys to Effective Imagery)

- Controllability: Learn to manipulate your images so they do what you want them to do - It is important to develop the skill to control one's images - 3 controllability exercises: 1. Controlling Performance 2. Controlling Performance Against a Tough Opponent 3. Controlling Emotions

Common Problems in Goal Setting

- Convincing students, athletes, and exercisers to set goals - Failing to set specific goals - Setting too many goals too soon - Failing to adjust goals - Failing to recognize individual differences - Not providing goal follow-up and evaluation

Tips to Build Resilience

- Develop a core set of beliefs that nothing can shake. - Try to find meaning in whatever stressful or traumatic thing has happened. - Try to maintain a positive outlook. -Take cues from someone who is especially resilient. - Don't run from things that scare you; face them. - Be quick to reach out for support when things go haywire. - Learn new things as often as you can. - Find an exercise regimen you'll stick to. - Don't beat yourself up or dwell on the past.

Principles of Goal Setting (cont.)

- Develop goal achievement strategies. - Consider participants' personalities and motivations. - Foster an individual's goal commitment. - Provide goal support. - Provide evaluation of and feedback about goals

Choosing and Monitoring Target Behaviors (Tkachuk, Leslie-Toogood, and Martin (2003)

- Direct observation of single behaviors - Behavioral checklists for recording multiple behaviors - Athlete self-monitoring - Filming practice, precompetition, and competition - Postperformance video reconstruction of verbal behavior

Designing a PST Program

- Discuss your approach. - Assess the athlete's mental skills. - Determine which psychological skills to include. - Design a PST schedule. - Evaluate the program

Do's and Don'ts for Building Self-Confidence (cont.)

- Don't use sarcasm and put-downs to motivate people. - Don't allow teammates or group members to belittle other team or group members. - Don't criticize participants for inconsequential errors. - Don't embarrass or criticize participants at the first sign of a mistake. - Don't criticize the person; criticize the behavior

Somatic Anxiety Reduction Techniques

- Edmund Jacobson's progressive relaxation technique (1938) forms the cornerstone for many modern relaxation procedures. - progressive relaxation tech.= tensing and relaxing specific muscles. - Jacobson named the technique progressive relaxation because the tensing and relaxing progress from one major muscle group to the next until all muscle groups are completely relaxed - Jacobson's technique helping people learn to feel tension in their muscles and then let go of this tension - tension-relaxation cycles develop an athlete's awareness of the difference between tension and lack of tension - With skill, an athlete can detect tension in a specific muscle or area of the body, like the neck, and then relax those muscles. - 1st few sessions of progressive relaxation take an athlete up to 30 minutes, and less time is necessary with practice. - goal is to develop the ability to relax on-site during competition

3 Phases of PST Programs

- Education phase - Acquisition phase - Practice phase

Group Goal-Setting Principles

- Establish long-term goals first. - Establish clear paths of short-term goals en route to the long-term goals. - Involve all members of the team in establishing team goals. - Monitor progress toward team goals. - Reward progress made toward team goals. - Foster collective team confidence or efficacy concerning team goals

Evaluating the Program

- Evaluating psychological skills development and change is an important but often overlooked element of PST programs - There are ethical obligations in evaluating the effectiveness of the program (Smith, 1989) and practical considerations as well: A. An evaluation provides feedback for gauging the program's effectiveness and for then modifying the program as necessary. B. An evaluation allows participants to suggest changes in how the program is conducted. C. An evaluation is the only way to objectively judge whether the program has achieved its goals - evaluation should include interviews and written rating scales to supply both qualitative and quantitative feedback - useful to coaches and athletes are objective performance data

Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Rewards (cont.)

- General psychological studies have concluded that external rewards undermine intrinsic motivation under certain select circumstances. - Cognitive evaluation theory identifies the conditions under which external rewards undermine intrinsic motivation

Anxiety-Reducing Techniques (cont.)

- Excess anxiety can produce inappropriate muscle tension, which in turn can diminish performance. - excess anxiety can produce inappropriate thoughts and cognitions ("I hope I 371 don't fail in front of all these people") - important to interpret anxiety in a facilitative rather than a debilitative manner - Research (Thomas, Hanton, & Maynard, 2007) revealed that 3 time periods were critical in the interpretation of anxiety: after performance (reviewing previous performance), 1 or 2 days before competition, and the day of competition - each of these time frames, facilitators used a refined repertoire of psychological skills (ex; imagery, reframing self-talk) to internally control and reinterpret the cognitive and somatic anxiety experienced - athletes who interpret their anxiety symptoms as facilitative report higher levels of self-confidence than athletes who interpret their anxiety as debilitative (Hanton and Mellalieu, 2014) - researchers argue that self-confidence is the key factor to help buffer against potential negative interpretations of anxiety by promoting the use of positive self-talk and mental rehearsal - Athletes across competitive levels used anxiety reduction techniques to cope with both competitive anxiety and everyday anxieties associated with being an athlete

Uses of Imagery in Exercise Settings (Gammage, Hall, & Rodgers, 2000; Hausenblas et al., 1999; Stanley, Cumming, Standage, & Duda, 2012)

- Exercise technique: imagery to help develop perfect exercise technique - Aerobics routines: imagery to help develop routines - Exercise context: imagery to create a particular scene or environment - Appearance images: imagine your body as you would like it to be - Competitive outcomes: images of doing well - Fitness and health outcomes: images related to improvements in fitness and health - Emotions and feelings associated with imagery: images that increase arousal and excitement or reductions in stress - Exercise self-efficacy: images that provide confidence to sustain workouts

self-fulfilling prophecy

- Expecting something to happen actually helps cause it to happen - phenomenon is common in both competitive sport and exercise programs - Negative self-fulfilling prophecies are psychological barriers that lead to a vicious cycle: (a) The expectation of failure leads to actual failure, which lowers self-image and increases expectations of future failure

Experts versus Non-Experts (Developing and Displaying Expertise) (Williams & Ericsson, 2008)

- Experts versus Non-Experts: a. Experts, compared with nonexperts, anticipated their opponents' intentions significantly more quickly. b. The experts were more accurate in their decision making. c. Experts had fewer fixations of the eyes but for longer durations. d. Experts extracted more task-relevant information from each eye fixation. e. Experts had longer "quiet eye" periods (time when task-relevant information cues were processed and motor plans were coordinated). f. Experts picked up information from opponents' movements more quickly

Flow: A Special Case for Intrinsic Motivation

- Flow is a holistic, intrinsically motivating sensation that people feel when they are totally involved in an activity or are on automatic pilot. - A flow model describes the essential elements of flow - Intrinsic motivation is at its highest and maximum performance is achieved - if the task demands are greater than your capabilities, you become anxious and perform poorly - if your skills are greater than the challenges of the task, you become bored and perform less well - if an athlete has a high skill level and the opponent is also highly skilled, then the athlete may achieve flow - if an athlete with less ability is matched against a strong opponent, it will produce anxiety - Combining low skills and low challenge results in apathy or relaxation, whereas combining high skills and low challenge result in boredom - structuring exercise classes, physical education, and competitive sport to be challenging and creative, you foster better performance, richer experiences, and longer involvement in physical activity

What Not to Do: Inappropriate Approaches to Feedback

- Focus on criticism - Focus on criticism with sarcasm - Use physical abuse - Employ guilt

Why Do Athletes Image? ((Imagery in Sport: Where, When, Why, and What)

- For motivational and cognitive functions - Functions of imagery: motivational (Pavio, 1985) •Motivational general mastery •Motivational general arousal - Functions of imagery: cognitive (pavio, 1985) •Cognitive specific •Cognitive general - He suggested that imagery plays both cognitive and motivational roles in mediating behavior and that each is capable of being oriented toward either general or specific behavioral goals - On the motivational-specific (MS) side, people can use imagery to visualize specific goals and goal-oriented behaviors, such as winning a particular contest or being congratulated for a good performance. - Empirical testing has determined that motivational-general imagery should be classified into motivational general mastery (MG-M) and motivational general-arousal (MG-A) - Mattie and Munroe-Chandler (2012) found that MG-M imagery was a strong and consistent predictor of mental toughness. - Using imagery to "psych up and increase arousal" is an example of MG-A

Principles of Goal Setting (continued)

- Foster an individual's goal commitment. (a) Promote goal commitment by encouraging progress and providing consistent feedback. Solicit the athlete's or exerciser's input. - Provide goal support. (a) Enlist support from significant others to make goal setting effective. - Provide evaluation of and feedback about goals. (a) Goal evaluation and feedback are essential parts of facilitating behavior change via goal setting

relaxation response (cognitive anxiety reduction tech.)

- Herbert Benson, a physician at Harvard Medical School, popularized a scientifically sound way of relaxing that he called the "relaxation response" - method applies the basic elements of meditation but eliminates any spiritual or religious significance - relaxation response= Teaches individuals to quiet the mind, concentrate, and reduce muscle tension by applying the elements of meditation - Many athletes use meditation to mentally prepare for competition, asserting that it improves their ability to relax, concentrate, and become energized - The state of mind produced by meditation is characterized by keen awareness, effortlessness, relaxation, spontaneity, and focused attention - The relaxation response teaches you to quiet the mind, concentrate, and reduce muscle tension - one should practice the relaxation response about 20 mins a day - not an appropriate technique to use right before an event or competition because athletes could potentially become too relaxed and lethargic - Studies using meditation have demonstrated lower lactate levels, less self-reported tension, and increases in performance compared with control conditions

Determining a Schedule

- Hold frequent, shorter meetings rather than frequent, longer meetings. - Before or after practice 1 or 2 days a week might serve as a formal meeting time for educating participants on various other psychological skills - Whenever possible, begin PST before the season begins. - Systematically schedule PST as part of daily practice - Informal meetings can occur during social events, on bus or plane rides to competitions, at the hotel, at meals, or at any other time and place. - informal meetings complement the structured meetings and individualize content to each athlete - Periodization refers to planned variation in key training variables, particularly volume and intensity, over predetermined training cycles. The aim is to maximize long-term development and peak performance for targeted competitions while minimizing training problems such as burnout, overtraining, and injury - Systematic periodization has been proposed as a method for training mental skills through the preparatory, competitive, and peaking phases (Holliday and colleagues, 2008)

hope

- Hope involves the thinking process whereby people have an overall perception that goals can be met and they have the skills to go about achieving those goals. - People high in hope have a sense of goal-directed determination or agency and planning of ways to meet goals or labeled pathways. - Trait and state measures of hope have been found to correlate to psychological adjustment, achievement, problem solving, and health

Discussing Your Approach

- Identify PST services to be provided. - Explain the differences between educational and clinical sport psychology consultants. - Discuss your approach. - Build trust and a good relationship with the client - PST is an educational approach to mental training - explain if there are more serious mental problems (substance abuse, eating disorders) SPC will make a referral to a qualified therapist or counseling center - the effectiveness of PST is closely tied to the quality of the relationship between the athlete and the sport psychologists

Bandura's Self-Efficacy Theory

- If someone has the requisite skills and sufficient motivation, then the major determinant of the individual's performance is self-efficacy. Self-efficacy alone cannot make a person successful—an athlete must also want to succeed and have the ability to succeed - affects an athlete's choice of activities, level of effort, and persistence. Athletes who believe in themselves tend to persevere, especially under adverse conditions - self-efficacy is task specific, it can generalize, or transfer to other similar skills and situations - is related to goal setting: Those who exhibit high self-efficacy are more likely to set challenging goals

control emotional responses (uses of imagery)

- Imagery can be used both to create higher levels of arousal if an athlete feels lethargic and to reduce anxiety if an athlete gets too "uptight." - late Pat Summitt, who was a highly successful women's basketball coach at the University of Tennessee, used imagery for relaxation before important games when players tended to get too pumped and played out of control. - athlete who is having trouble getting up for a competition might want to use arousal imagery (anxiety seen as facilitative), whereas an athlete who finds anxiety a problem (anxiety seen as debilitative) may use imagery to control arousal and reduce anxiety

acquire and practice strategy (uses of imagery)

- Imagery can be used to practice and learn new strategies or review alternative strategies for either team or individual sports - To prepare himself mentally to bat, Hank Aaron, whose 755 home runs is the all-time record (except for Barry Bonds who hit 562 but is surrounded by steroid claims), used to visualize the various types of pitches a particular pitcher might throw him and the strategies he would use to counteract these pitches.

before & after competition (when to use imagery)

- Imagery can help athletes focus on the upcoming competition if they review exactly what they want to do, including different strategies for different situations - Some athletes like to visualize right before the start of a competition - important is that the imaging fits comfortably into the pre-event routine. It should not be forced or rushed - After competition, athletes can replay the things they did successfully and get a vivid, controllable image

Psychological Explanations

- Imagery develops mental skills. - Imagery develops and refines mental skills (ex; concentration and confidence) and reduces anxiety - Attention-arousal set theory: Imagery functions as a predatory set that assists in reaching optimal arousal - Psychological skills hypothesis: Imagery enhances feelings of confidence, reduces anxiety levels, and increases concentration

cope w/ pain and injury (uses of imagery)

- Imagery is also useful for coping with pain and injury - can help speed recovery of the injured area and keep skills from deteriorating - instead of feeling sorry for themselves, they can imagine doing practice drills and thereby facilitate recovery. - Guillot, Tolleron, and Collet, 2010) found that imagery can help improve flexibility, which in turn would allow a player to recover faster

Prepare for competition (uses of imagery)

- Imagery is used most often right before competition to get athletes ready to perform their best - This preparation could take the form of imagining the arena where the athlete will perform.

Sources of Sport Self-Confidence (cont.)

- In elite performers, additional sources of self-confidence include: (a) experience (having been there before), (b) innate factors (natural ability, innate competitiveness), and (c) competitive advantage (having seen competitors perform poorly or crack under pressure before) - elite athletes' levels of confidence are susceptible to periods of instability and can fluctuate over time - demonstration of ability, physical and mental preparation, physical self-presentation, and situation favorableness all increased in importance for elite athletes

Jackson and Csikszentmihalyi, 1999

- In sport, Sue Jackson has led the research in this area, studying flow experiences in athletes from a variety of sports - Jackson and Csikszentmihalyi have also collaborated on a book, "Flow in Sport: The Keys to Optimal Experiences and Performances" - both identified common elements that make sport activities intrinsically interesting - elements of flow have been identified in a variety of performance settings, including the military, the performing arts, and business and recreational performers can achieve flow just as well as elite performers can

Arousal-Inducing Techniques

- Increase breathing rate. - Act energized. - Use mood words and positive statements. (ex; strong, forward, tough, aggressive, move, quick, fast, hard, "Hang in there," "I can do it," "Get going," and "Get tough.") - Yell or shout. - Listen to music (Music reduces perceptions of effort (ratings of perceived exertion) at low to moderate exercise intensities by about 10%. - It doesn't seem to matter whether the music is selected by the self or by the experimenter. - Music appears to enhance affect regardless of exercise intensity) - Use energizing imagery. - Complete a precompetition workout (A precompetitive workout typically occurs 4 to 10 hours before the athletic performance) - key is to get athletes at an optimal level of arousal, and things such as pep talks and motivational speeches can often overarouse athletes - arousal is to be raised, it should be done in a deliberate fashion with awareness of optimal arousal states.

