PSY210 Ch. 3
What are the four newborn states?
1. Alert inactivity 2. Waking activity 3. Crying 4. Sleeping
What is fetal medicine?
A developing field that focusses on treating prenatal problems before birth.
What is a teratogen?
An agent that causes abnormal prenatal development
What is a blastocysts?
After about four days, the zygote comprises of about 100 cells and resembles a hollow ball. This is called a blastocyst.
What happens during the period of the embryo?
Body structures and internal organs develop. At the beginning of the period, three layers form in the embryo: the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm
What are the most common environmental teratogens?
Chemicals associated with industrial waste are the most common environmental teratogens, and the quantities involved are usually minute. However, just as with drugs, the amount of a chemical that might go unnoticed by an adult can cause serious damage to a developing fetus.
What effects do chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and lead have on fetuses?
Chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) or lead in the environment can have damaging effects, causing cognitive deficits or disorders such as schizophrenia. Exposure to environmental pollutants generally can have negative effects on prenatal development.
Explain how treating congenital adrenal hyperplasia medically can help the fetus?
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia is an inherited disorder in which the fetal adrenal glands produce too much androgen, causing early maturation of boys or masculinization of girls. Treatment consists of injecting hormones into the mother that reduce the amount of androgen secreted by the fetal adrenal glands.
How does damage or problems affect reflexes?
Infants with damage to their sciatic nerve, which is found in the spinal cord, do not show the withdrawal reflex. Infants who have problems with the lower part of the spine do not show the Babinski reflex. If these or other reflexes are weak or missing altogether, a thorough physical and behavioural assessment is called for.
What is the mad cry?
It is a more intense version of the basic cry
What is swaddling?
It is a useful technique to try and stop a baby from crying, which involves wrapping the infant tightly in a blanket.
What is partial fetal alcohol syndrome?
It occurs when women drink moderately throughout pregnancy. It refers to children whose overall physical growth is normal but who have some facial abnormalities and impaired cognitive skills.
Why does the United States, who have some of the finest medical facilities in the world, have higher rates of infant mortality compared to other developed countries?
Low birth weight is one reason so many American babies die. The United States has more babies with low birth weight than virtually all other industrialized countries, and we've already seen that low birth weight places an infant at risk. Low birth weight can usually be prevented when a pregnant woman gets regular prenatal care, but many pregnant women in the United States receive inadequate or no prenatal care because they have no health insurance
What happens near the end of the embryonic period and in the 3rd month?
Male embryos develop testes and female embryos develop ovaries. In the third month, the testes in a male fetus secrete a hormone that causes a set of cells to become a penis and scrotum; in a female fetus, this hormone is absent, so the same cells become a vagina and labia.
What has developed at the end of the embryonic period?
The body structures and internal organs
What period during prenatal development does alcohol cause the fetus to develop fewer brain cells?
The fetal period
When are identical twins developed?
When the zygote separates into two clusters
Not including alcohol and nicotine, what are 6 drugs that can harm prenatal development?
1. Accutane: causes abnormalities of the CNS, eyes, and ears. 2. Aspirin: causes deficits in intelligence, attention and motor skills. 3. Caffeine: lower birth weight and decreased muscle tone 4 & 5. Cocaine and heroin: Retarded growth and irritability in newborns 6. Marijuana. Lower birth weight, less motor control
What are the 4 systems the NBAS evaluates?
1. Autonomic: The newborn's ability to control body functions such as breathing and temperature regulation. 2. Motor: The newborn's ability to control body movements and activity level. 3. State: The newborn's ability to maintain a state (e.g., staying alert or staying asleep). 4. Social: The newborn's ability to interact with people
What are the three different types of baby crying?
1. Basic cry 2. Mad cry 3. Pain cry
What are 2 risk factor for postpartum depression?
1. Biology: Particularly high levels of hormones during the later phases of pregnancy place women at risk for postpartum depression. 2. Experience: Women are more likely to experience postpartum depression when they were depressed before pregnancy, coping with other life stress, did not plan on being pregnant, and/or lack other adults to support their adjustment to motherhood.
What are the five vital signs that the Apgar score measures?
1. Breathing 2. Heartbeat 3. Muscle tone 4. Presence of reflexes 5. Skin tone
What are pros of having a baby born outside of the hospital?
1. Home delivery is less expensive 2. Many women are ore relaxed during labour at home 3. Many women also enjoy the greater control they have over labour and birth in a home delivery.
What are risk factors for SIDS?
1. If they were born prematurely or with low birth weight. 2. When their parents smoke. 3. When a baby sleeps on its stomach (face down) than when it sleeps on its back (face up). 4. More likely during winter, when babies sometimes become overheated from too many blankets and too heavy sleep-wear. SIDS infants are less able to withstand physiological stresses and imbalances that are brought on by cigarette smoke, breathing that is temporarily interrupted, or overheating.
What are two ways that fetal surgery can correct prenatal problems?
1. Spina bifida has been corrected with fetal surgery in the seventh or eighth month of pregnancy. Surgeons cut through the mother's abdominal wall to expose the fetus, then cut through the fetal abdominal wall; the spinal cord is repaired, and the fetus is returned to the uterus. When treated with prenatal surgery, infants with spina bifida are less likely to need a shunt to drain fluid from the brain and, as preschoolers, are more likely to be able to walk without support. 2. Fetal surgery has been used to treat a disorder affecting identical twins in which one twin—the "donor"—pumps blood through its own and the other twin's circulatory system. The donor twin usually fails to grow. Surgery corrects the problem by sealing off the unnecessary blood vessels between the twins.
What are five important general principles about how teratogens usually work?
1. The impact of a teratogen depends on the genotype of the organism. 2. The impact of teratogens changes over the course of prenatal development. 3. Each teratogen affects a specific aspect (or aspects) of prenatal development. 4. The impact of teratogens depends on the dose. 5. Damage from teratogens is not always evident at birth but may appear later
What can pregnant women do to avoid being exposed to environmental teratogens?