Why Goal Setting Works

- Indirect thought process view: Goals influence performance indirectly by affecting psychological factors, such as anxiety, confidence, and satisfaction. - Direct mechanistic explanation specifies that goals (a) direct attention to the important elements of the skill, (b) mobilize performers' efforts, (c) prolong performers' persistence, and (d) foster the development of new learning strategies. - Goals influence psychological states: Athletes who set performance (rather than outcome) goals have less anxiety and more confidence and satisfaction

lack of confidence (self-doubt)

- Individuals lacking confidence focus on their shortcomings rather than on their strengths, distracting themselves from the task at hand - Exercisers often have self-doubts about the way they look or about their ability to stay with a regular exercise program - a little self-doubt helps maintain motivation and prevents complacency or overconfidence

Stages of a Hypnotic Intervention

- Induction phase (participants need to trust the hypnotist and must want to be hypnotized because suggestibility is critical for success) - Hypnotic phase (participant's physiological responses are virtually identical to those in the relaxation response) - Waking phase (participant comes out of the trance) - Posthypnotic phase (Suggestions given to participants during hypnosis are often designed to influence them during the posthypnotic phase)

Optimal Self-Confidence

- It does not necessarily mean that you will always perform well, but it is essential to reaching your potential - strong belief in yourself will help you deal with errors and mistakes effectively and keep you striving toward success - Each person has an optimal level of self-confidence, and performance problems can arise with either too little or too much confidence - People strive for an individual, optimal confidence level but sometimes become either overconfident or under-confident

Common Problems in Implementing a PST Program

- Lack of conviction (Consultants often have to convince coaches and athletes that developing psychological skills will facilitate success. One good selling point is the example of highly visible athletes known for their psychological skills) - Lack of time (Coaches frequently claim there isn't enough time in their situation to practice mental skills) - Lack of knowledge of sport (Having playing or coaching experience can help the consultant understand the specific problems that athletes have and enables the consultant to talk to athletes using the sport's jargon. But even though having sport-specific experience is advantageous, it is not absolutely essential as long as consultants acquaint themselves with the nature of the sport and its competitive environment) - Lack of follow-up (Some coaches and consultants implement a PST program enthusiastically but provide little follow-up once the program is under way)

PST Effectiveness

- Learning how effective PST programs can be in improving sport performance requires well controlled, outcome-based intervention studies conducted in competitive environments - Greenspan and Feltz (1989) reviewed 23 published studies of the effectiveness of various psychological interventions (ex; stress inoculation, imagery, relaxation, reinforcement, systematic desensitization) in many competitive settings. - Weinberg and Comar (1994) examined 45 studies using psychological interventions in competitive sport settings. Positive performance effects were apparent in 38 (85%) of the studies, although cause-effect relationships could be inferred in only 20 of them.

Correlates of flow (Jackson, 2011)

- Length of sport involvement. The longer an athlete participated in sport, the more flowlike experiences the athlete reported. - Gender. No significant differences have been found in how male and female athletes or exercisers experience flow states. - Self-concept. Higher self-concept has been associated with a higher frequency of achieving flow states. - Autotelic personality. Individuals with an autotelic personality (ex; tendency to enjoy activity for its own sake) are more likely to experience flow states. - Hypnotic suggestibility. Individuals higher in hypnotic suggestibility tend to achieve flow states more frequently. - Performance. Although Csikszentmihalyi argues that flow is much more important as a phenomenon unto itself, studies have found that flow states are related to higher levels of performance. - Type of sport. No significant differences in the frequency or quality of flow states have been found between individual-sport and team-sport athletes.

before & after practice (when to use imagery)

- Limit these sessions to about 10 minutes; most athletes have trouble concentrating on imagery any longer than this - focus concentration and get ready before practice, athletes should visualize the skills, routines, and plays they expect to perform - each practice, they should review the skills and strategies they worked on

strategies to develop robust self-confidence (Beaumont, Maynard, and Butt, 2015)

- Log evidence using such things as diaries, modeling, videos, and reflecting. - Use psychological skills such as goal setting, imagery, reframing, process focus, and developing psychological competition plans. - Develop an athlete's signature strengths by helping her focus on the aspects of her performance at which she excels and that set her apart from other athletes. - Maintain the coaching environment by manipulating the training environment to create more challenging and pressure situations to test the athletes' mental skills

Principles of Goal Setting

- Set specific goals. - Set moderately difficult but realistic goals. - Set long- and short-term goals. - Set performance, process, and outcome goals. - Set mastery-approach versus performance-avoidance goals. - Set practice and competition goals. Record goals

Provide performance feedback (cont.)

- Making mistakes and errors is inevitable in training and competition, and even corrective feedback may convey the message that the performer has low competence. providing corrective feedback in response to mistakes and poor performance in an autonomy-supportive manner (ex; "You could improve your freethrows by either changing your routine or following through on your shots") rather than a controlling manner (ex; "You won't make this team unless you work on your three-point shot") produces higher levels of intrinsic motivation, positive affect, and performance

Mental Toughness

- Mentally tough athletes have a high sense of self-belief and an unshakeable faith that they can control their own destiny - They can remain relatively unaffected by competition or adversity - The constructs of motivation, dealing with pressure, confidence, and concentration make up mental toughness (Jones et al., 2002). - These attributes of mental toughness were employed before (ex; goal setting), during (ex; coping with pressure), and after competition (ex; handling failure) - most people view mental toughness as a desirable and positive attribute

Goal Setting Research

- Meta-analyses (statistical reviews of the literature) show that goal setting works to enhance performance and physical activity behavior. - In sport and exercise psychology, goal setting has been shown to work well in sport, although not quite as well as it does in business. - Almost all athletes use some type of goal setting to enhance performance

PST for Special Populations: Physical Disabilities

- Most research on PST has focused on the athletes that don't have disabilities - recent research has drawn attention to athletes with disabilities - Suggestions on working w/ athletes w/ disabilities: ~ Ensure that venues are accessible. ~ If working with a group of athletes in wheelchairs, communicate by being in their level (ex; in a chair). ~ If the physical disability affects the control of muscles required for speech, be patient with verbal communication. Speak directly to the athlete even if a parent or other caretaker is present. ~ Monitor the temp. of the room b/c certain disabilities are negatively affected by certain temperatures

PST for Special Populations:Intellectual Disabilities (Hanrahan, 2007)

- Most research on PST has focused on the athletes that don't have disabilities - recent research has drawn attention to athletes with disabilities - Suggestions on working w/ athletes w/ disabilities: ~ The development of trust and rapport is critical. ~ The sport psychologist must work at the individual's level of understanding ~ Soliciting help from relatives, case managers, or residential staff is important. Instructions should be kept simple, skills should be broken down into smaller teaching components and sessions should be fun and enjoyable for those w/ cognitive disabilities such as; poor short-term memory and limited literacy or numerical skills

Flow: How to Achieve It (Jackson, 1992, 1995)

- Motivation to perform (Being motivated to perform—and to perform well—is important to getting into flow) - Achieving optimal arousal level before performing (Being relaxed, controlling anxiety, and enjoying the activity contribute to flow) - Maintaining appropriate focus (Keeping a narrow focus, staying in the present, focusing before the performance, and focusing on key points in one's activity are critical to maintaining proper focus) - Precompetitive and competitive plans and preparation (Following precompetitive routines, feeling totally ready, having a competitive plan, and anticipating potential unusual events) - Optimal physical preparation and readiness (Having done the necessary training and preparation beforehand, working hard, and feeling that you are physically ready and able to have good practice sessions before competing)

Signs of Underarousal

- Moving slowly, not getting set - Mind wandering, being easily distracted - Lack of concern about how one will perform - Lack of anticipation or enthusiasm - Heavy feeling in legs, no bounce - You don't have to experience all these signs to be underactivated. More you notice, however, the more likely it is that you need to increase arousal. Usually indicate you are not physically or mentally ready to play - To take the steps to increase or decrease your arousal level, first become aware of how activated or aroused you feel.

Anxiety-Reducing Techniques: Multimodal Anxiety

- Multimodal stress management packages can alleviate both cognitive and somatic anxiety and provide systematic strategies for rehearsing coping procedures under simulated stressful conditions - 2 most popular multimodal techniques are cognitive-affective stress management training, developed by Ronald Smith (1980), and stress inoculation training, developed by Donald Meichenbaum (1985)

Coping and Coping Basics

- Nicholls (2016) reported that from 1998 to 2004, 64 studies were published on coping and athletes. - from 2005 to 2013, 130 studies were published using both quantitative and qualitative techniques. - The stressors particular to competitions include the fear of injury, performance slumps, the expectations of others, crowd noises, external distractions, failure, and critical points in the competition. - Coping is a process of constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external or internal demands or conflicts appraised as taxing or exceeding one's resources (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). - Researchers have found that athletes must learn a broad spectrum of coping strategies to use in different situations and for different sources of stress - Investigators have also differentiated between 2 types of coping: problem-focused and emotion-focused coping

Why Do Athletes Image? (CONT.)(Imagery in Sport: Where, When, Why, and What)

- Nordin and Cumming (2008) found that MS imagery was most effective in helping athletes maintain confidence and stay focused - Cognitive-specific (CS) imagery focuses on the performance of specific motor skills - cognitive-general (CG) imagery refers to rehearsing entire game plans, strategies of play, and routines inherent in competitions. - CS imagery was rated most effective for skill learning and development, skill execution, and performance enhancement

Levels of Confidence

- Optimal confidence involves being so convinced that you will achieve your goals that you strive hard to do so. - Lack of confidence (self-doubt) creates anxiety, breaks concentration, and causes indecisiveness. - Overconfidence (false confidence) causes you to prepare less than you need to in order to perform

Flow: How to Achieve It (cont.)(Jackson, 1992, 1995)

- Optimal environmental and situational conditions (by altering their own internal climate) - Confidence and mental attitude - Team play and interaction (Positive team interactions such as good passing, playing as a unit, and open communication) - Feeling good about performance (receiving feedback from their movements and being in control of their bodies) - Mindfulness (one of the most popular techniques for achieving a sense of calm as well as a centered, nonjudgmental, and present focus)

Types of Goals and Behavior Change

- Outcome, performance, and process goals all play roles in behavior change. The key is knowing where to focus each goal. - Don't focus all your attention on outcome goals. - Use a combination of all three types of goals. - Outcome goals can facilitate short-term motivation but often lead to anxiety before and during competition

Frequency, Duration, and Intensity of Imagery Training

- Participate in 3 to 4 sessions per week. - Sessions should last about 15 minutes but could go up to 30 minutes. - The number of repetitions will vary with the length of the sport skill, and several repetitions should be involved in every imagery session. - If concentration wanes, break imagery sessions into shorter time blocks. - Imagery training should be systematic and considered a regular part of mental preparation for competition and practice.

Skewed Inverted U Confidence-Performance Relationship

- People strive for an individual, optimal confidence level but sometimes become either overconfident or underconfident - Each person has an optimal level of self-confidence, and performance problems can arise with either too little or too much confidence - The inverted U illustrating the confidence-performance relationship

Types of Goals and Behavior Change (cont.)

- Performance and process goals are more precise than outcome goals and less dependent on the behavior of others. - Performance and process goals are particularly useful before or during competition (on rare occasions). - Too much focus on a specific performance goal (e.g., running a personal best) can create anxiety. - Process goals have all the advantages of performance goals

Psychometric Assessments (Woodcock, Duda, Cumming, Sharp, and Holland, 2012)

- Popular assessments w/ SPCs: ~ Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (Nideffer, 1976; Nideffer, Segal, Lowry, & Bond, 2001) ~ Sport Anxiety Scale (Smith, Smoll, & Schutz, 1990) ~ Test of Performance Strategies (Thomas, Murphy, & Hardy, 1999) ~ Trait-State Confidence Inventory (Vealey, 1986) - - help practitioners more accurately assess athletes' mental skills

Tips and Guidelines for developing a Successful Imagery Training Program

- Practice in many settings. - Aim for relaxed concentration. - Set realistic expectations and sufficient motivation. - Use vivid and controllable images. - Apply imagery to specific situations. - Maintain positive focus. - Consider use of video and audio recordings. - Include execution and outcomes. - Use good timing of imagery.

effectiveness of anxiety reduction tech.

- Programs have shown to be effective in reducing anxiety and increasing performance, although performance improvements are less consistent - Multimodal approaches seem to be the most effective in terms of performance enhancement - Rumbolt, Fletcher, and Daniels (2012) reviewed 64 intervention studies investigating techniques meant to reduce anxiety and increase performance. Of the 64 studies reviewed, 52 (81%) showed that stress components were optimized in at least one of the following ways: stressors were reduced, cognitive appraisals were modified, negative affect states were reduced and positive affect states were increased, and effective coping behaviors were facilitated. When looking at overall effectiveness of interventions that measured both stress and performance outcomes, 30 of 39 studies (77%) found positive effects for performance, although only 22 of 39 (56%) found positive effects for both stress reduction and performance improvement.

Strategies for Increasing Intrinsic Motivation

- Provide for successful experiences. (Perceived success strengthens feelings of personal competence) - Give rewards contingent on performance. (Tie rewards to the performance of specific behaviors to increase their informational value. Give rewards based on proper execution of plays, good sporting behavior, helping other teammates, or mastering a new skill in order to provide information about the individual's competence) - Use verbal and nonverbal praise. (Praise provides positive feedback and helps athletes continue to strive to improve) - Vary content and sequence of practice drills. (vary the kinds of drills and the way they are sequenced) - Involve participants in decisions. (Allow participants more responsibility for making decisions and rules) - Set realistic performance goals (These goals include playing for a specified number of minutes, keeping emotional control, or simply improving over a previous performance)

Education Phase (3 Phases of PST Programs)

- Psychological skills need to be taught and learned. - Participants must recognize how important it is to acquire PST and how the skills affect performance - phase may last for as little as an hour or for as long as several hours over the course of a few days - 1st step: asking participants how important they think the mental side of sport performance is - 2nd step: explain how psychological skills can be learned, just like physical skills - important part of the education phase involves increasing athlete awareness of the role that mental skills play in performance (Ken Ravizza, 2001) - Ravizza does this in a highly innovative way by having athletes regularly use a traffic light analogy to think about their performance in three ways: green light, yellow light, and red light situations. ~ green light= athlete is performing well and functions w/o a lot of awareness ~ yellow light= performance situations, the athlete is struggling and needs to beware of destructive thoughts and the ways they can interfere with performance. Use refocusing strategies. ~ Red light= athlete is in real trouble and performing very poorly. Major coping strategies are needed. Athlete may need to come out of the contest, get totally relaxed, and then reactivate

Punishments

- Punishment can control and change behavior, but 80% to 90% of reinforcement should be positive -Support of Punishment - Criticisms of Punishment - some coaches use punishment as the primary motivator to foster motivation in athletes Ex; academic achievement in athletes is often prompted by a fear of punishment, such as having one's eligibility taken away because of poor grades. - empirical research, Seifried (2008) presents a view of the pros and cons of using punishment

how can athletes cope with "the yips" from a psychological perspective?

- Relaxation training (either mental or physical) - Positive thinking (tied to a multimodal relaxation procedure such as cognitive-affective stress management) - Visualization - Systematic desensitization (because fear and anxiety appear to be a central component of the yips) - important to remember that when attempting to cope with the yips, the intervention needs to be tied to the problem

Effectiveness of Goal Setting

- Research in business and general psychology has shown that goal setting works extremely well in enhancing performance. - Goal-setting effectiveness has been demonstrated in 20 countries in studies with more than 40,000 participants using over 90 tasks

Set Mastery-Approach VersusPerformance-Avoidance Goals (continued)

- Research suggests that one should (a) focus on mastery-approach goals (goals about what you want to accomplish relative to your own performance), and (b) avoid goals that focus on failing to attain a task accomplishment (mastery-avoidance goals) and not losing or not performing well in comparison to others (performance avoidance goals

Controllability of Flow States

- Research with athletes indicates that they cannot control flow. - Athletes do report that they can increase the probability of flow occurring. - athletes 79% perceived flow to be controllable, whereas 21% believed it was out of their control. - although athletes cannot control flow, they still can increase the probability of it occurring and focusing on things in their control, such as their mental preparation

Sources of Sport Self-Confidence

- Researchers have identified nine sources of self-confidence specific to sport - 9 sources fall into the three general categories of achievement, self-regulation, and climate: 1. Mastery: Developing and improving skills 2. Demonstration of ability: Showing ability by winning and outperforming opponents 3. Physical and mental preparation: Staying focused on goals and being prepared to give maximum effort 4. Physical self-presentation: Feeling good about one's body and weight 5. Social support: Getting encouragement from teammates, coaches, and family 6. Coaches' leadership: Trusting coaches' decisions and believing in their abilities 7. Vicarious experience: Seeing other athletes perform successfully 8. Environmental comfort: Feeling comfortable in the environment where one will perform 9. Situational favorableness: Seeing breaks going one's way and feeling that everything is going right

Resiliency: Bouncing Back From Adversity

- Resiliency seems appropriate to study because participants needs to effectively bounce back from adversity (ex; injury, poor performance, being cut from a team) - Many individuals not only survive but gain positive attributes because of adversity - Research reveals that: (a) at the heart of the resilience process is the use of a variety of coping strategies; (b) mental toughness and person resources are keys to successful coping; (c) social support was seen as critical to successful coping; and (d) although coping can at times be unpleasant, positive outcomes like gaining perspective can result.