1. They need to be careful of what they consume and the air they breathe, for example by making sure that all foods are cleaned thoroughly to rid them of insecticides. 2. Convenience foods, which often contain chemical additives, should be avoided as much as possible. 3. Air that's been contaminated by household products such as cleansers, paint strippers, and fertilizers, should be avoided. 4. In situation where they might come into contact with potential teratogens (e.g., in cleaning products) women should switch to less potent chemicals; for example, using baking soda instead of more chemically laden cleansers. 5. They should also wear protective gloves, aprons, and masks to reduce their contact with potential teratogens. 6. Because the number of environmental teratogens continues to increase, expectant mothers should check with their healthcare provider to learn if other materials should be avoided.
What are three ways and tools that are available to help solve problems that are detected during pregnancy?
1. Treat medically with drugs or hormones 2. Fetal surgery (highly experimental) 3. Genetic engineering
Why are ultrasound images valuable?
1. Ultrasound pictures are useful for determining the date of conception, which enables the physician to predict the due date more accurately. 2. Ultrasound pictures can show the position of the fetus and placenta in the uterus. 3. They can be used to identify gross physical deformities like abnormal growth of the head. 4. They help to detect twins or other multiple pregnancies. 5. Beginning at 20 weeks after conception, ultrasound images can
What are three ways to determine if prenatal development is progressing normally?
1. Ultrasound, 2. Amniocentesis, 3. Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
What are the two structures that the embryo is linked to the mother by?
1. Umbilical cord: houses blood vessels that join the embryo to the placenta. In the placenta, blood vessels from the umbilical cord run close to the mothers blood vessels but are not actually connected to them. 2. Villi
What are 5 steps to having a healthy baby?
1. Visit a healthcare provider for regular prenatal checkups (monthly until close to due date, when it becomes weekly or every other week) 2. Eat healthy food 3. Don't drink alcohol or caffeine 4. Exercise throughout pregnancy 5. Get enough rest
What are 2 reasons why increased chronic stress harms prenatal development?
1. When a woman experiences stress her body secretes hormones that reduce the flow of oxygen to the fetus while simultaneously increasing its heart rate and activity level. 2. Stress can weaken a pregnant woman's immune system and make them more susceptible to illness. 3. Pregnant women under stress are more likely to drink alcohol and less likely to rest, exercise, and eat properly.
What are 2 examples of how teratogen exposure affects the embryonic period of development?
1. Women who took thalidomide during the embryonic period had babies with ill-formed or missing limbs. 2. Women who contract rubella during the embryonic period have babies with heart defects.
Where does Canada rank out of 189 countries for under-five child mortality rates?
161st Japan has the lowest rate (189th) and, at the other end of the spectrum, Afghanistan has the highest, closely followed by Sierra Leone and Angola. War and conflict lead to disruptions in health care, basic services, and food security, all of which are important for infant and child survival globally.
How many hours a day do newborns spend crying or on the verge of crying?
2 - 3 hours a day
What type of diet should a pregnant woman go on?
A balanced diet that includes foods from each of the five major food groups is vital. Proteins, vitamins, and minerals are all essential for prenatal development
What is hypoxia?
A condition where blood flow to the fetus is disrupted and infants do not receive adequate oxygen. This can be caused by something like a prolapsed umbilical cord. Hypoxia is very serious because it can lead to developmental disabilities or death.
What happens in genetic counselling?
A counsellor builds a family tree for each prospective parent to check for heritable disorders. If it turns out that one (or both) carries a disorder, further tests can determine that person's genotype. With this detailed information, a genetic counsellor can discuss choices with prospective parents, who may choose to conceive naturally, taking their chances that the child will be healthy, or decide to use sperm or eggs from other people. Another choice would be to adopt a child.
What is spina bifida?
A disorder in which the embryo's neural tube does not close properly during the first month of pregnancy. Because the neural tube develops into the brain and spinal cord, improper closing results in permanent damage to the spinal cord and the nervous system. Many children with spina bida need crutches, braces, or wheelchairs
What happens at four weeks after conception?
A flat set of cells curls to form a tube .One end of the tube swells to form the brain; the rest forms the spinal cord. By the start of the fetal period, the brain has distinct structures and has begun to regulate body functions.
What is alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder?
A less severe variant of FAS. Children with ARND are typical in appearance but have deficits in attention, memory, and intelligence.
What is the Apgar score?
A measure devised by obstetrical anesthesiologist Virginia Apgar, and it is used to evaluate a newborn baby's condition. Health care professionals look for 5 vital signs and each vital sign is scored on a scale from 0-2 (2 being optimal). The five scores are added together, with a score of seven or more indicating a baby in good physical condition. A score of four to six means the newborn will need special attention and care. A score of three or less signals a life-threatening situation that requires emergency medical care.] The Apgar score provides a quick, approximate assessment of the newborn's status by focusing on the body systems needed to sustain life.
What is amniocentesis?
A needle is inserted through the mother's abdomen to obtain a sample of the amniotic fluid that surrounds the fetus. Amniocentesis is typically performed at approximately 16 weeks after conception. The withdrawn fluid contains skin cells that can grow in a laboratory dish and then be analyzed to determine the genotype of the fetus.
What is chronic stress?
A person's physical and psychological responses to threatening or challenging situations.
What is the kangaroo care position?
A position in which infants dressed only in a diaper are held against an adult's bare chest in a sling or blanket. Initially developed in South America, this form of care is used with premature and special care infants to give skin-to-skin contact and positive stimulation, even to babies in intensive care. These forms of stimulation foster physical and cognitive development in small-for-date babies. The kangaroo care position also reduces pain responses to the heel-prick used in hospitals to draw blood for testing
What is an ultrasound?
A procedure using sound waves to generate a picture of the fetus. It is a standard part of prenatal care in Canada. An instrument is rubbed over the woman's abdomen and an image is shown on a nearby TV monitor. The pictures that are generated are hardly portrait quality; they are grainy and require an expert's eye to distinguish what's what.
What is chorionic villus sampling (CVS)?
A sample of tissue is obtained from the chorion (part of the placenta) and analyzed. CVS is often preferable to amniocentesis because it can be done at about 10 to 12 weeks after conception, nearly four to six weeks earlier than amniocentesis. (Amniocentesis can't be performed until the amniotic sac is large enough to provide easy access to amniotic fluid.)
What is the germ disc?
A small cluster of cells near the centre of the blastocyst, the germ disc, eventually develops into a baby. The other cells are destined to become structures that support, nourish, and protect the developing organism
How do the impacts/effects that teratogens cause depend on the genotype of the organism?
A substance may be harmful to one species but not to another. For example, thalidomide was not harmful to rodents; however, it was harmful to humans.