Stress Inoculation training (SIT)(Multimodal Anxiety Reduction Packages)

- SIT to be effective in reducing anxiety and enhancing performance in sport settings as well as in helping athletes cope with the stress of injury - SIT teaches skills for coping with psychological stressors and for enhancing performance by developing productive thoughts, mental images, and self-statements - Stress inoculation training (SIT)= An individual is exposed to and learns to cope with stress (via productive thoughts, mental images, and self-statements) in increasing amounts, thereby enhancing his or her immunity to stress. - SIT gives athletes opportunities to practice their coping skills starting with small, manageable doses of stress and progressing to greater amounts of stress - athletes develop a sense of learned resourcefulness by successfully coping with stressors through a variety of techniques, including imagery, role playing, and homework assignments

Principles of Goal Setting (continued)

- Set practice and competition goals. - Record goals. (a) "Ink it, don't think it." - Develop goal achievement strategies. (a) Strategies include how much and how often things will be done in an effort to achieve a goal. Be flexible, however.

Principles of Goal Setting (cont.)

- Set specific goals. (a) Specific goals, as compared with general "do your best" goals, are most effective for producing behavior change. (b) General goal: Reduce cholesterol. (c) Specific goal: Reduce cholesterol from 290 to 200 by . . . [how]. - Set moderately difficult but realistic goals. (a) Specific goal: Reduce cholesterol from 290 to 200 by . . . [how]. - Set long- and short-term goals. (a) Use goal staircases that link long- and short-term goals. - Set performance and process goals as well as outcome goals. (a) For every outcome goal, set several performance and process goals that will lead to the desired outcome

Factors in the Effectiveness of Imagery

- Several factors seem to determine the extent to which imagery can improve performance - these factors maximize the effectiveness of imagery - The nature of the task and the skill level of the performer affect the extent to which imagery will enhance performance - Novice and highly skilled performers who use imagery on cognitive tasks show the most positive effects - The factors include: (a) Nature of the task: Imagery affects performance of most cognitive tasks such as decision making and perception (b) Skill level of the performer: Imagery helps performance for both novice and experienced performers; effects are somewhat stronger for experienced performers (c) Imaging ability: Imagery is more effective when individuals are higher in their ability to imagine (have better vividness and control) (d) Using imagery with physical practice: Imagery should be used in addition to (not instead of) physical practice (e) Personality: Certain personality characteristics may be linked with effective imagery (ex; narcissism)

On-Site Relaxation Tips

- Smile when you feel tension coming on. - Have fun—enjoy the situation. - Set up stressful situations in practice. - Slow down; take your time. - Stay focused on the present. - Come prepared with a good game plan

Examples of Reinforcers

- Social Reinforcers: praise, smile, pat on the back, publicity - Material reinforcers: trophies, medals, ribbons, T-shirts - Activity Reinforcers: playing a game rather than drilling, playing a diff. position, taking a trip to play another team, getting a rest - Special Outings: going to a professional game, throwing a team party, hearing a presentation from a professional athlete

Fostering Social Climate (Building Self-Confidence)

- Social climate factors that seem to influence confidence include leadership style; types of goals and their evaluation; social support networks; social feedback sources; and types, availability, and characteristics of models - Coaches can help structure the social climate to maximize athletes' feelings of confidence, although athletes should learn to base their confidence more on self-regulatory control of perceptions, emotions, and behaviors

Anxiety-Reducing Techniques

- Somatic anxiety reduction - Cognitive anxiety reduction - Multimodal anxiety reduction packages

Flow Versus Clutch States

- Some investigators have extended the concept of flow to include "clutch states." - Clutch states are related to flow but differ. They are characterized by increased and maximal effort rather than a feeling of effortlessness, absence of negative thoughts (ex; worry) rather than absence of critical thoughts (ex; bend your knees on a low shot), conscious processing rather than performing automatically, and high levels of intensity and excitement. - clutch= relatively sudden process of "switching on" in response to appraisal of demands

SMARTS Goals

- Specific - Measureable - Action-oriented - Realistic - Timely - Self-determined

Pressure Training

- Specific strategies designed to create and expose athletes to pressure in practice so they are better able to cope with pressure in actual competition •Demands of training •Consequences of training

Moving Psychological Skills Beyond Sport

- Sport psychology consultants are transferring their skills to a variety of work environments, such as those of: ~ Astronauts ~ Physicians ~ Police officers ~ Firefighters ~ Dancers - Coaches teach athletes life skills such as goal setting and coping with pressure that can transfer to nonsport environments. - Sport and performance psychology have been used extensively with the military - A physical educator might use relaxation training to teach a hyperactive child to calm down. - A physical therapist or athletic trainer might use goal setting to maintain motivation for an individual out with a serious, prolonged injury. - A fitness instructor might use positive self-statement to enhance self-esteem in a client who is overweight

Design of a Goal-Setting System

- Stage 1: Instructor's preparation and planning (a) Assess abilities and needs. (b) Set goals in diverse areas. (c) Identify influences on goal-setting systems (athlete's commitment, potential, and opportunity for practice). (d) Plan goal achievement strategies. - Stage 2: Education and acquisition (a) Schedule meetings. (b) Focus on one goal (initially).

5 Stage Model of Athlete Self-Regulation (Kirschenbaum, 1984)

- Stage 1: Problem Identification (ability to identify a problem, determine that change is possible and desirable, and take responsibility fir its solution) - Stage 2: Commitment - Stage 3: Execution (primary stage of self-regulation. One needs to self-evaluate, self-monitor, develop appropriate expectancies, and self-reinforce while learning to cope with stress) - Stage 4: Environmental Management (planning and deriving strategies for managing the social and physical environment (ex; coaches, spectators) that affect the athlete) - Stage 5: Generalization (sustaining efforts over time and extending behaviors to new conditions and settings)

Designing a Goal-Setting System (continued)

- Stage 3: Implementation and goal follow-up and evaluation (a) Identify appropriate goal evaluation strategies. (b) Provide support and encouragement. (c) Plan for goal reevaluation

Why Regulate Arousal?

- Stress is part of our daily lives. - Pressure to perform has increased in sport. - Athletes who don't effectively cope with stress may have decreases in performance as well as mental and physical distress. - Athletes need to be able to regulate arousal to stay focused and in control. - They should be able to increase it—to psych up—when they're feeling lethargic and decrease it when the pressure to win causes them anxiety and nervousness. - key is for individuals to find their optimal levels of arousal without losing intensity and focus - a variety of arousal regulation techniques that should help individuals in sport and exercise settings reach their optimal levels of arousal. The 1st step in this process is to learn how to recognize or become aware of anxiety and arousal states.

Coping Strategies Used by World-Class Coaches (Olusoga, Butt, Maynard, and Hays, 2010)

- Structuring and planning (communicating with athletes, coaches, and sometimes parents; managing time effectively; and taking time off to recharge) - Psychological skills (—Putting things into perspective, practicing positive self-talk, controlling the controllables, and using relaxation techniques) - Support (Surrounding one's self with supportive people, seeking advice from trusted others, and spending quality time with friends and family) - Distraction (Taking time off to do things one enjoys, exercising) - Experience and learning (Continually educating one's self, using experiences as an athlete to help make decisions, and drawing on previous experience as a coach) - Maintaining positive coach-athlete relationships (Always making time for the athletes, taking the viewpoint of the athletes, and getting to know each athlete)

Importance of Subjective Goals

- Subjective goals are not the focus of sport and exercise psychology research, but they are useful. - Considerable attention has been paid to subjective goals in the literature on personal productivity and applied business management. - Identify and clarify personal values and priorities via subjective goals. Then link subjective goals to specific objective goals.

Defining Goals and Types of Goals

- Subjective goals: General statements of intent such as having fun or doing your best - Objective goals (scientific definition): Attaining a specific standard of proficiency on a task, usually in a specified time - Outcome goals: Focusing on a competitive result of an event (ex; beating someone) - Performance goals: Focusing on achieving standards of performance or objectives independently of other competitors—usually making comparisons with one's own previous performance - Process goals: Focusing on the actions an individual must engage in during performance to execute or perform well

Competitive success and failure

- Success tends to increase intrinsic motivation. - Failure tends to decrease intrinsic motivation - Competitive events contain both controlling and informational components, and they can influence both the perceived locus of causality and perceived competence of the participants - focusing on performance goals (ex; improvement) appears to help sustain motivation more than does focusing on outcome (ex; winning and losing)

Key mediating factor in enhancing endurance performance? (Arthur, Fitzwater, Roberts, Hardy, and Arthur, 2017)

- activation (readiness to perform) - in relation to enhancing activation and readiness states, learning basic psychological skills appears important to achieving high levels of endurance necessary to pass these rigorous tests

Behavior Modification in Sport

- Systematic application of the principles of positive and negative reinforcement to help produce desirable behaviors and eliminate undesirable behaviors has been given various names in the sport psy. lit: Contingency Management (Siedentop, 1980), Behavioral Coaching (Martin & Lumsden, 1987), and Behavior Modification (Donahue, Gillis, & King, 1980). These terms all refer to attempts to structure the environment through the systematic use of reinforcement, especially during practice

Principles of Effective Behavioral Programs

- Target the behaviors you want to change. - Define targeted behaviors. - Record the behaviors. - Provide meaningful feedback. - State outcomes clearly. - Tailor reward systems

Technological Advances in Sport Psychology

- Technology has taken sports by storm, and this includes sport psychology - Major technologies: •Virtual reality • Eye tracking

Principles for the Effective Use of External Rewards

- The best types of extrinsic rewards are novel, creative, and simple; the meaning is more important than their monetary value. - Extrinsic rewards should be given to enable athletes, not control them. - Extrinsic rewards can help when individuals are not motivated to participate. - Extrinsic rewards should be contingent on behavior. - Use extrinsic rewards sparingly

Coaching Efficacy and Its Components

- The extent to which coaches believe they have the capacity to affect the learning and performance of athletes - Components of coaching efficacy: (a) "Game strategy" (Confidence that coaches have in their ability to coach during competition and lead their team to a successful performance) (b) "Motivation" (Confidence that coaches have in their ability to affect the psychological skills and states of their athletes) (c) "Technique" (Confidence that coaches have in their instructional and diagnostic skills) 4. "Character building" (Confidence that coaches have in their ability to influence a positive attitude toward sport in their athletes) 5. "Physical conditioning" (Confidence that coaches have in their ability to prepare their athletes physically for participation in their sport)

Group Goals

- The future state of affairs desired by enough members of a group to work toward its achievement - Attaining specific standards of group proficiency, usually within a specified time

facts about Hypnosis

- The more open individuals are to receiving suggestions, the more likely they are to benefit from suggestions given under hypnosis. - The deeper the trance, the more likely it is that suggestions given under hypnosis will be effective. - General arousal techniques are more useful than hypnotic suggestions in enhancing muscular strength and endurance. - Positive suggestions are effective in facilitating performance regardless of whether the athlete is hypnotized. - Negative suggestions almost always are a detriment to performance. - Hypnotic responsiveness depends more on the efforts and abilities of the individual being hypnotized than on the skill of the therapist. - The ability to experience hypnotic phenomena does not indicate gullibility or personality weakness.

Goal-Setting Practices of Coaches (cont.)

- The only disadvantage to goal setting was seen when goals were set too high and produced consistent failure. - Coaches set both short- and long-term goals but focused more on short-term goals that provided feedback on the progression toward meeting the long-term goals. - Coaches were inconsistent in writing down their goals

Characteristics of Effective Behavioral Programs

- They emphasize specific, detailed, and frequent measurement of performance and behavior and use these measures to evaluate the effectiveness of the program. - They recognize the distinction between developing new behavior and maintaining existing behavior at acceptable levels, and they offer positive procedures for accomplishing both. - They encourage participants to improve against their own previous level of performance. Thus, a recreational athlete recovering from injury does not try to compare his performance against that of professional athletes but rather against what the physical therapist believes is optimal for the particular circumstance. - They emphasize behavioral procedures that have been demonstrated by research to be effective. (This is more a science than an art.) - They emphasize that the coach, teacher, or leader should carefully monitor behavior in a systematic fashion (ex; film, behavioral checklist) so that ineffective behaviors can be eliminated. - They encourage the leader to get feedback from participants regarding the effectiveness of various aspects of the behavioral intervention

Robust Sport Confidence

- This is "a set of enduring yet malleable positive beliefs that protect against the ongoing psychological and environmental challenges associated with competitive sport" (Thomas, Lane, & Kingston, 2011 - It contains a set of beliefs that include multiple types of sport confidence that are intense and stable over time

Acting Confident

- Thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are interrelated - more confident an athlete acts, the more likely he is to feel confident - Many people give themselves away through body language and movements that indicate they are lacking confidence - best to keep your head up, shoulders back, and facial muscles loose to indicate that you are confident and will persevere - athlete begins to lose confidence and the opponent, sensing this, begins to gain confidence

Breath Control (CONT.!!!!!) (Somatic Anxiety Reduction Techniques)

- To practice breath control, take a deep, complete breath and imagine that the lungs are divided into three levels. Focus on filling the lower level of the lungs with air, first by pushing the diaphragm down and forcing the abdomen out. Then fill the middle portion of the lungs by expanding the chest cavity and raising the rib cage. Finally, fill the upper level of the lungs by raising the chest and shoulders slightly. Hold this breath for several seconds and then exhale slowly by pulling the abdomen in and lowering the shoulders and chest - By focusing on the lowering (inhalation) and raising (exhalation) of the diaphragm, you'll have an increased sense of stability, centeredness, and relaxation - 1:2 ratio of inhalation to exhalation helps slow breathing and deepens the relaxation by focusing on the exhalation phase - best time to use breath control during competition is during a time-out or break in the action (ex; before serving in tennis, just before putting a golf ball, preparing for a free throw in basketball)

Goal Setting Research (cont.)

- Top 3 goals for athletes: (a) Improving performance (B) Winning (c) Enjoyment - Athletes prefer moderately difficult, difficult, and very difficult goals. - Major goal barriers for college athletes: lack of time, stress, fatigue, academic pressure, and social relationships - Major goal barriers for Olympians: lack of confidence, lack of goal feedback, too many goals or conflicting goals, lack of time, work commitments, and family and personal relationships

Building Self-Confidence (continued)

- Use imagery: Imagine yourself as confident and successful - Optimize physical conditioning: Training and physical states are keys to confidence - Prepare: Develop performance plans and precompetitive routines; plans give you confidence because you know what to do

What Do Athletes Image?