What is the zygote?
A zygote is a fertilized egg.
What was the hypothesis of the study by Jaffee et al. about the social influence mechanism that potentially contribute to the harmful consequences of teenage motherhood?
According to the social influence mechanism, measures of the child- rearing environment should predict outcomes for children born to teenage mothers. For example, if teenage motherhood results in less education and less income, these variables should predict children's outcomes.
What was the hypothesis of the study by Jaffee et al. about the social selection mechanism that potentially contribute to the harmful consequences of teenage motherhood?
According to the social selection mechanism, the same characteristics that are associated with a teenage girl becoming pregnant should predict outcomes for her children. For example, if teenage girls are more likely to get pregnant when they are not very bright and have conduct disorder, then these same variables should predict outcomes for the children of teenage mothers.
How do extremely low birth weight babies who survive prematurity differ from normal babies as they develop?
Among extremely low-birth-weight babies who survive the early risks of prematurity, the proportion who graduate from high school is not significantly different than that of the general population. Prospects are usually not so optimistic for small-for-date babies.
Why is the presence of a midwife important for many first nation communities in the birthing process?
Among many First Nations communities, a midwife is regarded as an important member of the community, and midwifery is esteemed as a source of traditional knowledge. The importance and respect of the midwife in aboriginal culture is reflected in the First Nations name for this profession ("watch" or "care")
What type of fetus is more likely to be unhappy compared to the other?
An active fetus is more likely than an inactive fetus to be an unhappy, difficult baby
What is genetic engineering?
An approach to treating prenatal problems that involves replacing defective genes with synthetic normal genes
What happens at the end of stage 1 in labour?
At the end of Stage 1, in the transition phase, contractions are intense and sometimes occur without interruption. Women report that the transition phase is the most painful part of labour. By the end of transition, the cervix is about 10 centimetres in diameter.
Rosa gave birth a week ago. Once or twice a day, she has crying spells and usually gets angry at her husband even though he's been quite helpful to her and the baby. Do you think Rosa has postpartum depression?
At this point, probably not. It's normal for women to feel sad and angry for a week or so after giving birth. But if Rosa's feelings persist for a few more weeks, then they may wellbe symptoms of postpartum depression.
Explain the study that compared at risk newborns who grew up in a stable home, at risk newborns who grew up in an unstable home, and children without birth complications?
At-risk newborns who grew up in stable homes were indistinguishable from children born without birth complications. ("Stable family environment" was dened as two supportive, mentally healthy parents present throughout childhood.) When at-risk newborns had an unstable family environment, because of divorce, parental alcoholism, or mental illness, for example, they lagged behind their peers in intellectual and social development.
What happens when pregnant women don't smoke but fathers do?
Babies tend to be smaller at birth.
Why is a C-section riskier for mothers compared to vaginal delivery?
Because of increased bleeding and greater danger of infection. But, a C-section poses little risk for babies, although they are often briefly lethargic from the anaesthesia that the mother receives before the operation. Mother-infant interactions are much the same for babies delivered vaginally or by planned or unplanned C-sections
Why is it difficult for pregnant women to avoid being exposed to environmental teratogens?
Because people are usually unaware of their presence in the environment. For example, the women in the Aamjiwnaang study did not realize they were being exposed to chemicals from the environment (this may have been through food, water, or air). This invisible danger makes it more dificult for a pregnant woman to protect herself from environmental teratogens.
What is an example of an effect from teratogens that might not appear immediately, but will appear later in development?
Between 1947 and 1971, many pregnant women in North America and Europe took the drug diethylstilbestrol (DES) to prevent miscarriages. Their babies appeared normal at birth, but as adults, females were more likely to have breast cancer or a rare cancer of the vagina and to have difficulty becoming pregnant themselves. Sons of women who took DES may be less fertile and at risk for testicular cancer.
What is the age of viability?
By 22 to 28 weeks, most systems function well enough that a fetus born at this time has a chance to survive, which is why this age range is called the age of viability. However, babies born this early have trouble breathing because their lungs are not yet mature. Also, they cannot regulate their body temperature very well because they lack the insulating layer of fat that appears in the eighth month aer conception.
How long does the zygote take to reach the uterus?
By the end of the first week following conception
What effects does lead have on prenatal development?
Can cause developmental disabilities
What effects do PCBs have on prenatal development?
Can cause impaired memory and verbal skills
What effects does mercury have on prenatal development?
Can cause retarded growth, developmental disabilities, and cerebral palsy
What effects do X-Rays have on prenatal development?
Can cause retarded growth, leukaemia, and developmental disabilities.
What are the 3 primary forms or teratogens?
Diseases, drugs, and environmental hazards
When does the cerebral cortex grow?
During the period of the fetus, all regions of the brain grow, particularly the cerebral cortex, the wrinkled surface of the brain that regulates many im-portant human behaviours.
What happens during this period?
During this period, the baby-to- be becomes much larger and its body systems begin to work. At the beginning of this period, the fetus weighs just a few grams. At about four months, the fetus weighs roughly 110 to 225 grams, enough for the mother to feel it move. During the last five months of pregnancy, the fetus gains, on average, an additional three or four kilograms. The 'finishing touches' are put on then body that are essential to life: the nervous, respiratory, and digestive systems
What were the results of the Aamjiwnaang study?
Exposure to chemicals such as HCB, PCBs, and other contaminants affects sex ratios. From a proportion of 0.538 male births in 1984-1988 (0.512 is the expected rate for Canada), the ratio fell to 0.348 during 1999-2003. The researchers were unsure of exactly which of the numerous chemical pollutants (or combinations of chemicals) found in the area were responsible. Prenatal exposure to chemical contamination affects sex ratios; specifically, lowering the number of boys born. This decline would have an ongoing effect on the sex balance in the community.
What happens during the fifth and sixth months after conception?
Eyebrows, eyelashes, and scalp hair emerge.
How do doctors protect against hypoxia?
Fetal heart rate is monitored during labour, either by ultrasound or with a tiny electrode that is passed through the vagina and attached to the scalp of the fetus. An abrupt change in heart rate can be a sign that the fetus is not receiving enough oxygen. If the heart rate does change suddenly, a healthcare professional will try to confirm whether the fetus is in distress, perhaps by measuring fetal heart rate with a stethoscope on the mother's abdomen.