- Various researchers (ex, Munroe et al., 2000) have investigated exactly what and how individuals image - findings relate to 4 aspects of imaging: (1) images of the surroundings in which the athlete competes (2) the positive or negative character of images (3) the types of imagery (visual, kinesthetic, auditory, and olfactory) (4) the perspective (internal vs. external) the athlete takes in creating imagery

Goal-Setting Practices of Coaches

- Virtually all coaches set goals for competition and practice (individual and team) as well as personal coaching-related goals. - There was a good deal of variability in coaches' understanding of the principles of goal setting as well as in the frequency with which they used goals. - Coaches reevaluated their goals. - Coaches dictated some goals and got input from the players about others

Informational Aspect of Rewards (intrinsic motivation)

- affects intrinsic motivation by altering how competent someone feels. - for rewards to enhance intrinsic motivation they should be contingent on specific levels of performance or behavior - rewards or events that provide negative information about competence should decrease perceived competence and intrinsic motivation - striving for an award and not receiving it will decrease feelings of competence and lower intrinsic motivation

Vividness (Keys to Effective Imagery)

- Vividness: Use all the senses to make images as vivid and detailed as possible - Pay particular attention to environmental detail, such as the layout of the facilities, type of surface, and closeness of spectators. - Experience the emotions and thoughts of the actual competition. Try to feel the anxiety, concentration, frustration, exhilaration, or anger associated with your performance. - increasing the vividness of imagery by experiencing the image through the different senses - When using imagery, involve as many senses as possible and recreate or create the emotions associated with the task or skill you're trying to execute - practice producing vivid images w/ the three vividness exercises 1. Imagining Home 2. Imagining a Positive Performance of a Skill 3. Imagining a Positive Performance

Hope-Based Power 4W Goal-Setting System

- Wish power: Identifying dream goals - Want power: Realistic short- and long-term goals that lead to one's dream goal - Way power: Developing multiple plans and strategies for achieving one's goals - Will power: The determination and discipline required for working toward goals and overcoming obstacles that arise while achieving them

Goal Setting Research (cont.)

- Women set goals more often and find them more effective than men do. - Athletes do not systematically write down goals - The more experience athletes have with goal setting, the better they are at developing effective goal-setting strategies. - Athletes set goals to provide direction and help them stay focused. - Athletes using multiple goal strategies exhibit the best performance. - Individual differences must be considered

Misunderstandings about Psychological Skills (Why Are Psychological Skills Neglected?)

- a misconception that champions are born rather than made - we are all born with certain physical and psychological predispositions, but skills can be learned and developed, depending on the experiences we encounter - No great athlete ever reached the pinnacle without endless hours of practice, honing, and refining physical skills and techniques. - as physically talented and gifted as Michael Jordan was, his competitors said his most impressive trait was his competitiveness - regular exercisers typically use mental skills such as goal setting, imagery, and relaxation to help them maintain a regular exercise program and avoid (or cope) with setbacks such as injury, vacations, and overwhelming work schedules

coping def.

- a process of constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands or conflicts appraised as taxing or exceeding one's resources - a dynamic process involving both cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage stress—a definition that is consistent with McGrath's (1970) model of stress

Schedule Reinforcers effectively

- appropriate timing and frequency can ensure that rewards are effective - during the initial stages of training or skill development, desirable responses should be reinforced often perhaps on an almost continuous schedule - once a particular skill or behavior has been mastered or is occurring at the desired frequency the schedule can be gradually reduced to intermittent - reducing the amount of feedback given coached might ask athletes to generate their own feedback - sooner a reinforcement is provided after a response the more powerful the effects on behavior - when learning a new skill it is easy to lose confidence if skill is performed right - when someone masters a skill it is less critical to reinforce immediately

Foundation Skills (Vealey Mental Skills Model)

- are intrapersonal resources that are the basic mental skills necessary to achieve success - These skills include the following: ~ Achievement drive ~ Self-awareness ~ Productive thinking ~ Self-confidence

Performance Skills ((Vealey Mental Skills Model)

- are mental abilities critical to the execution of skills during sport performance - These skills include the following: ~ Energy management ~ Attentional focus ~ Perceptual-motor skill

Hays, Maynard, Thomas, and Bawden, 2007

- assessed types of self-confidence in elite performers and found additional types, such as belief in one's ability to achieve and belief in one's superiority over the opposition - This underscores the notion of elite athletes having strong beliefs in their abilities and is consistent with the importance of self-belief as seen in the literature on mental toughness

Reward Emotional and Social Skills

- athletes who demonstrate good sporting behavior, responsibility, judgment, and other signs of self-control and cooperation should be recognized and reinforced - some high-visibility athletes and coaches have not been good role models and have been accused or convicted of such acts as physical or verbal abuse of officials and coaches, substance abuse, physical or sexual abuse, and murder - Detroit Pistons and Indiana Pacers (2005) and the fans (which resulted in suspensions of several players for jumping into the stands to fight the fans) was that it sent a negative message to youngsters - displaying restraint is an important social skill that athletes need to learn b/c it relates to many life situations - leaders of sport & physical activity have a responsibility to encourage positive emotional and social skills

Principles for Positive Reinforcement

- athletes who play for positive-oriented coaches like their teammates better, enjoy their athletic experience more, like their coaches more, and have greater team cohesion - allied health professionals are more motivated and are more effective when receiving positive feedback from their supervisors - Choose effective reinforcers (ex; social, material, activity, special outings, intrinsic, and extrinsic) -Choose the timing or schedule of reinforcement: •Early learning: continuous and immediate reinforcement desirable •Learned skill: intermittent and immediate reinforcement desirable - Reward appropriate behaviors—choose the proper behaviors to reward. - With difficult skills, shape the behavior of the learner by reinforcing close approximations of the desired behavior. - Reward performance as well as outcome. - Reward effort. - Reward emotional and social skill

build confidence (uses of imagery)

- athletes who were high in confidence used more mastery imagery and arousal imagery and had better ability with kinesthetic and visual imagery than did athletes with low confidence - positive imagery has been shown to enhance confidence. - different types of imagery are most effective for developing, maintaining, or regaining confidence - MG-M imagery was generally used the most in all three conditions

Motivational Feedback

- attempts to facilitate performance in 3 ways: 1. {Enhance confidence, inspire greater effort and energy expenditure, and create a positive mood}. Ex; "Hang in there," "You can do it," and "Get tough." 2. {Serve as a valuable reinforcement to the performer}. This, in turn, stimulates positive or negative feelings. Ex; individuals receiving specific feedback indicating poor performance might become dissatisfied with their current level of performance. This feedback can motivate them to improve, but they should also have feelings of satisfaction that function as positive feedback when subsequent feedback indicates improvement 3. {Establish goal-setting programs}. Clear, objective knowledge of results is critical to productive goal setting b/c effective goals are specific and measurable. Thus, individuals benefit from getting specific feedback to help them set their goals

Modeling as a 4 stage process (bandura)

- attention: Careful attention must be given to the model or person observed - retention: For modeling to occur, the observers must commit the observed acts to memory - motor reproduction: For modeling of physical skills to occur, the performers must be able to coordinate their muscle activity with their thoughts - motivation: For modeling to occur, the observers must be motivated to attend to, retain, and practice modeled acts. This stage affects all other stages

Autogenic Training (cognitive anxiety reduction tech.)

- autogenic training= Focuses on producing two physical sensations—warmth and heaviness—to produce a relaxed state. - Used extensively in Europe but less in North America, the training was developed in Germany in the early 1930s by Johannes Schultz and later refined by Schultz and Luthe (1969). - Attention is focused on the sensations you are trying to produce - statements "My right arm is heavy," "My right arm is warm and relaxed," "My heartbeat is regular and calm," "My breathing rate is slow, calm, and relaxed," and "My forehead is cool" are all examples of verbal stimuli commonly used in autogenic training - takes several months of regular practice, 10 to 40 minutes a day, to become proficient, to experience heaviness and warmth in the limbs, and to produce the sensation of a relaxed, calm heartbeat and respiratory rate accompanied by warmth in the abdomen and coolness in the forehead.

Recording and Shaping in Basketball

- behavioral program targeted both performance and nonperformance behaviors (Siedentop, 1980). - coach was distressed that his players criticized each other and failed to concentrate on shooting skills - coach decided to award points for daily practice in layups, jump shooting, and free-throw drills and for being a team player - points deducted if coach saw an instance of a bad attitude - in a few weeks jump shooting improved from 37% to 51%, layups increased from 68% to 80%, and foul shooting improved from 59% to 67% - coach had detected 4 to 6 instances of criticism during each practice session and 10 to 12 instances of encouragement among teammates.

Biofeedback ((Somatic Anxiety Reduction Techniques)

- biofeedback= physically oriented technique that teaches people to control physiological or autonomic responses - involves an electronic monitoring device that can detect and amplify internal responses not ordinarily known to us. These electronic instruments provide visual or auditory feedback of physiological responses such as muscle activity, skin temperature, respiration, or heart rate, although most studies have used muscle activity as measured by electromyography - Biofeedback training can help people become more aware of their autonomic nervous system and subsequently control their reactions - Neurofeedback= focuses on feedback via brain waves, has become more popular for helping athletes understand their thought processes and increase athletes' self-awareness, which in turn increases their ability to self-regulate - Research has indicated that rifle shooters can improve their performance by training themselves, using biofeedback, to fire between heartbeats - biofeedback has been effective for improving performance among recreational, collegiate, and professional athletes in a variety of sports - biofeedback shown to consistently reduce anxiety and muscle tension and increase self-regulation skills. Ex; Olympic athletes took part in a 20-session intervention using biofeedback and neurofeedback over 1 year. All athletes perceived that they improved their self-awareness and their ability to self-regulate both physiologically and psychologically, which led them to feeling in control during major competitions. athletes reported learning to effectively sustain a desired state, improve their ability to shift their physical and mental states on demand, and develop an enhanced capacity to select meaningful information and disregard irrelevant information from the environment (Dupee, Forneris, & Werthner, 2016)

Roger Bannister

- broke the 4 min mile. it was considered impossible but he did it.

When to Use Imagery

- can be used virtually any time— - before and after practice - before and after competition - during the off-season - during breaks in the action in both practice and competition - during personal time - during recovery from injury

Psychoneuromuscular Theory (carpenter, 1894)

- carpenter proposed the "ideomotor principle" of imagery - Imagery programs muscles for action - Imagery facilitates the learning of motor skills because imagined events innervate the muscles as physical practice of the movement does; they strengthen neural pathways - 1st scientific support of this phenomenon came from the work of Edmund Jacobson (1931), who reported that the imagined movement of bending the arm created small muscular contractions in the flexor muscles of the arm - Suinn (1972, 1976) monitored the electrical activity in the skiers' leg muscles as they imagined skiing the course; results showed that the muscular activity changed during the skiers' imaging. Muscle activity was highest when the skiers were imagining themselves skiing rough sections in the course, which would actually require greater muscle activity - Guillot and colleagues (2007) found that electromyographic activation in nine upper-arm muscles of participants who imaged lifting a dumbbell correlated with actual physical movement of lifting a dumbbell

Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP)

- certification requires a person to have extensive backgrounds in both the sport and psychological sciences and some practical, supervised experience in implementing PST w/ athletes and teams - US Olympic Committee requires sport psychologists to have AASP certification to practice applied sport psychology w/ Olympic athletes

Reward Appropriate Behaviors

- choosing the proper behaviors to reward is critical - can't reward everytime something is done right - coaches and teachers tend to focus their rewards purely on the outcome of performance (ex; winning)

Lepper and Greene (1975)

- classic study called "Turning Play Into Work" - used nursery school children as participants and selected an activity that was intrinsically motivating for these children—drawing with felt pens - In the expected reward condition, the children agreed to draw a picture in order to receive a Good Player certificate. - In the unexpected reward condition, the award was given to unsuspecting children after they completed the task. - In the no reward condition, the children neither anticipated nor received an award - This study demonstrates potential long-term effects of extrinsic rewards and the importance of studying how the reward is administered.

Developing Imagery Scripts (Williams, Cooley, Newell, Weibull, and Cumming, 2013)

- coaches and athletes consider the 5 Ws when planning an imagery script: 1. "Who"- age, sport, competitive level, motivational tendencies, and imagery ability 2. "Where"- The training and competition environments, away from training and performance environments (ex: home) 3. "When"- Before, during, or after competition or training 4. "Why"- The goal of the imagery 5. "What"- content of the image, which is tailored to the who, why, where, and when

Reward Effort

- coaches and teachers must recognize effort as part of the performance - when sport & exercise participants (especially young people) know that they will be recognized for trying new and difficult skills and not just criticized for performing incorrectly they do not fear trying - a study conducted (Muller & Dweck, 1998) w/ youths showed that performers who received effort-oriented feedback ("good try") displayed better performance than those provided ability-oriented feedback ("you're talented") especially after failure - after failure children who were praised for effort displayed more task persistence, more task enjoyment, and better performance than did children who were praised for high ability - effort appears to be critical to producing persistence which is one of the most highly valued attributes in sport & exercise environments

Reward Performance, Not only Outcome

- coaches who emphasize on winning tend to reward players based on outcome - the outcome is sometimes out of the player's control so the coach should focus on the athlete's performance instead of the performance outcome - it is important to use an individual's previous level of performance as the standard for success Ex; "if a young gymnast's best score on her floor routine was 7.5 and she received 7.8 for her most recent effort, then this mark should be used as the measure of success and she should be rewarded for her performance"

Coaches' Expectations and Athletes' Performance: Stage 3

- coaches' expectation-biased treatment of athletes affects performance both physically and psychologically - Coaches' behaviors affect athletes' performance by: (a) Low-expectation athletes exhibit poorer performances because they receive less effective reinforcement and get less playing time (b) Low-expectation athletes exhibit lower levels of self-confidence and perceived competence over the course of a season (c) Low-expectation athletes attribute their failures to lack of ability, thus substantiating the notion that they aren't any good and have little chance of future success

Team Skills ((Vealey Mental Skills Model)

- collective qualities of the team that are instrumental to an effective team climate and overall team success - These skills include the following: ~ Leadership ~ Cohesion ~ Team confidence

Post and Wrisberg (2012)

- conducted a qualitative interview investigation of gymnasts' experiences with imagery. - Several themes were consistent - Gymnasts talked about manipulating the speed of their imagery, how they corrected their inadvertent negative or failure imagery, the multisensory nature of their imagery, the use of response and stimulus propositions, how imagery prepared them mentally before a competition, and how they incorporated body movements with their imagery

Hypnosis

- controversial and often misunderstood technique for reducing anxiety and enhancing other mental skills - hypnosis= altered state of consciousness that can be induced by a procedure in which a person is in an unusually relaxed state and responds to suggestions for making alterations in perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or actions - used by clinical psychologists and psychiatrists outside of sport to enhance performance, focus attention, increase confidence, and reduce anxiety, hypnosis has been increasingly used in sport contexts. - General arousal techniques are more useful than hypnotic suggestions in enhancing muscular strength and endurance - Positive suggestions are effective in facilitating performance, regardless of whether the athlete is hypnotized. - Negative suggestions almost always cause a decrement in performance

Principles of Reinforcement

- creating an environment that fosters pleasure, growth, and mastery professionals use motivational tech. based on the principles of reinforcement - among the most widely researched and accepted in psychology - firmly rooted in the theories of behavior modification and operant conditioning

Evidence of Imagery's Effectiveness

- determine whether imagery does indeed enhance performance, sport psychologists have looked at 3 kinds of evidence: (a) anecdotal reports (b) case studies (c) scientific experiments - Psychological intervention studies show that imagery combined with other psychological strategies enhances performance and other psychological variables such as confidence and coping

PST Knowledge Base

- developed a knowledge base primarily from two sources: original research studies conducted with elite athletes, and the experience of coaches and athletes - Research on elite athletes shows that most successful athletes differ from less successful ones in the following ways: ~ They have higher confidence. ~ They have greater self-regulation of arousal. ~ They have better communication. ~ They have more positive thoughts and images. ~ They have more determination or commitment - Athletes and coaches identified these as the most useful PST topics: ~ Arousal regulation ~ Imagery and mental preparation ~ Confidence building ~ Increased motivation and commitment (goal setting) ~ Attention or concentration skills (Self-talk, Mental plans) ~ Coping w/ injury

Ost (1988)

- developed an applied variant to teach an individual to relax within 20 to 30 seconds - 1st phase of training involves a 15-minute progressive relaxation session, practiced twice a day, in which muscle groups are tensed and relaxed. individual then moves on to a release-only phase that takes 5 to 7 minutes to complete. individual then moves on to a 2- to 3-minute version with the use of a self-instructional cue, "Relax." Ex; a soccer player who becomes tight and anxious when faced with a penalty kick could use this technique to get ready for this crucial shot on goal

Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)

- developed by Deci, Ryan and Colleagues , 1985 - A subtheory of the more general self-determination theory, it focuses on identifying and explaining the factors that facilitate or undermine the development of intrinsic motivation - hypothesizes that any events that affect individuals' perceptions of competence and feelings of self-determination ultimately will also affect their levels of intrinsic motivation - These events have two functional components: a controlling aspect and an informational aspect - Both the informational and controlling aspects can increase or decrease intrinsic motivation depending on how they affect one's competence and self-determination - Basic premise of cognitive evaluation theory: How rewards are perceived is critical in determining whether intrinsic motivation increases or decreases - Controlling aspects: Rewards perceived to control a person decrease intrinsic motivation, whereas rewards that contribute to an internal locus of causality increase intrinsic motivation - Informational aspects: Rewards that provide information and positive feedback about competence increase intrinsic motivation, whereas rewards that suggest the person is not competent decrease intrinsic motivation. - Functional significance of the event: How a reward affects intrinsic motivation depends on whether the recipient perceives it to be more controlling or more informational.