What can fetuses experience near the end of the fetal period?
Fetuses can detect sound, flavors, and can also remember the sensory experiences later. Cool fact: if the sounds are played at eight months after conception, the fetus can remember them a month later
What happens by about six months after conception?
Fetuses vary intheir usual heart rates and in how much their heart rate changes in response to physiological stress.
Explain a study about heart rate variability in fetuses?
Fetuses with greater heart rate variability were, as two-month-olds, more advanced in their motor, mental, and language development. Greater heart rate variability may be a sign that the nervous system is responding efficiently to environmental change (as long as the variability is not extreme).
What type of vitamin is important for the nervous system to develop properly?
Folic acid, one of the B vitamins. When women do not consume adequate amounts of folic acid during pregnancy, their babies are at risk for spina bifida.
What is the only way to guarantee that these diseases do not harm prenatal development?
For a woman not to contract the disease before or during her pregnancy. Medication may help the woman, but will not prevent the disease from damaging the developing baby.
What is postpartum depression?
Half of all new mothers find that their initial excitement of their newborn baby gives way to irritation, resentment, and crying spells. This typically lasts a dew weeks; however, for 10 to 15% of new mothers, this irritability continues for months and is often accompanied by feelings of low self-worth, disturbed sleep, poor appetite, and apathy. This is a condition known as postpartum depression.
How do teratogens affect NBAS scores?
Harm associated with teratogens has been shown by lower scores on the NBAS.
How can genetic engineering help with Tay-Sachs disease?
If a baby inherits the recessive allele for sickle-cell disease from both parents, the child has misshapen red blood cells that cannot pass though capillaries. In theory, it should be possible to take a sample of cells from the fetus, remove the recessive genes from the 11th pair of chromosomes, and replace them with the dominant genes. These "repaired" cells could then be injected into the fetus, where they would multiply and cause normal red blood cells to be produced. This is still very experimental but there have been some successful applications of genetic engineering with older children; for example, treating inherited retinal degeneration.
How should parents respond to their baby crying?
If parents respond immediately, every time their infant even begins to cry, the result may be a fussy, whiny baby. Instead, parents need to consider why their infant is crying and the intensity of the crying. - When a baby wakes during the night and cries quietly, a parent might wait a bit before responding, giving the baby a chance to calm herself. - When parents hear a loud noise from an infant's bedroom followed by a mad cry, they should respond immediately. Parents need to remember that crying is actually the newborn's first attempt to communicate with others. They need to decide what the infant is trying to tell them and whether that warrants a quick response or whether they should let the baby soothe himself.
How do percentages change between Canada/US and the Netherlands when it comes to the percentage of children born out of the hospital?
In Canada and the United States only 1% of babies are born at home. In the Netherlands, about 1/3 of all births take place.
Who are midwives?
In contrast to the "medicalization" of childbirth in hospitals, midwifery sees childbirth as a major, but natural, event for a woman. Midwives provide care throughout pregnancy and for several weeks after the birth. Their services are regulated in most provinces of Canada, which means that their services may or may not be paid for by provincial health programs. A midwife may attend birth at home, in hospital, or at a birthing center. Although midwives are generally associated with at home births, the number of hospital births attended by midwives have been increasing over recent years.
Explain how treating fetal hypothyroidism medically can help the fetus?
In fetal hypothyroidism, the fetal thyroid gland does not produce enough hormones, leading to retarded physical and mental development. This disorder can be treated by injecting the necessary hormones directly into the amniotic cavity, resulting in normal growth.
What is rapid eye movement (REM) sleep in newborns?
In rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep, newborns move their arms and legs, they may grimace, and their eyes may move about beneath their eyelids. Brain waves register fast activity, the heartbeats more rapidly, and breathing is also more rapid. Many scientists believe that REM sleep stimulates the brain in some way that helps foster growth in the nervous system.
What is non-REM sleep or regular sleep in newborns?
In regular or non-REM sleep, breathing, heart rate, and brain activity are steady and newborns lie quietly without the twitching associated with REM sleep
What is irregular position?
In shoulder presentation, the baby is lying crosswise in the uterus and the shoulder appears first; in breech presentation, the buttocks appear first
What is Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)?
In sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), a healthy baby dies suddenly, for no apparent reason.
How is damage from teratogens not always evident at birth but could appear later?
In the case of malformed infant limbs or babies born addicted to cocaine, the effects of a teratogen are obvious immediately. A cocaine baby goes through withdrawal—shaking, crying, and being unable to sleep. Sometimes, however, the damage from a teratogen becomes evident only as the child develops.
What is the pain cry?
It begins with a sudden, long shriek, followed by a long pause and gasping crying.
What are positives with co-sleeping?
It does not make children more dependent and it comes with the benefit of avoiding the lengthy, elaborate rituals that are often involved in getting newborns and kids to sleep in their own room alone.
Explain the study that examined the effects of birth complications and behaviour?
It found that boys who had life-threatening birth complications, such as umbilical cord prolapse or pre-eclampsia, were more aggressive as 6-year-olds and more violent as 17-year-olds (e.g., they participated in gang fights or carried weapons). This was only true, however, when boys had also experienced family adversity such as limited income or the absence of a parent. This outcome underscores the importance of excellent healthcare throughout pregnancy and labour and the need for a supportive environment throughout childhood.
How has the ultrasound technology been misused by some people when it comes to pregnancy?
It has been use for the sex-selection of children. In some cultures, girls are viewed less favourably than boys, and a girl fetus may be aborted, particularly if it is a first child. Researchers from India report that both amniocentesis and ultrasound screening are being misused in this way. This has led to a subsequent sex imbalance in populations in recent years, which has led to governments stepping in to try to stop the practice of sex-selection.
What is the Neonatal Behavioural Assessment Scale, or NBAS?
It is a comprehensive evaluation of the newborn's well-being. The NBAS is used with newborns to two-month-olds to provide a detailed portrait of the baby's behavioural repertoire. The scale includes 28 behavioural items along with 18 items that test reflexes. The baby's performance is used to evaluate the functioning of four systems. The NBAS is based on the view that newborns are remarkably competent individuals who are well prepared to interact with their environment.
What is co-sleeping and where is it common?