Driskell and colleagues (2014)

- developed stress exposure training (SET) - SET incorporates three objectives: 1. Information provision- an initial stage in which information is provided to the athlete regarding stress, stress symptoms, and likely stress effects in performance situations 2. Skill acquisition- —specific skills required to maintain effective performance in a stress environment that are taught and practiced 3. Application and practice- skills practiced under simulated conditions that increasingly approximate the real-world environment

Performance Profiling

- developed to both identify important PST objectives and help maximize the motivation of athletes to implement and adhere to a PST program - does have limitations - useful for coaches, athletes, and sport psychologists - From a SPC perspective performance profiling: ~ provides a basis for goal setting; ~ identifies athletes' mental strengths and weaknesses; ~ raises athlete awareness; ~ evaluates and monitors athlete performance; and ~ facilitates discussion, communication, and interaction in teams. - From an athlete perspective performance profiling: ~ raises athletes' self-awareness ~ helps athletes decide what to work on ~ motivates athletes to improve ~ helps athletes set goals for themselves, ~ monitors and evaluates athletes' performance ~ helps athletes take more responsibility for their own development

Beckman and Kellmann (2003)

- discussed the factors that sport psychologists should consider before administering questionnaires and other formal assessments to athletes. - These include the reliability and validity of the questionnaire, the usefulness of the questionnaire as seen by the athletes, and the honesty that athletes show in completing the questionnaire

Team Resilience (Morgan, Fletcher, and Sarkar, 2013)

- dynamic psychosocial process which protects a group of individuals from the potential negative effect of the stressors they collectively encounter - 4 main resilience characteristics of elite sport teams: 1. Group structure (Consisting of facilitating formal structure (ex; coaches, captains, managers), positive group norms and values, and clearly defined communication channels) 2. Mastery approaches (Consisting of effective behavioral responses, effectively managing change, and having a learning orientation) 3. Social capital (Including social support, positive interpersonal interactions, and a strong group identity) 4. Collective efficacy (Including mastery experiences, group cohesion, and positive communications after failure)

Vealey Mental Skills Model

- emphasizes that multiple types of mental skills are important for success and well-being in coaches and athletes, including foundation, performance, personal development, and team skills A. Foundation Skills B. Performance Skills C. Personal development skills D. Team skills

goal mapping (Building Self-Confidence)

- enhance the confidence and performance of athletes - goal map is a personalized plan for an athlete that contains various types of goals and goal strategies as well as a systematic evaluation procedure for assessing progress toward goals - coaches and athletes indicate that the focus should be more on performance and process goals, as opposed to outcome goals - Goal mapping, imagery, and self-talk are 3 primary self-regulatory tools that sport psychologists advocate to enhance confidence

Emotion-focused coping (categories of coping)

- entails regulating the emotional responses to the problem that causes stress for the individual. It includes such specific behaviors as meditation, relaxation, wishful thinking, reappraisal, self-blame, mental and behavioral withdrawal, and cognitive efforts to change the meaning of the situation (but not the actual problem or environment) - •Use emotion-focused coping when situations are not amenable to change EX; through relaxation, meditation

Kirschenbaum, Owens, and O'Connor, 1998

- examined the effectiveness of Smart Golf, a self-regulation training program based on Kirschenbaum's model - 8 hr seminar golfers learned principles of mental preparation, positive focusing, and self-regulation - participants taught the acronym "PAR" (plan, apply, react)

Weiss and Chaumeton, 1992

- example provided of a high school wrestler - to the coach, the wrestler had a great deal of talent and potential, had won most of his matches, and had received positive feedback from the coach, teammates, and community. - coach was baffled by the wrestler's lack of positive affect, effort, persistence, and desire - the coach find out that the boy's father had exerted considerable pressure on him to join the wrestling team and was now living vicariously through his son's success - The result was a perceived external locus of causality with a subsequent decrease in intrinsic motivation

Studies of Coping in Sport

- factors such as gender, age, and pubertal status can influence both the type of coping strategy employed and its perceived effectiveness. - mental distraction strategies were significantly more effective for female athletes, whereas venting emotions were significantly more effective for male athletes. - coping appears to be situation specific - use of avoidance-coping, reactive control coping and informal impression management were seen as ineffective coping strategies - There is no single coping strategy that is effective in all situations - Athletes must learn a diverse set of problem- and emotion-focused coping strategies to use in different situations and for different stress sources

overconfidence

- falsely confident people - confidence is greater than their abilities warrant - performance declines because they believe that they don't have to prepare themselves or exert effort to get the job done - overconfidence is much less a problem than under-confidence - fake overconfidence= athletes do this in an attempt to please others and to hide actual feelings of self-doubt - Bandura (1997) argued that overconfidence is simply a post hoc explanation for failure and that it doesn't truly exist

Benefits of Feedback

- feedback about performance can benefit participants in several ways, 2 of the main functions are to motivate and instruct - motivational feedback - instructional feedback - skills are highly complex, knowledge of results can be particularly important - breaking down complex skills into their parts creates a more effective learning environment and gives the learner specific information on how to perform each phase of the skill

Acquisition Phase (3 Phases of PST Programs)

- focuses on strategies and techniques for learning the various psychological skills - tailor training programs to meet individual needs. - Provide general information to the group or team, but be specific when developing an individual's PST program. - Psychological skills should be learned—and practiced - Example, anxiety reduction strategies should be matched to the specific problem the individual is experiencing - One athlete might worry too much about failure (cognitive anxiety): For this athlete, a cognitively based strategy for changing thought patterns might be most appropriate. - Another athlete might experience increased muscle tension (somatic anxiety): In this case, a physically based relaxation technique, such as progressive relaxation

eye-tracking (Technological Advances in Sport Psychology)

- focuses on the process of monitoring and recording athletes' gaze positions when they look at 2D and 3D stimuli. - This technology allows researchers to determine exact gaze patterns and then spatial-temporal scan paths. This is especially important in dynamic environments such as sports and is accomplished by use of a head-and-eye camera attached to a bicycle helmet

Jimmy Johnson

- former coach of the Miami Dolphins and Dallas Cowboys - uses positive reinforcement on his team

Jordan Spieth

- former world #1 golfer - winner of 3 majors - commented on why he shot a quadruple bogey (unheard of for a golfer of his caliber) on hole number 12 at the 2016 Masters - used imagery to enhance performance

Sources of Sport Self-Confidence (cont.)

- males and females derived confidence from performance accomplishments - males gained the most confidence by winning in competition - females gained the most confidence by performing well and achieving personal goals and through physical self-presentation, social support, and the coach's leadership.

Smith, Wright, Allsopp, and Westhead, 2007) (PETTLEP)

- found support for including the elements of the PETTLEP model in one's imagery - found that an athlete performing imagery while wearing the clothing she would usually wear when playing her sport, along with doing the imagery on the actual field produced significantly better performance than simply doing imagery in a more traditional manner - found that the PETTLEP group performed as well as a performance-only group and better than a traditional imagery group on a cognitive task - compared two groups: a traditional imagery group, who relaxed before doing imagery (without any physical practice), and a PETTLEP imagery group, who performed a strength task on a biceps curl machine while doing imagery to ensure functional equivalence - appears that maximizing functional equivalence via PETTLEP imagery maximizes the positive effects of imagery on performance.

Building Mental Toughness

- found that athletes attribute their mental toughness to factors that are generally "caught". These factors included sibling rivalries, supportive parents, coach expectations, a motivational training environment, teammate encouragement, tough practices, and coping with failure - coaches actually do to enhance mental toughness include creating a positive motivational practice environment and intense competitive practices, creating simulations (pressure), setting specific goals, providing instructional and supportive feedback, building confidence through rigorous physical preparation and conditioning, enhancing attentional control through self-statements, and making appropriate attributions for success and failure. - Anthony, Gordon, Gucciardi, and Dawson (2017) developed a behavioral coaching framework for the development of mental toughness. This approach focuses on mentally tough behaviors and presents a program to help coaches identify and then develop these mentally tough behaviors

Gould, Greenleaf, Lauer, and Chung (1999)

- found that confidence (efficacy) was among the chief factors influencing performance at the Nagano Olympic Games - interviews with 63 of the highest achievers from a wide variety of sports, nearly 90% stated that they had a very high level of self-confidence

Hollembeak and Amorose (2005)

- found that democratic coaching behaviors produced higher levels of intrinsic motivation, whereas autocratic coaching behaviors produced lower levels of intrinsic motivation - regarding intrinsic motivation, it appears that the type of coach one plays for is more important than whether one is on scholarship

Edward Deci (1971,1972)

- found that participants who were rewarded with money for participating in an interesting activity subsequently spent less time at it than did people who were not paid - Deci paid participants to play a Parker Brothers mechanical puzzle game called "SOMA" which comprises many different-shaped blocks that can be arranged to form various patterns. - Pilot testing had shown this game to be intrinsically motivating. - the time these participants spent with the SOMA puzzles (as opposed to reading magazines) was significantly less (106 seconds) than the time spent by individuals who had not been rewarded for playing with the puzzles (206 seconds)

Vallerand, Gauvin, and Halliwell (1986b)

- found that youngsters who were asked to compete against another child (interpersonal competition) on a motor task exhibited less intrinsic motivation than those who were instructed to simply compete against themselves (mastery) - a study summarized by Vallerand (2012), it was found that intergroup competition led to the highest levels of enjoyment when the players were told to focus on trying to do well instead of simply beating the competition

jack nicklaus (1974)

- great all-time golfer - believes that rehearsing shots in his mind before actually swinging is critical to his success - said that hitting a good golf shot is 10% swing, 40% stance and setup, and 50% mental picture of how the swing should occur - used imagery to enhance performance

Albert Pujols

- great baseball hitter - hit a baseball thrown at him going 90 miles (145 km) per hour from a distance of about 60 feet (18 meters)

Motor Imagery Integrative Model (Guillot and Collet, 2008)

- help guide imagery research and practice - model posits 4 specific areas and some subareas in which imagery can affect various aspects of sport performance: 1. Motor learning and performance: task characteristics, imagery ability, duration and number of trials, mental and physical practice, individual characteristics 2. Strategies and problem solving: competitive routines, problem solving, tactical and game skills, athlete goals 3. Motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety: anxiety regulation, enhancement of self-confidence and intrinsic motivation, mental warm-up 4. Injury rehabilitation: pain management and healing imagery, strength gains, stretching gains, speeding-up of recovery

Provide performance feedback

- help participants by giving them info and feedback about the accuracy and success of their movements - this type of feedback is typically provided after the completion of a response Ex; an athletic trainer working with an injured athlete on increasing flexibility while rehabilitating from a knee injury asks the athlete to bend his knee as far as possible. The trainer then tells the athlete that he has improved his flexibility from 50º to 55º over the past week. Similarly, a fitness instructor might give participants specific feedback about proper positioning and technique when they are lifting weights. - interest has surged in performance feedback as a tech. for improving performance in business, industry, and sport. This type of feedback is effective in enhancing performance: performance increased by 53% on average after performance feedback and indicators of performance excellence had been instituted

Triple Code Model (ahsen's, 1984)

- highlights understanding three effects that are essential parts of imagery; the effects are referred to as ISM. - The 1st part is the image (I) itself. The 2nd part is the somatic response (S): The act of imagination results in psychophysiological changes in the body. 3rd aspect of imagery (mostly ignored by other models) is the meaning (M) of the image - Imagery comprises the image, somatic response, and meaning of the image - Primary importance is placed on the psychophysiology of imagery and understanding the imagery parts: the image, the somatic response, and the meaning of the image

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, 1990 (flow)

- his work held some of the most innovative studies of enhancing intrinsic motivation - investigated exactly what makes a task intrinsically motivating - He examined rock climbing, dancing, chess, music, and amateur athletics—all activities that people do with great intensity but usually for little or no external reward - calls this holistic sensation flow, in which people believe they are totally involved or on automatic pilot. - argued that the flow experience occurs when your skills are equal to your challenge - referred to concentration on the task at hand as one of the most frequently mentioned dimensions of the flow experience

Nature of Imagery

- imagery as positive or negative. - Positive images are most often reported during practices and precompetition - Negative images were most often reported during competitions - 35% of athletes, 25% of coaches, and 87% of sport psychologists could point to examples where imagery inhibited performance (a) Imagery that creates too much anxiety (b) Imagery that directs attention to irrelevant factors (c) Imagery that is not controllable, leading participants to image failure or mistakes (d) Imagery that makes the athlete overconfident and cocky

enhance motivation (Uses of Imagery)

- imagery can help build motivation to participate, especially in exercise classes. - imagery has been shown to enhance motivation by adding purpose to repetitive and monotonous exercises. - seeing one's self being successful, such as winning a gold medal and thus using motivational general-mastery imagery has been shown to increase motivation to perform

Imagery Training Program (How to develop)

- imagery should be apart of your daily routine - imagery programs should be tailored to the needs, abilities, and interests of each athlete or exerciser - Simons (2000) provides practical tips for implementing an imagery training program in the field - Holmes and Collins (2001) offer guidelines for making imagery more effective, which they call their PETTLEP program

resilience training

- improve not only personal resilience but can also enhance mental health and subjective well-being and reduce anxiety and increase performance

Theoretical model of stress underlying SMT

- includes both cognitively based and physiologically based intervention strategies (derived from the work of Lazarus, 1966, and Schachter, 1966) - model accounts for the situation, the person's mental appraisal of the situation, the physiological response, and the actual behavior - program offers specific intervention strategies, such as relaxation skills, cognitive restructuring, and self-instructional training, for dealing with the physical and mental reactions to stress - Combining mental and physical coping strategies eventually leads to an integrated coping response

Amotivation

- individuals are neither intrinsically nor extrinsically motivated and thus have pervasive feelings of incompetence and lack of control. Ex; a physical education teacher who simply goes through the motions because he really doesn't care about teaching anymore

Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968)

- informed teachers that a standardized test of academic ability had identified certain children in each of their classes as "late bloomers" who could be expected to show big gains in academic achievement and IQ over the course of the school year - suggested that the false test information made the teachers expect higher performance from the targeted students, which led them to give these students more attention, reinforcement, and instruction

Positive feedback increases...?