It is when children sleep with their parents throughout infancy and the preschool years. This is commonly found in cultures where people define themselves less as independent individuals and more as part of a group. For parents in cultures that value such interdependence— including Egypt, Italy, Japan, and Korea, as well as the Maya in Guatemala and the Inuit in Canada—co-sleeping is an important step in forging parent-child bonds, just as sleeping alone is an important step toward independence in cultures that value self-reliance.
What is implantation?
It occurs once the zygote reaches the uterus. This is when the blastocyte burrows into the uterine wall and establishes connections with the mothers blood vessels. Implantation takes about a week to complete and triggers hormonal changes that prevent menstruation, signalling to the woman she has conceived.
What is social influence?
It refers to events set in motion when a teenage girl gives birth, events that make it harder for her to provide a positive environment for her child's development. For example, she may drop out of school, limiting her employment opportunities.
What is the basic cry?
It starts softly then gradually becomes more intense and usually occurs when a baby is hungry or tired.
How long does prenatal development take?
It takes an average of 38 weeks that are divided into three stages: the period of the zygote, the period of the embryo, in the period of the fetus.
Based on a study conducted in Denmark, how can cell-phone use during and after pregnancy affect prenatal development?
It was associated with increased risk for behavior problems in childhood.
Based on a study conducted in Spain, how can cell-phone use later in pregnancy affect prenatal development?
It was associated with lower motor development but greater mental development in 14-month-olds.
What were the findings on this outcome?
Jaffee (2003) found that, compared to children born to older mothers, children born to teenage mothers were nearly three times more likely to have committed a criminal offence. This was due to both social influence and social selection mechanisms. Consistent with the social inuence mechanism, teenage mothers were less educated and had lower incomes, and these variables predicted their children's criminal activity. Consistent with the social selection mechanism, teenage mothers were more likely to have a history of antisocial behaviour, and this history predicted their children's criminal activity.
What is the new way that Canadian researchers have learned how to diagnose FAS?
James Reynolds and colleagues at Queen's have discovered that eye movements can be used to distinguish children suffering from FAS. Reynolds and colleagues developed a test that tracks eye movements; children with FAS show a specic pattern of eye movement not found in other conditions. If this test proves valid, it will allow reliable identification of children with FAS at a younger age than is now possible, allowing parents and doctors to put special programs in place to help these children earlier. Early recognition and testing allow for the use of the most appropriate intervention strategies
How does the impact of teratogens depend on the dose?
Just as a single drop of oil won't pollute a lake, small doses of teratogens may not harm the fetus. In research on PCBs, for example, cognitive skills were affected only in those children who had the greatest prenatal exposure to these by-products. In general, the greater the exposure, the greater the risk for damage.
What are the downside of amniocentesis and CVS?
Miscarriages are slightly more likely after amniocentesis or CVS. A woman must decide if the beneficial information gained from amniocentesis or CVS justifies the slight risk of a miscarriage.
What is one simple way to reduce the risk of postpartum depression?
Mothers who breastfeed are less likely to become depressed, perhaps because breastfeeding releases hormones that are antidepressants
What are some common patterns of sleep that babies go through?
Newborn sleep for 16 to 18 hours a day, but they sleep in naps taken around the clock. Newborns typically go through a cycle of wakefulness and sleep about every four hours. at is, they will be awake for about an hour, sleep for three hours, then start the cycle anew. During the hour when newborns are awake, they regularly move between the different waking states several times. Cycles of alert inactivity, waking activity, and crying are common. Most babies begin sleeping through the night at about three or four months. By six months of age, most North American infants are sleeping in a crib in their own room.
What happens at the end of stage 2 in labour?
Once crowning occurs, in about an hour for the first births and less for later births, the baby passes through the birth canal and emerges from the mother's body. Most babies arrive head first.
What is the 3rd stage of labour?
Once the baby is born, the third stage occurs. This is where the placenta (also called, appropriately, the afterbirth) is expelled from the uterus. The placenta becomes detached from the wall of the uterus and contractions force it out through the birth canal. This stage is quite brief, typically lasting 10 to 15 minutes.
What is an embryo?
Once the blastocyst is completely embedded in the uterine wall, it is called an embryo. is new period typically begins the third week after conception and lasts until the end of the eighth week.
How does male fertility change with age?
One study suggests that paternal age may be linked to risks of congenital malformations. Another study found that while there was no overall difference in the number of malformations with fathers of different ages, some specic malformations or syndromes, including Down syndrome, were more common with older fathers. It was speculated that this was due to mutations of the gametes in older men
Why are teenage mothers more likely to have problems during pregnancy, labor, and delivery?
Pregnant teenagers are more likely to be economically disadvantaged and not receive good prenatal care, often because they are unaware of the need.
What is fetal alcohol spectrum disorder?
Pregnant women who consume large quantities of alcoholic beverages may give birth to babies with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD).
What are survival rates for premature babies?
Prematurity is the less serious than small-for-date. Although survival rates differ from country to country, in modern industrialized nations, advances in medicine have increased survival rates for premature babies. Even for the extremely preterm (22 to 26 weeks gestation), most will survive if given appropriate neonatal intensive care. In the first year or so, premature infants often lag behind full-term infants in many facets of development, but by age two or three, differences vanish and most premature infants develop normally thereafter
When Marie's four-month-old son cries, she rushes to him immediately and does everything possible to console him. Is this a good idea?
Probably not. Marie needs to relax a bit. If her son is in danger, she'll recognize a pain cry or a mad cry. Otherwise, Marie should wait a moment before going to her son, to try to decide why he is crying and to give him a chance to calm himself.
How does the time spent in REM sleep change with development?
REM sleep becomes less frequent as infants grow. By four months of age, only 40 percent of sleep is REM sleep. By the first birthday, REM sleep drops to 25 percent, not far from the adult average of 20 percent
How can mothers reduce pain without drugs during pregnancy?
Relaxation is the key to reducing birth pain without drugs. Because pain often feels greater when a person is tense, pregnant women learn to relax during labour, through deep breathing or by visualizing a reassuring, pleasant scene or experience. Whenever they begin to experience pain during labour, they use these methods to relax.
How does daylight correlate to a baby sleep cycle?
Research has shown that babies who slept better at night had been exposed to more afternoon daylight. It seems that exposure to daylight might help to entrain the sleep-wake cycle.
What is a cause of SIDS?
Scientists do not know the exact causes of SIDS, but one idea is that two-to four-month-old infants are particularly vulnerable to SIDS because many newborn reflexes are waning during these months and thus infants may not respond effectively when breathing becomes difficult. For example, they may not reflexively move their heads away from a blanket or pillow that is smothering them
What is the translation for a midwife among the Nuu-chah-nulth (a people of British Columbia)?
She who can do everything. Such terms acknowledge the midwives' expertise as noted by others in the community and the honour accorded them within these cultures.
Sarah is 22 and pregnant for the first time. She smokes half a pack of cigarettes each day and has one bottle of light beer with dinner. Sarah can't believe that relatively small amounts of smoking and drinking could hurt the baby she's carrying. What would you say?
She's probably wrong. There are no known "safe" amounts of cigarette smoking or drinking. For example, her drinking might be enough to cause alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder.
What are small-for-date infants?
Small-for-date, or small for gestational age, infants are substantially smaller than would be expected based on the length of time since conception. - 8% of babies in canada are small-for-date
What are the two distinct mechanisms that potentially contribute to the harmful consequences of teenage motherhood?
Social influence and social selection
What are 5 harmful bacterial and viral infections that can be harmful or fatal to the embryo or fetus?
Some of these diseases pass from the mother through the placenta to attack the embryo or fetus directly. Three of these are: 1. Cytomegalovirus (a type of herpes) 2. Rubella 3. Syphilis Other diseases attack at birth: the virus is present in the lining of the birth canal, and the baby is infected during the birth process. 4. Genital herpes Some are transmitted both ways: through the placenta and during passage through the birth canal. 5. AIDS
What is social selection?
Some teenage girls are more likely than others to become pregnant, and the same factors that cause girls to become pregnant may put their children at risk. Take conduct disorder as an example. Teenage girls with conduct disorder—who often lie, break rules, and are aggressive physically and verbally—are more likely to get pregnant than girls who don't have conduct disorder. The behaviours that define conduct disorder don't bode well for effective parenting. In addition, conduct disorder has a genetic component, which teenage mothers could pass along to their children. According to social selection, the mother's age at birth is not really critical; these girls would have difficulty parenting even if they delayed motherhood into their 20s or 30s
What is a doula?
Sometimes the coach (supportive parent, friend etc.) is accompanied by a doula. A doula is a person familiar with childbirth who is not part of the medical staff but instead provides emotional and physical support throughout labour and delivery. This preparation and support are effective in reducing the amount of medication taken during labour by women.
How long does stage 1 of labour last?
Stage 1 typically lasts from 12 to 24 hours for the birth of a first child, and most of the time is spent in the relative tranquility of the early phase. Stage 1 is usually shorter for subsequent births, with three to eight hours being common.
What is one way that cellphones definitively pose a great health risk for pregnant women?
Talking while driving is incredibly distracting and reduces a driver's performance to the level seen by people driving under the influence of alcohol.
What is an example of a teratogen?
Thalidomide A sedative prescribed to help reduce morning sickness that came to the market in the 1950's. Soon, however, came reports that many of the women who had taken thalidomide were giving birth to babies with deformed arms, legs, hands, or fingers. Ultimately, more than 10,000 babies worldwide were harmed before thalidomide was withdrawn from the market.
Over the last 10 to 15 years, the number of male children born to mothers in the Aamjiwnaang First Nation has been declining. Down from a stable 50-50 sex ratio, the proportion of males born has decreased to about one-third. Why do investigators think this is?
The Aamjiwnaang people live near Sarnia, Ontario, in an area of heavy industrial chemical production known as "Chemical Valley". Many petrochemical, polymer, and other industrial chemical plants are located in this region. Chemicals such as dioxins, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are known to have negative effects on the body and may alter sex ratios. Like many industrial products, these chemicals have contaminated the local environment; high concentrations of the chemicals were found in the soil on the Aamjiwnaang people's land. The community was concerned and cooperated with medical researchers in studying this issue. They investigated whether the close proximity of the Aamjiwnaang to the chemical industries led to chemical exposure that might have affected sex ratios.
What is the crying state?
The baby cries vigorously, usually accompanying this with agitated but uncoordinated motion.
What is the alert inactivity state?
The baby is calm and attentive, with eyes open; the baby appears to be deliberately inspecting the environment.
What is the sleeping state?
The baby's eyes are closed and the baby drifts back and forth from periods of regular breathing and stillness to periods of irregular breathing and gentle arm and leg motion.
What is the waking activity state?
The baby's eyes are open, but they seem unfocused; the baby moves arms or legs in bursts of uncoordinated motion.
What are some recent advances in ultrasound technology?
The basic black-and-white picture ultrasound is still the most widely used form today, but exciting new forms of 3D and even 4D (three dimensional over time) ultrasound now exist. These techniques use ultrasound to produce a three-dimensional image of the developing baby and can allow examination of behaviours such as facial expressions as well as simple physical assessment of the fetus.
What do blink and withdrawal reflexes help with?
The blink and withdrawal reflexes help newborns avoid unpleasant stimulation
What is prenatal development?
The changes that transformer fertilize egg into a newborn human.
Julia is eight months pregnant and spends hours each day talking to her baby-to-be. Julia's husband considers it a waste of time, but Julia is convinced that her baby-to-be will benefit. Who is right?
The fetus can hear Julia speaking, and these one-sided conversations probably help the fetus become familiar with Julia's voice. Other benefits are not obvious because the fetus can't understand what she is saying.
What is the first stage of labour?
The first stage begins when the muscles of the uterus start to contract. These contractions force amniotic fluid up against the cervix, the opening at the bottom of the uterus that is the entryway to the birth canal. The wavelike motion of the amniotic fluid with each contraction causes the cervix to gradually enlarge. At the beginning of this stage, contractions are weak and spaced irregularly. The contractions gradually become stronger and more frequent.
When is the heart most sensitive to teratogens?
The heart is most sensitive to teratogens during the first two-thirds of the embryonic period. Exposure to teratogens before this time rarely produces heart damage; exposure after this time results in milder damage.
What happens when a pregnant woman does not provide adequate nourishment to her fetus?
The infant is likely to be born prematurely and to be underweight. Inadequate nourishment during the last few months of pregnancy can particularly affect the nervous system, because this period is one of rapid brain growth. Finally, babies who do not receive adequate nourishment are vulnerable to illness
What is the endoderm?