- intrinsic motivation - study by Mouratidis, Vansteenkiste, Lens, and Sideridis (2008)

Kudlackova, Eccles, and Dieffenbach, 2013 (Anxiety-Reducing Techniques )

- investigated which anxiety reduction techniques were used most often and which were most popular. The authors surveyed competitive athletes from collegiate, recreational, and professional levels - The results revealed that, as expected, professional athletes engaged in more relaxation in a typical week than collegiate or recreational athletes did. - the athletes used more physical (ex; muscle relaxation) than mental relaxation techniques in relation to coping with competitive anxiety and used more mental (ex; imagery) than physical relaxation techniques in relation to coping with everyday anxiety

Imagery

- involves creating or recreating an experience in your mind - involves all the senses: visual, kinesthetic, auditory, tactile, and olfactory - is a form of simulation that involves recalling from memory pieces of information stored from experience and shaping those pieces into meaningful images - The kinesthetic sense is particularly important for athletes. - Imagery involves moods and emotions - Through imagery you can re-create positive experiences or picture new events to prepare yourself mentally for performance. - we can imagine events that have not yet occurred - can help athletes prepare for difficult situations so that they are prepared to deal with a variety of circumstances during competition. - Using more than one sense helps create more vivid images, thus making the experience more real. - learning to attach various emotional states or moods to your imagined experiences is also important. - can increase awareness of competitive cues that can contribute to faster decision making and improved execution of individual or team tactics - athletes can use imagery to detect and correct errors in their routine, motion, or movement pattern.

Problem-focused coping (categories of coping)

- involves efforts to alter or manage the problem that is causing the stress for the individual concerned. It includes such specific behaviors as information gathering, making precompetition and competition plans, goal setting, time management, problem solving, increasing effort, self-talk, and adhering to an injury rehabilitation program. - Use problem-focused coping when stressful situations can be changed - Lazarus (2000) suggested that problem-focused coping is used more often when situations are amenable to change, and emotion-focused coping is used more often when situations are not amenable to change. EX; time management, problem solving

Positive feedback must be used with caution...?

- it can increase, decrease, or have no effect on intrinsic motivation - Henderlong and Lepper (2002)

Lack of Time (Why Are Psychological Skills Neglected?)

- junior tennis coaches noted earlier showed that the coaches saw lack of time as the most important roadblock to teaching mental skills to their players - starting to change - Wrisberg and colleagues (2010) found an overall increase in athletes' openness to seeking mental training - team-sport athletes were more interested in mental training that focused on group cohesion and team dynamics - individual-sport athletes were interested in mental skills that would improve performance in practice and competition

Why Are Psychological Skills Neglected?

- lack of knowledge - misunderstandings about psychological skills - lack of time

Dark-Side of Mental Toughness

- lead to injury and overtraining - research with ultramarathon runners indicated that many of them noted the culture to push through pain and compete with injuries can lead to long-term physical limitations and disabilities - mentally tough athletes tend to avoid seeking mental health counseling because of a stigma

during the off-season (When to use imagery)

- lines between season and off-season are often blurred - no true off-season because athletes do cardiovascular conditioning, lift weights, and train sport-specific skills during time away from their sport. - imagery during the off-season is a good opportunity to stay in practice with imaging - recent research has revealed that athletes use imagery significantly less during this time than during the season

Controlling Aspect of Rewards

- locus of causality (ex; what causes a person's behavior) - When people feel controlled by a reward (e.g., "I'm only playing for the money."), the reason for their behavior resides outside of themselves - 6 strategies coaches use to control athletes' behaviors thus undermining intrinsic motivation (Bartholomew, Ntoumanis, & Thogersen-Ntoumanis, 2009): 1. Tangible rewards (ex; promising to reward athletes if they engage in certain training behaviors) 2. Controlling feedback (ex; picking up on all the negative aspects of an athlete's behavior but saying nothing positive and offering no suggestions for future improvement) 3. Excessive personal control (ex; interacting with athletes in an authoritative manner and commanding them to do things through the use of orders, directives, controlling questions, and deadlines) 4. Intimidation behaviors (ex; using the threat of punishment to push athletes to work harder or keep athletes in line during training) 5. Promoting ego involvement (ex; evaluating an athlete's performance in front of her peers) 6. Conditional regard (ex; saying things to make athletes feel guilty, such as "You let me down" or "When you don't perform well ... ") - if a reward is seen as contributing to an internal locus of causality (ex; the cause of one's behavior resides inside the person), intrinsic motivation will increase

Where Do Athletes Image? (Imagery in Sport: Where, When, Why, and What)

- majority of imagery use occurs in practice and competition; athletes consistently use imagery more frequently in competition than in training - athletes appear to use imagery more for performance enhancement especially during precompetition. - Athletes employ imagery more in competition than in training and to enhance performance.

Personal Development Skills ((Vealey Mental Skills Model)

- mental skills that represent significant maturational markers of personal development allowing for high-level psychological functioning through clarity of self-concept, feelings of well-being, and a sense of relatedness to others. - These skills include the following: ~ Identity achievement ~ Interpersonal competence

Vealey (2007)

- model developed from research over the past 30-35 yrs. emphasizes the development of mental skills to achieve performance success as well as personal well-being - model emphasizes that multiple types of mental skills are important for success and well-being in coaches and athletes, including foundation, performance, personal development, and team skills

Modeling: A Key to Teaching, Learning, and Performance

- modeling (aka observational learning) shown to influence confidence and lead to enhanced performance - several modeling factors: (a) Model similarity (b) Coach models (c) Mastery versus coping modeling (d) Self-modeling (e) Multidimensional modeling (f) Virtual models

B.F. Skinner (1968)

- most widely known and outspoken behavior theorist - argued that teaching rests entirely on the principles of reinforcement - argued that teaching is the arrangement of reinforcers under which students learn

Knowledge of Performance, KP (types of feedback )

- movement-oriented feedback - knowledge about the movement pattern that was used to accomplish the task goal Ex; a track coach might say to a sprinter, "Way to get out of the blocks—you really pushed off strongly with your legs." or aerobics instructor might say to a participant who is working hard, "I like the way you're pumping your arms while stepping in place."

Myth 2: PST is for Elite Training Only

- not true; it is appropriate for all athletes, including young, developing athletes and special populations such as people who have mental disabilities or intellectual challenges, or hearing impairments - dedicated professionals work to help improve performance and personal growth

Mikaela Shiffrin

- olympic gold medalist in the slalom - skier - credits her ability to visualize gates while skiing to early training from her parents - used imagery to enhance performance

Cognitive-affective stress management training (SMT)

- one of the most comprehensive stress management approaches - Cognitive-affective stress management training (SMT)= skills program that teaches a person a specific integrated coping response that uses relaxation and cognitive components to control emotional arousal - Athletes have proved to be an ideal target population: They acquire the coping skills somewhat more quickly than other groups, face stressful athletic situations frequently enough to permit careful monitoring of their progress, and perform in ways that can be readily assessed.

self-expectations and performance

- one study (nelson & furst) , subjects were each paired with someone they thought was clearly superior in arm strength and then instructed to arm wrestle - 10 of the 12 contests, the objectively weaker subject won the competition - the most important factor was not actual physical strength but who the competitors expected to win - self-confidence was a critical factor in discriminating between successful and less successful performers - other athletes' behavior could influence expectations (Greenlees, Bradley, Holder, and Thelwell, 2005)

How Expectations Influence Performance

- one's expectations play a critical role in the behavior change process - Positive expectations of success produce positive effects in many fields, including sport - Self-expectations and performance: The expectation of beating a tough opponent or successfully performing a difficult skill can produce exceptional performance as psychological barriers are overcome - Research has shown that giving people a sugar pill for extreme pain can produce as much relief as a painkiller - Keeping expectations high and maintaining confidence under adversity are important not only for athletes and exercisers but also for officials. - Expecting to beat a tough opponent or successfully perform a difficult skill can produce exceptional performance as psychological barriers are overcome - Your expectations of others affect not only your own behavior but also the feelings and behaviors of others

Dean Ryan, 1977

- study of scholarship and nonscholarship collegiate football players - Players on scholarship reported that they were enjoying football less than their counterparts not on scholarship. Moreover, scholarship football players exhibited less intrinsic motivation every year they held their scholarship, so their lowest level of enjoyment occurred during their senior year. Ryan later surveyed male and female athletes from different schools in a variety of sports (1980)

Kinesthetic sense (imagery)

- particularly useful in enhancing athletic performance because it involves the feeling of the body as it moves in different positions - improved sport confidence (Callow and Waters, 2005)

Lack of Knowledge (Why Are Psychological Skills Neglected?)

- people don't really understand how to teach or practice psychological skills - some coaches teach concentration by shouting, "Concentrate out there!" - telling a player to "just relax" as he goes into an important performance. Not easy unless one is trained in relaxation - relaxation and concentration must be practiced to become effective tools one can use in competition. - coaches don't feel comfortable teaching mental skills. They know about skill execution and technique (or "Xs and Os") but not about how to teach specific mental skills. - coaches have suggested that mental training information could be made more user friendly in several ways such as; (a) developing hands-on, concrete examples and exercises (b) developing more mental skills training resources, particularly in audio and video formats (c) actively involving coaches in mental skills coach education programs - advice requires action-oriented approaches and plans for improving mental skills

Myth 3: PST provides "Quick Fix" Solutions

- people mistakenly think that sport psychology offers a quick fix to psychological problems - athletes and coaches expect to learn how to concentrate or to stay calm under pressure in 1 or 2 lessons - psychological skills take time and practice to develop - PST helps athletes reach their potential and maximize their abilities

Myth 4: PST is not Useful

- people still think that sport psychology has nothing positive to offer - highlighted by the comment of former Wimbledon champion Goran Ivanisevic - psychological skills do in fact enhance performance - research also shows that effective PST efforts must be carried out in a systematic but individualized fashion, over time, using a variety of psychological techniques - Sport psychology is neither a magical elixir nor useless bunk, and people should have realistic expectations of what PST can do.

Myth 1: PST is for "Problem" Athletes Only (pst myths)

- people wrongly think that all sport psychologists work with athletes who have psychological or clinical problems - most athletes' psychological needs can be addressed by educational sport psychology specialists who focus on helping develop mental skills in athletes with a normal range of functioning - Ex; of the various PST needs addressed by educational and clinical sport psychology specialists: ~ Educational Sport Psychologists (goal setting, imagery, arousal regulation, concentration, and mental preparation) ~ Clinical Sport Psychologists (eating disorders, substance abuse, personality disorders, severe depression or anxiety, and psychopathology)

effective reinforcers

- physical education teacher might have students complete a questionnaire to determine what type of rewards (ex; social, material, activity) they most desire - athletic trainers might develop a list of the types of reinforcements athletes react most favorably to when recovering from difficult injuries - sometimes you might want to reward the entire team or class rather than a particular individual or to vary the types of rewards

Jennie Finch

- pitcher on the 2004 Women's Gold Medal Softball Team - 65 miles per hour from a distance of 43 ft is the distance from the mound to the plate in women's softball

Who should conduct PST Programs?

- planned, implemented and supervised by a qualified sports psychology consultants (SPC) - the fit between the skills, abilities, and orientations of the SPC are important and the needs and goals of the of the sport coaches and athletes

Approaches to Influencing Behavior

- positive & negative ways to teach and coach - positive approach: focuses on rewarding appropriate behavior (ex; catching people doing something correctly), which increases the likelihood of desirable responses occurring in the future - negative approach: focuses on punishing undesirable behaviors, which should reduce the inappropriate behaviors - the positive approach is designed to strengthen desired behaviors by motivating participants to perform those behaviors and by rewarding participants when those behaviors occur - negative approach focuses on errors and attempts to eliminate unwanted behaviors through punishment and criticism - most coaches combine the positive and negative approaches attempting to motivate and teach their athletes - Sport psychologists agree that the predominant approach with physical activity and sport participants should be positive because the negative approach often instills fear in participants

feedback

- providing students, athletes, and exercisers with constructive feedback requires an understanding of the principles of reinforcement - continuous feedback acts as a motivator and also provides the learner with info about how he is doing

Intrinsic Motivation

- strive inwardly to be competent and self-determining in their quest to master the task at hand. - enjoy competition, like the action and excitement, focus on having fun, and want to learn skills to the best of their ability - Individuals who participate for the love of sport and exercise would be considered intrinsically motivated, as would those who play for pride - 3 types of Intrinsic motivation: - Knowledge (ex; learning a new defensive alignment) - accomplishment (ex; mastering a difficult dive he has been working on for a while) - Stimulation (ex; feeling the pleasure of climbing a mountain)

multiple-baseline case studies

- studies of just a few people over a long period of time, with multiple assessments documenting changes in behavior and performance - found positive effects of imagery on performance enhancement and other psychological variables such as confidence and coping with anxiety

Mouratidis, Lens, and Vansteenkiste (2010)

- study indicates that how one provides corrective feedback makes a difference in the performer's motivation, emotional regulation, and performance

self-regulatory efficacy

- redefined from the term self-efficacy - now used, which focuses more on one's abilities to overcome obstacles or challenges to successful performance

Psychological Skills Training (PST)

- refers to systematic and consistent practice of mental or psychological skills for the purpose of enhancing performance, increasing enjoyment, or achieving greater sport and physical activity self-satisfaction - PST methods and techniques come from a variety of sources, mostly from mainstream psychology. Such as; behavior modification, cognitive theory and therapy, rational emotive therapy, goal setting, attentional control, progressive muscle relaxation, and systematic desensitization - Guidelines have been developed to make PST more effective - PST can have major effects on performance - 1950s the first country to systematically engage in mental skills with athletes and coaches was the Soviet Union - Avksenty Puni was the key leader in Soviet sport psychology and formalized perhaps the earliest mental training model, which included self-regulation of arousal, confidence, attentional focusing, distraction control, and goal setting - physical skills need to be regularly practiced and refined through thousands and thousands of repetitions - psychological skills such as maintaining and focusing concentration, regulating arousal levels, enhancing confidence, and maintaining motivation also need to be systematically practiced

cognitive anxiety reduction tech.

- relaxation response - autogenic training - systematic desensitization

case studies

- researcher closely observes, monitors, and records an individual's behavior over a period of time - Some case studies demonstrated the effectiveness of imagery, such as one using a field-goal kicker (Jordet, 2005)

Hypnosis (cont.)

- researchers and practitioners don't always agree on the definition of hypnosis, they generally agree about the following aspects of hypnosis: A. The more open individuals are to receiving suggestions, the more likely they are to benefit from suggestions given under hypnosis. B. The deeper the trance, the more likely it is that suggestions given under hypnosis will be effective. Hypnotic responsiveness depends more on the efforts and abilities of the individual being hypnotized than on the skill of the therapist. C. The ability to experience hypnotic phenomena does not indicate gullibility or personality weakness

Extrinsic (rewards)

- rewards that people receive from others - they come from external (outside the individual) sources, such as the coach or the teacher Ex; money, getting your name in the paper, and the praise of your family

Scholarships and Intrinsic Motivation

- scholarship football players reported less intrinsic motivation than nonscholarship football players - male wrestlers and female athletes from six sports who were on scholarship reported higher levels of intrinsic motivation than those who were not on scholarship - results can be explained by the distinction between the controlling and informational aspects of rewards - Scholarships can have an informational function, scholarships tell athletes that they are good - wrestlers and women, who receive far fewer scholarships than other athletes - in 1980, few athletic scholarships were available to wrestlers and women - 80 scholarships were awarded to Division I football teams - Athletic scholarships can either decrease or increase athletes' levels of intrinsic motivation depending on which is more emphasized—the controlling or the informational aspect - Some coaches may use scholarships as leverage to control the players' behavior - Sometimes players who are not performing up to the coaches' expectations are made to participate in distasteful drills, are threatened with being dropped from the team, or are given no playing time - holding scholarships over players' heads, coaches have sometimes turned what used to be play into work - the controlling aspect of the scholarship is more important than the informational aspect, which evidently decreases intrinsic motivation among the scholarship players - Athletic scholarships can either decrease or increase athletes' levels of intrinsic motivation. - Effects depend on which is more emphasized by the coach—the controlling or information aspects

Criticisms of Punishment

- several arguments about how punishment severely lacks any base of support and is in fact related to negative (unproductive) behaviors - Punishment can be degrading or shame producing, especially when individuals perceive their image or standing to be lowered in the eyes of others. Shame and guilt appear to be closely linked to failure or weakness when connected to the attainment of a standard, expectation, belief, or value (Hareli & Weiner, 2002). - Punishment usually arouses a fear of failure. Athletes who fear failure are not motivated by and do not enjoy the fruits of victory; rather, they only try to avoid the agony of defeat. Research has indicated that athletes with a high fear of failure perform more poorly in competition and are more likely to get injured, enjoy the sport experience less, and drop out (Smith & Smoll, 1990) - Punishment can unwittingly reinforce the undesirable behavior by drawing attention to it. Singling out a student who disrupts the class provides the student with the attention he craves. The punishment reinforces and strengthens the very behavior it was intended to eliminate - Punishment can create an unpleasant, aversive learning environment, producing hostility and resentment between the coach and the athletes. Over time, students and athletes may lose motivation as they become discouraged by frequent criticism. Furthermore, the undesirable behaviors may not be eliminated; rather, they may be suppressed only while the threat of punishment is present. For example, an exerciser may work hard in an aerobics class when the leader is watching her but slack off when she is not being watched

PST Myths

- several myths about the use of psychological techniques in optimizing performance - Research by Martin (2005) revealed that male athletes, younger athletes, and athletes who have been socialized in sports that involve physical contact still assign a particular stigma to sport psychology consulting - many of these myths only confuse the issue of what SPCs can and cannot do to help athletes maximize their performance.

Factors Affecting Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

- social and psychological factors can affect one's intrinsic and extrinsic motivation - Social factors: - Success and failure (experiences that help define one's sense of competency) - Focus of competition (competing against yourself and some standard of excellence where the focus is on improvement rather than competing against your opponent where the focus is on winning) - Coaches' behaviors (positive vs. negative) - Self-determination theory argues that competence, autonomy, and relatedness are the three basic human needs and that the degree to which they are satisfied go a long way in determining an individual's intrinsic motivation - Psychological Factors: (a) need for competence (to feel confident and self-efficacious) (b) need for autonomy (to have input into decisions or in some way "own" them) (c) need for relatedness (to care for others and to have them care for you)

Support of Punishment

- some coaches argue that punishment can serve a useful educational purpose (i.e., maintain stability, order, mastery) due to the closeness of coaches and athletes. - Punishment certainly can control and change negative behavior (Smith, 2006), and it has advocates among coaches and teachers who use punishment to improve learning and performance. - Punishment can deter future cheating or wrongdoing

Self-Regulation: The Ultimate Goal of PST

- ultimate goal of PST is to have athletes effectively function on their own w/o needing constant direction from a coach or sport psychologist - self-regulation= the ability to work toward one's short and long term goals by effectively monitoring and managing one's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors - After PST, an athlete should be able to monitor and self-regulate his or her own emotional state

Swann and Colleagues, 2016,2017 (flow vs. clutch states)

- study on flow and clutch states - reported 12 clutch characteristics (ex; absence of negative thoughts, intense effort, heightened arousal) and found that they experienced several characteristics in both flow and clutch states. These included confidence, perceptions of control, absorption in the activity, enhanced motivation, enjoyment, and altered sensory perceptions. - dissociative strategy= focusing concentration away from the task - associative strategies= using positive, motivating self-talk

Amorose, Horn, and Miller, 1994

- study the effect that scholarships have on intrinsic motivation - among 440 male and female athletes in Division I, the players on scholarship had lower levels of intrinsic motivation, enjoyment, and perceived choice than their nonscholarship cohorts - the growth of women's collegiate sport may have raised the pressure to win to the level experienced in men's collegiate athletics - scholarships available to female athletes has reduced the informational aspect of these awards, and the concomitant pressure to win has enhanced the controlling aspect of scholarships, thus decreasing intrinsic motivation - Amorose and Horn determine whether it was the scholarship itself or the actual coaching behaviors that produced changes in intrinsic motivation - authors found that changes in feelings of intrinsic motivation were attributable primarily to coaching behaviors rather than to whether an athlete was on scholarship. - athletes who perceived that their coaches exhibited predominantly positive and instructional feedback as well as democratic and social support behaviors exhibited higher levels of intrinsic motivation than did athletes who perceived that their coaches displayed predominantly autocratic behaviors

Making Punishment Effective

- successful coaches who used punishment usually were also masters of strategy, teaching, or tech. analysis - punishment might occasionally be necessary to eliminate unwanted behaviors - Coaches also need to be aware of cultural differences when administering punishment - A study by Hagiwara and Wolfson (2013) found differences between Japanese and English soccer players in terms of their reactions to certain types of punishment. Specifically, English players rated their coaches higher if they used verbal rather than physical punishment. However, Japanese athletes did not differ in how they viewed their coaches regardless of whether the coaches gave verbal or physical punishment - Guilt appears to play an important role in English culture, whereas shame appears to play an important role in Japanese culture

Symbolic Learning Theory (sackett, 1934)

- suggests that Imagery functions as a coding system (as mental blueprints) to help people understand and acquire movement patterns - Imagery helps us understand movement patterns - When an individual creates a motor program in the central nervous system, a mental blueprint is formed for successfully completing the movement - participants using imagery performed consistently better on tasks that were primarily cognitive than motoric - most sport skills have both motor and cognitive components

Systematic Desensitization (cognitive anxiety reduction tech.)

- systematic desensitization= Aims to reduce anxiety responses to stimuli by trying to have a response antagonistic to anxiety at the same time of the anxiety-provoking stimuli - According to Wolpe (1958), anxious people have learned through a process of classical conditioning to have excessively high levels of anxiety, manifested through increased autonomic nervous system activity in the presence of certain stimuli - goal of the treatment is to replace this nervous activity with a competing behavior - After learning progressive relaxation, the client is asked to imagine the 1st (least anxiety-producing) scene in the anxiety hierarchy. Does this until he can image the most anxiety-producing scene without producing any anxiety. Can take weeks or even months if the anxiety reaction is severe, such as in people who have extreme phobias (ex; open spaces, closed spaces, heights).

evaluating behavioral programs

- systematic reinforcement techniques can effectively modify various behaviors, including specific performance skills and coaching and teaching behaviors, as well as reduce errors and increase exercising - Behavioral techniques have successfully changed attendance at practice; increased output by swimmers in practice; improved fitness activities and gymnastics performance; reduced errors in tennis, football, and gymnastics; and improved golf performance - Other programs have effectively used behavioral techniques to decrease off-task behaviors in figure skaters, facilitate positive youth development, and develop healthier attitudes toward good sporting behavior and team support

PETTLEP Program (Holmes & Collins)

- the "PHYSICAL" nature of the environment - the specifics of the "ENVIRONMENT" - the type of "TASK" - the "TIMING" of the movement - "LEARNING" the content of the movement - the "EMOTION" (meaning to the individual) of the movement - the "PERSPECTIVE" of the person (internal or external)

Inappropriate Tennis Behaviors (Galvan and Ward, 1998)

- the aim was to reduce the amount of inappropriate on-court behavior in collegiate tennis players, including racket abuse, ball abuse, verbal abuse, and physical abuse of self - All 5 players who were followed through a competitive tennis season experienced a significant reduction in inappropriate behaviors

self-confidence

- the belief that you can successfully perform a desired behavior - originally viewed self-confidence as both a disposition and a state (Vealey, 1986) - sport self-confidence is a social cognitive construct that can be more traitlike or more statelike, depending on the temporal frame of reference used - confidence is affected by the specific organizational culture as well as the general sociocultural forces surrounding sport and exercise - self-confidence is multidimensional - Self-confidence is characterized by a high expectancy of success. - help individuals arouse positive emotions, facilitate concentration, set goals, increase effort, focus their game strategies, and maintain momentum - can influence affect, behavior, and cognitions

Bioinformational Theory (Lang, 1977, 1979)

- the best-developed theoretical explanation for the effects of imagery - The crucial point is that response propositions are a fundamental part of the image structure - image is not only a stimulus in the person's head to which the person responds - Imagery instructions (especially MG-A) that contain response propositions elicit greater physiological responses (e.g., increases in heart rate) than do imagery instructions that contain only stimulus propositions - Images are made of stimulus and response propositions - Imagery scripts should contain both stimulus and response propositions, which are more likely to create a vivid image than stimulus propositions alone - Based on the assumption that an image is a functionally organized set of propositions stored by the brain - model holds that a description of an image consists of 2 main types of statements: (a) response propositions: statements that describe the imager's response to the particular scenario. They are designed to produce physiological activity. (b) stimulus propositions: statements that describe specific stimulus features of the scenario to be imagined

acquire, practice, and correct sport skills ( uses of imagery)

- the best-known use of imagery is for practicing a particular sport skill - You can practice skills to fine-tune them, or you can pinpoint weaknesses and visualize correcting them EX; "An aerobics instructor might have students imagine a sequence of movements as they listen to the music before physically attempting the steps" - practice can take the form of a preview or a review - participant can look forward to and visualize what to do in an upcoming competition or a player can review a past performance, focusing on specific aspects of the movement that were done particularly well.

virtual reality (Technological Advances in Sport Psychology)

- the environment can be a simulation of the real world or an imaginary world, providing an interactive experience between the athlete and the environment he sees on the athletic field. - Schack and colleagues (2014) noted that VR offers several advantages over traditional video presentations: ~ Allows users to watch and manipulate simulated environments similarly to how they would normally act in the real world ~ Allows for complete control and fine-tuning of factors that affect a player's judgment, ensuring reproducibility and ecological validity ~ Allows players to interact with one another while displayed information is carefully controlled and modified ~ Provides an enhanced sense of presence for players by way of tracking head movements and updating information in real time

mindfulness (flow)

- the nonjudgmental focus of one's attention on the experience that occurs in the present moment - revealed that, compared with athletes low on mindfulness, athletes higher on mindfulness score higher in skills-challenge balance, merging of action and awareness, concentration, and loss of self-consciousness (Kee & Wang, 2008).

Self-Efficacy Theory

- the perception of one's ability to perform a task successfully, is really a situation-specific form of self-confidence - the terms self-efficacy and self-confidence are used interchangeably - Self-efficacy theory provides a model for studying the effects of self-confidence on sport performance, persistence, and behavior - Psychologist Albert Bandura (1977, 1986, 1997) formulated a clear and useful conceptual model of self-efficacy. He redefined self-efficacy. (called "self-regulatory efficacy")

reinforcement

- the use of rewards and punishments that increase or decrease the likelihood of a similar response occurring in the future - can take many forms, such as; verbal compliments, smiles and other nonverbal behaviors that imply approval, increased privileges, and the use of rewards

Positive Coaching Alliance recommends what ratio?

- trains youth sports coaches, recommends a 5-to-1 ratio

solve problems (uses of imagery)

- use imagery to discover or solve problems in performance - player who is not performing up to past or expected levels can use imagery to critically examine all aspects of the performance to find the potentially confounding factor.

Model Swim Program (Turnnidge, Vierimaa, and Cote, 2012)

- used a model swim program to help teach positive values to young athletes with physical disabilities - Results revealed 4 distinct themes: 1. Refined capabilities. Athletes learned new skills and refined their techniques. 2. Affirmed sense of self. Athletes developed a stronger self-concept and enhanced sense of confidence. 3. Strengthened social connection. Athletes made new friends and felt like part of a team. 4. Enhanced acceptance. Athletes became more accepting of their own and others' disabilities. - These positive outcomes were made possible by 3 specific processes: positive peer interactions, positive coach-athlete relationships, and a welcoming team environment

Reciprocal Relationship Between Efficacy and Behavior Change

- variety of studies including cross-sectional and longitudinal designs have demonstrated that changes in efficacy correspond to changes in performance and exercise behavior (a) Self-efficacy was the best predictor of exercise in a 2-year, large community sample (b) Self-efficacy was particularly critical in predicting exercise behavior in older sedentary adults (c) Self-efficacy was a strong predictor of exercise in symptomatic populations (d) Self-efficacy was a good predictor of exercise 9 months after program termination - Self-efficacy is a determinant of performance and exercise behavior. - Performance and exercise behavior determine one's self-efficacy

using a variety of senses as a baseball batter

- visual sense: to watch the ball as the pitcher releases it and it comes toward the plate - use kinesthetic sense to know where your bat is and to transfer your weight at the proper time to maximize power. - auditory sense: to hear the sound of the bat hitting the ball - tactile sense: to note how the bat feels in your hands - olfactory sense: to smell the freshly mowed grass

several terms that refer to an athlete's mental preparation for competition...?

- visualization, mental rehearsal, symbolic rehearsal, covert practice, imagery, and mental practice. - terms all refer to creating or re-creating an experience in the mind

Psychoneuromuscular Theory (CONT.) (carpenter, 1894)

- vividly imagine performing a movement, you use neural pathways similar to those you use when actually performing the movement - Murphy (2005) noted that with imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography scanning and functional magnetic resonance imaging, we can compare pictures of the brain of a person who is resting quietly with pictures taken when that person is imaging, for example, a 400-meter race. - Decety (1996) found that when someone imagines starting a movement, various areas of the brain become active, including the premotor cortex as the action is prepared, the prefrontal cortex as the action is initiated, and the cerebellum during the control of movement sequences that require a specific order - many of the areas of the brain that are used during the process of visual perception are also used during visual imagery, which means that imagery shares some of the same brain processes and pathways with actual vision - different areas of the brain are involved during kinesthetic imagery - visual & auditory instructions produced different changes in the brain

demands of training (pressure training)

- were manipulated to replicate the situations that athletes faced in competition encouraging the development of essential and transferable skills - task stressors: These include time constraints, equipment manipulations, and score requirements - Performers stressors: These include physical preparation constraints (ex; sabotaging the warm-up), cognitive preparation constraints (ex; restricting time to prepare a strategy), or constraints to cognitive capabilities (ex; restricting tactical information). - environmental stressors: These include weather constraints (ex; cold, rain, heat), noise manipulations (ex; roaring crowd), and altitude constraints (ex; less oxygen at higher altitude).

Reward Successful Approximations

- when learning a complex, new skill people will make mistakes - helpful to reward small improvements as the skill is learned (this tech. is called shaping) shaping- allows people to continue to improve as they get closer and closer to the desired response - individuals are rewarded for performances that approximate the desired performance which spurs their motivation and provides direction for what they should do next - w/ difficult skills, shape the behavior of the learner by reinforcing close approximations of the desired behavior

Intrinsic Motivation & Extrinsic Rewards

- world of sport and exercise uses extrinsic rewards extensively - most leagues have postseason banquets in which participants receive awards such as medals, trophies, ribbons, money, and jackets. - the systematic use of rewards can produce some desired behavior changes in sport, physical education, and exercise settings.

Phil Jackson (2004)

-11 time national basketball association championship coach and former general manager of the New York Knicks - uses a 2-to-1 ratio of positive to negative feedback -argued that its hard to come up with 5 positives for every negative at the professional level - believes any message will be more effective if you pump up players' egos before you bruise their egos

Jack Donohue

-olympic basketball coach - "it's not a case of getting rid of the butterflies, it's a question of getting them to fly in formation"

Intrinsic (rewards)

-other rewards - they reside within the participant Ex; taking pride in accomplishment and feeling competent

Passion (cont.)