The inner layer. This will form the digestive system and the lungs.
What is the placenta?
The layer of cells closest to the uterus becomes the placenta, a structure for exchanging nutrients and wastes between the mother and the developing organism.
What is the mesoderm?
The middle layer. This will for muscles, bones, and the circulatory system.
What is fetal alcohol syndrome?
The most extreme form of FASD. It is most likely among pregnant women who are heavy recreational drinkers—that is, women who drink five or more ounces of alcohol a few times each week. Children with FAS usually grow more slowly than average and have heart problems and atypical facial features. FAS is the leading cause of developmental disabilities in North America. Approximately one in every 100 Canadian children suffers from FAS, and the percentage is disproportionately high in some communities; among some Aboriginal communities, incidence of FAS can be as high as 10 percent. Children with FAS have serious attentional, cognitive, and behavioural problems, probably because exposure to alcohol prenatally causes neural impairments and actual brain damage.
How can cigarette smoking a developing fetus?
The nicotine in cigarette smoke constricts blood vessels and thus reduces the oxygen and nutrients that can reach the fetus through the placenta. Pregnant women who smoke are more likely to miscarry (abort the fetus spontaneously) and to bear children who are smaller than average at birth. Furthermore, as children develop they are also more likely to show signs of impaired attention, language, and cognitive skills, along with behavioural problems
What is ectoderm?
The outer layer. This becomes hair, the outer layer of the skin, and the nervous system.
What is the period of the zygote and how long does it last?
The prenatal development begins with fertilization, which lasts about two weeks. It ends when the fertilized egg (zygote) implants itself in the wall of the uterus. During these two weeks, the zygote grows rapidly through cell division and travels along the fallopian tube towards the uterus. Within hours, the zygote divides for the first time and after that, division occurs only every 12 hours.
In the Aamjiwnaang study, who were the participants and what was the design of the study?
The sample records included all children who were born in the Aamjiwnaang First Nation from 1984 to 2003. The study was correlational because the investigators were interested in the relation that existed naturally between two variables: exposure to environmental contaminants and sex ratio.
What is the vernix?
The skin thickens and is covered with a thick, greasy substance called vernix, which protects the fetus during its long bath in amniotic fluid.
What is the Dutch Famine study?
The study looked at the effects of nutrition on development and across the lifespan. A famine in part of Holland during World War II led to strict food rationing in the winter of 1940. Physical and cognitive effects of extreme prenatal nutritional deprivation could be studied as a result of this "natural experiment." Many people were unaffected by this event, but a significant number of those individuals who were conceived at the time of the famine have been found in adulthood to have neurodevelopmental abnormalities and an increased risk of disorders such as schizophrenia.
How does each teratogen affect a specific aspect (or aspects) of prenatal development?
The teratogens do not harm all body systems; instead, damage is selective. If a pregnant woman contracts rubella, her baby may have problems with eyes, ears, and heart, but limbs will be normal. If a pregnant woman consumes PCB-contaminated fish, her baby typically will have normal body parts and normal motor skills but below average cognitive skills.
What is infant mortality?
The term that refers to the number of infants out of 1000 births who die before the first birthday.
How does the impact of teratogens change over the course of prenatal development?
The timing of exposure to a teratogen is critical. The consequences of teratogens differ for the periods of the zygote, embryo, and fetus. During the period of the zygote, exposure to teratogens usually results in spontaneous abortion of the fertilized egg. During the embryonic period, exposure produces major defects in body structure. During the fetal period, exposure to teratogens either produces minor defects in body structure or causes body systems to function improperly.
Explain why study comparing children of teenage mothers and their cousins, who's mothers were the older sisters of the teenage mothers?
The two groups of children were very similar in academic skills and behavioural problems, indicating that it's the typical family background of teenage mothers that is the obstacle, not the mother's age. Similarly, research done on African American adolescents indicates that when differences in prenatal care are taken into account, teenagers are just as likely as women in their 20s to have problem-free pregnancies and give birth to healthy babies.
How have worldwide infant mortality rates decreased over time?
The worldwide infant mortality rate decreased from 64 per 1000 in 1990 to 49 per 1000 in 2006. Not all countries, however, experienced equal decline. Worldwide, around 60% of infant deaths occur neonatally. Preventing neonatal deaths would significantly reduce infant mortality. Simple interventions such as improved sanitization, increase vaccination rates, and a greater focus on women's health can contribute to declines in infant mortality across the world.
What are survival rates for small-for-date babies?
These infants are most often born to women who smoked or drank alcohol frequently during pregnancy or who did not eat enough nutritious food. Babies that weigh less than 1500 grams at birth often do not survive; when they do, their cognitive and motor development are usually delayed. Babies way more than 1500 g have better prospects if they received the appropriate care.
What are premature infants?
They are born less than 37 weeks after conception (normal gestation takes 38 weeks). - 8% of babies in canada are premature
How did Jaffee et al. test this study?
They evaluated both hypotheses in a 20-year longitudinal study conducted in NZ in which about 20 percent of the mothers had given birth while teenagers. She measured mothers' antisocial behaviour, education, and income, and also assessed children's outcomes. One outcome was whether the children had committed any criminal offences as adolescents or young adults
What have studies found is an effect on pregnancy when a woman experiences a lot of chronic stress/anxiety?
They more often give birth to early babies or have babies who weigh less than average. Their children are less able to pay attention as infants and are more prone to behavioural problems at preschool. Maternal anxiety both before and after birth was linked to greater infant distress reactions and difficulty in soothing the infant once distressed. But the harmful effects of stress are not linked to anxiety in general, but are specific to worries about pregnancy.
How much should a woman increase her calorie intake by if she's pregnant and how many kilograms is she expected to gain during pregnancy?
They need to increase their calories by about 10 to 20% to meet the needs of prenatal development. A woman with a normal weight is expected to gain between 11 and 16 kg. A woman who is underweight could gain as much as 18 kg. A woman who is overweight could gain at least 7 kg.
In the Aamjiwnaang study, how did the investigators measure the topic of interest?
They needed to compare live-birth sex ratios over recent years and see if they related to chemical contamination in the environment. To assess sex ratios, they looked at birth records from 1984 to 2003. Information on chemical exposure came from a large-scale health and environment survey being conducted by the Aamjiwnaang First Nation.