1. Activity selection. Activity selection refers to the preference for the chosen activity over other activities. Feeling that the selection reflects his or her true choice and that interests are consistent with his or her identity should promote the development of passion toward the activity. 2. Activity valuation. Activity valuation refers to the subjective importance given to the activity by the person. When the object of interest is highly valued and meaningful, the more the activity becomes internalized in the person's identity, the more passionate the person will be toward the activity. 3. Type of internalization. To the extent that the internalization process takes place in an autonomous fashion, a harmonious passion will develop. However, if the internalization is carried in a controlled fashion, an obsessive passion will develop

Building Team (Collective) Efficacy (Ronglan, 2007)

1. Before competition: The production process focused on developing joint perceptions of capabilities and fitness to manage the upcoming competition in a successful manner 2. During competition: The activation process focused on getting team members believing in one another right before and during the game 3. After competition: The evaluation process was about developing intrateam interpretations of experiences and incidents during the game

4C Model of Mental Toughness (Clough, Earle, and Sewell, 2002)

1. Control is handling many things at once and remaining influential rather than controlled. 2. Commitment is being deeply involved with pursuing goals despite difficulties. 3. Challenge is perceiving potential threats as opportunities for personal growth and thriving in constantly changing environments. 4. Confidence is maintaining self-belief in spite of setbacks.

Consequences of Training (pressure training)

1. Forfeit stressors: include having the potential to receive something negative such as physical punishment or losing something positive such as a training session 2. Reward stressors: include gaining access to a service or money. Coaches agreed the most important reward stressor was selection to play or start or not to play or start. 3. Judgment stressors: focus on the stress created by being judged or evaluated by others such coaches, teammates, family and friends, and experts (ex; scouts). - coaches don't just create pressure situations, they also need to teach athletes how best to cope with these situations

Set Mastery-Approach VersusPerformance-Avoidance Goals

1. Mastery approach (ex; improve my time in a mile run by 5 seconds) 2. Mastery avoidance (ex; don't run the mile slower than last time) 3. Performance approach (ex; finish in the top 10 of the race) 4. Performance avoidance (ex; don't finish in the bottom half of the field)

Guiding Principles for Olympic Mental Training

1. Mental training can't replace physical training. 2. Physical training and physical ability are not enough to succeed consistently. 3. A strong mind may not win an Olympic medal, but a weak mind will lose you one. 4. Coaches frequently don't know what their athletes are thinking. 5. Thoughts affect behavior.Consistency of thinking = consistency of behavior 6. Coaches have varying views of changing technical mistakes versus mental mistakes. 7. Coaches must be involved in the mental training process. 8. Sometimes it is OK to force athletes to take the time to do mental training. 9. Like any other skill, mental skills need to be measured in order to maximize performance of these skills. 10. Coaches need to think about their own mental skills

Five Characteristics of the Imagery Process (Cumming and Williams, 2012)

1. Modality: The senses used in imagery—auditory, visual, tactile, olfactory, and kinesthetic 2. Perspective: The visual perspective taken—first person (internal) or third person (external) 3. Angle: The viewing angle when imaging from an external perspective—above, behind, front, or side 4. Agency: The author or agent of the behavior being imagined—one's self or another person 5. Deliberation: The degree to which imagery is deliberate or spontaneous (ex; triggered)

Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) 4-stage approach

1. Preparing for the stressor (ex; "It is going to be rough; keep your cool.") 2. Controlling and handling the stressor (ex; "Keep your cool; just stay focused on the task.") 3. Coping with feelings of being overwhelmed (ex; "Keep focused: What do you have to do next?") 4. Evaluating coping efforts (ex; "You handled yourself well.")

Driskell and colleagues 4-point cognitive strategy

1. register 2. dismiss 3. set 4. focus

Keys to Effective Imagery

2 keys: - vividness - controllability

Principles of Reinforcement (cont.)

2 types of effective reinforcement: 1. If doing something results in a good consequence (such as being rewarded), people tend to repeat the behavior to achieve additional positive reinforcement Ex; "way to pass the ball to the open man- keep up the good work!" 2. If doing something results in an unpleasant consequence (such as being punished), people tend not to repeat the behavior to avoid more negative consequences Ex; "use your head- stop trying low percentage serves!" - principles of reinforcement are complex: -People react differently to the same reinforcement. -People are unable to repeat desirable behaviors. -People receive different reinforcers in different situations

Percentage of Canadian Olympians that used imagery? (Orlick and Partington, 1988)

99%

Coaches' Expectations and Athletes' Performance: Stage 4

Athletes' performances confirm the coaches' expectations. Performance results then feed back into stage 1 of the coaches' expectations and athlete performance process

Autonomy Supportive Versus Controlling Coaching

Autonomy-Supportive: - Encourages athlete initiative - Allows athlete participation in decision making - Offers choices that are relevant to athletes' goals and values - Provides a rationale for task engagement - Acknowledges negative feelings associated with task engagement - Is nonjudgmental - Attempts to understand athletes' perspective before offering suggestions Controlling Coach: - Behaves in a coercive, pressuring, and authoritarian way in order to impose a preconceived way of thinking and behaving upon the athletes - Uses excessive monitoring and surveillance - Marginalizes athletes' input and views - Attempts to influence aspects of the athletes' lives that are not directly relevant to their sport participation - Uses intimidating behaviors (ex; yelling, physical punishment) - Uses guilt-inducing statements - Withdraws attention, positive regard and support when athletes are not compliant with his or her instructions and expectations

Characteristics of Effective & Ineffective SPCs (Orlick & Partington, 1987; Sharp & Hodge, 2011)

Effective Consultants: ~ were accessible and could establish rapport with athletes, ~ were flexible and knowledgeable enough to meet the needs of individual athletes, ~ were likable and had something very concrete or practical to offer, ~ conducted several follow-up sessions with athletes throughout the season, and ~ were trustworthy and fit in with the team. Ineffective Consultants: ~ had poor interpersonal skills, ~ lacked sensitivity to the needs of individual athletes, lacked specific psychology knowledge to apply to the sport setting, demonstrated inappropriate application of consulting skills at competitions, and relied on a "canned" approach when implementing psychological skills

Other Determinants of Intrinsic Motivation

Higher levels of intrinsic motivation are related to the following: - Playing for an autonomous (democratic) versus a controlling coach - Participating in a recreational versus competitive league - High versus low perceived competence - High versus low perceived control - Autonomy-supportive versus controlling coaching

Self-presentational efficacy

Individuals' beliefs in conveying a desired impression to others (ex; appearing strong, coordinated, fit, or physically attractive)

other efficacy

Individuals' beliefs in the ability of others (ex; partner, teammates, coach)

coping efficacy

Individuals' beliefs in their ability to cope in the face of perceived threats

Learning efficacy

Individuals' beliefs in their capability to learn a new skill

Decision-making efficacy

Individuals' beliefs that they are competent decision makers

When is the best time in one's career to engage in mental training?

Mental training should continue throughout an athlete's sport participation.

Do extrinsic rewards undermine intrinsic motivation?

Research shows that being paid for working on an intrinsically interesting activity can decrease a person's intrinsic motivation for the activity

performance blocks

These blocks are characterized by a sudden and temporary loss of fine or gross motor control or both and cognitive control, manifesting as locked, stuck, or frozen movements.

Negative self-fulfilling prophecy

This is a psychological barrier whereby the expectation of failure leads to actual failure

The Matching Hypothesis and Social Support

To produce maximum anxiety reduction, the specific types of social support (ex; informational, emotional) should be matched to the specific anxiety problem (ex; competitive pressure, technical problems) experienced.

How long should training last? (Implementing PST Programs)

Training should last 10 to 15 minutes a day, three to five days per week.

When should you implement PST?

You should implement PST in the off-season when there is more time

Olympic gold medalists perceived "mental toughness" as...?

a crucial prerequisite of athletic success

Opposing coaches calling a time-out before crucial field-goal attempts in professional football results in...?

a decrement in performance (80% to 64%)

Resilience

a set of skills—as opposed to a disposition or personality type—that makes it possible for people to not only get through hard times, but also to thrive during and after them

Passion

a strong inclination and desire toward an activity one likes, finds important, and invests time and energy in - Harmonious passion (HP): A strong desire to engage in an activity freely as it becomes part of one's identity - Obsessive passion (OP): An uncontrollable desire to participate in an activity that does not become part of one's identity. The person becomes controlled by the activity (ex; "I have to do it"), and thus it may conflict with other life activities (ex; work, family).

individuals who view their anxiety as debilitative...?

appeared limited in their use of any coping strategies

"the yips"

are a psychoneuromuscular condition that lies on a continuum anchored by focal dystonia (type I) and choking (type II).

Potential drawbacks of punishment and criticism include...?

arousing fear of failure, reinforcing the unwanted behavior, producing shame, and hindering the learning of skills

Autogenic Training (CONT.)(cognitive anxiety reduction tech.)

based on 6 hierarchical stages: 1. heaviness in the extremities 2. warmth in the extremities 3. regulation of cardiac activity 4. regulation of breathing 5. abdominal warmth 6. cooling of the forehead

Partial schedule

behavior is rewarded intermittently

Behavior Modification in Sport (cont.)

behavioral tech.: used in sport and physical activity settings to help individuals stay task oriented and motivated throughout a training period Ex; - Increased output by swimmers in practice - Improved fitness activities and gymnastics performance - Reduced errors in tennis, football, and gymnastics - improved golf performance - Decrease in off-task behaviors in figure skaters - Positive youth development - Healthier attitudes toward good sporting behavior and team support

Top athletes regardless of the sport consistently display a strong...?

belief in themselves and their abilities

focal dystonia

characterized by involuntary tremors, freezing, or jerking of the hands

Weinberg, Neff, and Jurica, 2012

developed a method for providing online mental training that (a) is affordable (b) is Internet based, (c) is fully automated (d) generates individualized mental training programs (e) is taught by sport psychology experts (f) follows best practices in mental training ( g) provides useful tools that enhance individual program success (ex; PowerPoint presentations with voiceovers, interviews with sport psychology professionals, whiteboard presentations of mental skills, and simulations of different scenarios) along with innovative coach and parent education programs.

self-doubt and putting pressure on one's self can..?

disrupt flow

competitive state anxiety can be both...?

facilitative and debilitative

Schmidt and Wrisberg (2004)

giving feedback after every attempt (continuous—100%) was far better for performance during practice than giving it after every other attempt (intermittent—50%). However, when taking tests of retention without any feedback the next day, participants with only 50% feedback performed better than those given 100% feedback. In essence, feedback after every trial was used as a kind of crutch, and the learner was unable to perform effectively when the crutch was removed

if a stressor is perceived as a challenge or threat then...?

heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output increase

exercise imagery

helps sustain the motivation and self-efficacy beliefs of exercise participants, which may then lead to greater involvement in physical activity

coaches create a more task- or learning-oriented environment students do not perceive any differential treatment of...?

high and low achievers

semistructured interview

includes general questions and opportunities to use the athlete's responses to form follow-up questions. The interview is a good time to determine the areas in which the athlete needs help and to start building the trust critical to any therapeutic relationship Ex; Try to describe any psychological problems you are having now. What is your relationship with your coach? Do you feel comfortable talking to your coach?

Flow is much more difficult to achieve when...?

individuals lack such motivation

Knowledge of Results, KR (types of feedback)

info about the outcome of the action Ex; if a golfer's practice goal was to consistently hit balls 100 yards with a short iron by shortening her backswing, then KP would be concerned with the length of the backswing and KR would consist of the actual distance the ball traveled

Later stages of learning what is more effective reinforcement?

intermittent

internal imagery

is visualizing the execution of a skill from your own vantage point (as if you had a camera on your head) - internal imagery produced more electrical activity in the muscles involved in the imagined activity - Internal imagery appears to make it easier to bring in the kinesthetic sense, feel the movement, and approximate actual performance skills

external imagery

is visualizing yourself from the perspective of an outside observer (as if you were watching yourself in a movie)

Cumming, Nordin, Horton, and Reynolds (2006)

looked at how positive or negative imagery combined with self-talk influenced performance. The researchers found that participants in the facilitative imagery and facilitative self-talk condition improved their performance, whereas participants in the debilitative imagery and debilitative self-talk condition decreased their performance.

Soccer is an open sport with...?

lots of uncontrolled factors and is time stressed

The Matching Hypothesis

matching hypothesis= an anxiety management tech. should be matched to a particular anxiety problem - If you are not sure what type of anxiety is most problematic, however, use a multimodal technique - crossover effects (whereby somatic relaxation techniques produce decreases in cognitive anxiety and cognitive relaxation techniques produce decreases in somatic anxiety) also occurred in these studies. - one study using a cognitive relaxation technique, the intensity of cognitive anxiety decreased by 30%; the intensity of somatic anxiety also decreased, although by only 15% - when a somatic relaxation procedure was used, the intensity of somatic anxiety decreased by 31% and the intensity of cognitive anxiety decreased as well, although by 16%

Cognitive anxiety should be treated with...?

mental relaxation

anecdotal reports

or people's reports of isolated occurrences are numerous

what we image and the way in which we image can have an important influence on...?

our physiological responses

sometimes there is a struggle between feeling self-confident and...?

recognizing your weaknesses

relaxation response (CONT.)(cognitive anxiety reduction tech.)

relaxation response requires 4 elements: 1. A quiet place, which ensures that distractions and external stimulation are minimized. 2. A comfortable position that can be maintained for a while. Sit in a comfortable chair, for example, but do not lie down in bed—you do not want to fall asleep. 3. A mental device, which is the critical element in the relaxation response, that involves focusing your attention on a single thought or word and repeating it over and over. Select a word, such as relax, calm, or ease, that does not stimulate your thoughts, and repeat the word while breathing out. Every time you exhale, repeat your word. 4. A passive attitude, which is important but can be difficult to achieve. You have to learn to let it happen, allowing the thoughts and images that enter your mind to move through as they will, making no attempt to attend to them. If something comes to mind, let it go and refocus on your word. Don't worry about how many times your mind wanders; continue to refocus your attention on your word

mental training should supplement and complement physical practice not...?

replace it

Continuous Schedule

requires rewarding after every correct response

elite athletes sometimes have...?

self-doubt

teachers create an outcome-oriented environment focused on performance, then students perceive that...?

their teacher favor high achievers as opposed to low

trevor hoffman

top "closers" to ever pitch in the major leagues

hot hand phenomenon in basketball

traditionally has meant that a player who hits a few shots in a row is likely to continue making baskets

SPC should ask..?

who, what, when, how, and where questions on the initial interview, but not why questions

Our society values ____ and ____ at all levels of competition?

winning and success

Elite Performance (Developing and Displaying Expertise)

~ At a minimum, development of expertise requires a consistent amount of deliberate practice (typically designed by teachers or coaches with full concentration on improving some aspect of performance) approaching 10,000 hours. ~ To develop elite performance, 10,000 hours of practice is a necessary but not sufficient condition. Deliberate practice appears to account for about 30% of the variance in elite performance. ~ Many recreational performers practice (often less than 50 hours) to reach an acceptable level of performance at which some level of automation is reached, but further experience will not be associated with marked improvement in performance. ~ Even the most talented performers cannot reach an international level in less than a decade of continuous deliberate practice. ~ It is unclear how much of a role genetics plays in the development of expertise, although Ericsson argues that deliberate practice (environment) is the key determinant of the development of expertise. ~ Macnamara, Hambrick, and Oswald (2014) found that deliberate practice accounted for different amounts of variance in elite performance, depending on the domain (ex; sport, music, professions, education)

psychological intervention packages

—approaches that use a variety of psychological interventions (ex; self-talk, relaxation, concentration training) along with imagery. - studies using imagery as part of a psychological intervention package have shown positive performance results with golfers, basketball players, triathletes, figure skaters, swimmers, and tennis players

Do's and Don'ts for Building Self-Confidence

•Do maintain a high positive precompetitive environment. •Do have high expectations of all your participants. •Do set realistic but challenging short- and long-term goals. •Do provide lots of contingent, positive feedback and praise. •Do structure the environment to provide for early success. Do try to find participants doing something right