What is the amniotic sac?
This is where the embryo rests inside. It is filled with amniotic fluid that cushions the embryo and maintains a constant temperature.
What findings did a study discover when they compared full-term and low birth weight babies?
Those of low birth weight showed poorer memory skills at a few months old and also at two and at three years of age. Other research has found that 11-year-olds who had been low-birth-weight babies were more likely to have low IQ, to be receiving special education, to have repeated a grade in school, and to have behavioural problems
Explain how thalidomide affects different organisms differently?
To determine the safety of thalidomide, researchers had tested the drug in pregnant rats and rabbits, whose ospring developed normal limbs. Yet when pregnant women took the same drug in comparable doses, many produced children with deformed limbs. Thalidomide was harmless to rats and rabbits but not to people. Moreover, some women who took thalidomide gave birth to babies with normal limbs, yet others who took comparable doses at the same time in their pregnancies gave birth to babies with deformities. Apparently, heredity makes some individuals more susceptible than others to a teratogen.
How long into your pregnancy can you get an ultrasound?
Ultrasound can be used as early as four or five weeks after conception; before this time the fetus is not large enough to generate an interpretable image.
What are reflexes?
Unlearned responses that are triggered by a specific form of stimulation. Some reflexes pave the way for newborns to get the nutrients they need to grow: Rooting and sucking ensure that the newborn is well prepared to begin a new diet of life-sustaining milk. Other reflexes protect the newborn from danger in the environment.
What are very premature infants at a greater risk for?
Very preterm infants may be at greater risk for long-term disability.
Where are the blood vessels connected between the mother and child?
Villi Blood flows through villi, fingerlike projections from the umbilical cord blood vessels. The mother's blood vessels and villi are in close proximity so they allow nutrients, oxygen, vitamins, and waste products to be exchanged between the mother and embryo.
Is close physical contact between parents and newborn babies within the first few days after being born essential for normal development?
We know that such contact in the first few days after birth—although beneficial for babies and pleasurable for babies and parents alike—is not essential for normal development.
When is the period of the embryo?
Week 3-8
When is the period of the fetus?
Weeks 9-38 (until birth) This is the final and longest phase of prenatal development
What is pre-eclampsia?
When a pregnant woman has high blood pressure, protein in her urine, and swelling in her extremities (due to fluid retention).
Why are natural methods of dealing with pain during pregnancy emphasized over medication?
When a woman is anaesthetized, either with general anaesthesia or regional anaesthesia (in which only the lower body is numbed), she cannot use her abdominal muscles to help push the baby through the birth canal. Without this pushing, the obstetrician may have to use mechanical devices to pull the baby through the birth canal, which involves some risk to the baby. Also, drugs that reduce the pain of childbirth cross the placenta and can affect the baby (ex: when a woman receives large doses of pain-relieving medication, her baby is often withdrawn or irritable for days or even weeks afterwards).
What is a Caesarean section (C-section)?
When an incision is made in the abdomen of the mother to remove the baby from the uterus. If a fetus is in distress or in an irregular position, the physician may decide to remove it by performing a C-section.
When babies experience many birth complications, what are they at risk for?
When babies experience many birth complications, they are at risk for becoming aggressive or violent and for developing schizophrenia. This is particularly true for newborns with birth complications who later experience family adversity such as living in poverty
How can children's development be affected when postpartum depression persists over years?
When postpartum depression persists over years, children's development is affected. For example, antisocial behavior is more common, and such effects are stronger when children have few opportunities to interact with nondepressed adults.
What happens in stage 2 of labour?
When the cervix is fully enlarged, the second stage of labour begins. Most women feel a strong urge to push the baby out, using their abdominal muscles. This pushing, along with uterine contractions, propels the baby down the birth canal. Soon crowning occurs, which is when the top of the baby's head appears.
What is breech presentation?
When the feet or bottom of the baby come out first. This is only in a small percentage of cases.
What is cephalopelvic disproportion?
When the infant's head is larger than the pelvis, making it impossible for the baby to pass through the birth canal.
What is an prolapsed umbilical cord?
When the umbilical cord is ahead of the baby through the birth canal and is squeezed shot, cutting off oxygen to the baby.
When are fraternal twins developed?
When two eggs are released at the same time and each is fertilized by sperm cell.
What are the benefits of amniocentesis and CVS?
With samples obtained from either amniocentesis or CVS, about 200 dierent genetic disorders can now be detected. For example, for pregnant women in their late 30s or 40s, either amniocentesis or CVS will often be used to determine if the fetus has Down syndrome. These procedures are virtually error-free
How does female fertility change with age?
Women in their 20s are twice as fertile as women in their 30s, and past 35 years of age, the risks of miscarriage and stillbirth increase rapidly. Among 40- to 45-year-olds, for example, nearly half of all pregnancies result in miscarriage. What's more, women in their 40s are more liable to give birth to babies with Down syndrome.
What behaviours do women with postpartum depression exhibit?
Women who suer postpartum depression may be lethargic and emotionless and are not likely to mother warmly and enthusiastically. ey typically do not touch and cuddle their new babies much, or talk to them, and they are less eective in the common but essential tasks of feeding and sleep routines (Field, 2010). When post- partum depression persists over years, children's development is aected
After birth, does a baby remember events experienced in the uterus?
Yes! In one study, women drank carrot juice several days a week during the last month of pregnancy. When their infants were ve and six months old, they preferred cereal flavoured with carrot juice. In another study, pregnant women read the Cat in the Hat aloud daily for the last several weeks of pregnancy. After birth, the newborns were allowed to suck on a special pacifier that controlled a tape recorder. The newborns would suck to hear a tape of their mother reading the Cat in the Hat, but did not suck to hear her reading other stories. Evidently, newborns recognized the familiar, rhythmic quality of the Cat in the Hat from their prenatal story times.
Explain the study by P.A. Fried and colleagues at Carleton University, examining how detrimental prenatal exposure to cigarette and marijuana smoking can be?
Youth who were known to have been affected by either substance prenatally were tested with memory tasks and parts of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. Maternal smoking of either tobacco cigarettes or marijuana had negative effects. Those adolescents whose mothers smoked cigarettes showed memory deficits and those whose mothers used marijuana had problems with attention. Those whose mothers had smoked cigarettes or used marijuana were more likely to do so themselves.
