PSYC 2001: Chapter 1

higher rungs on the levels of analysis are tied to________

"the mind"

What is the world's largest association of psychologists? About how many members do they have?

-American Psychological Association (APA) -117,00 members -in 1900 it only had 150 members

Nature-Nuture debate

-Are our behaviors attributable mostly to our genes (nature) or to our rearing environments (nurture)?

individual differences

-variations among people in their thinking, emotion, personality, and behavior -helps explain why we each respond in different ways to the same objective situation

What are the 3 important logical fallacies?

1. emotional reassuring fallacy 2. Bandwagon fallacy 3. Not me fallacy

What is an example of patternicity?

Eating a food and then getting ill afterwards. After this you avoid that food for awhile even those it is most likely coincidental

Who is the founder of American psychology?

William james

Psychology is a science. a. True b. False

a. True

Psychological researchers have become more aware of the importance of replicating research results. Part of this awareness is drive by the observation that the size of certain psychological findings appears to be shrinking over time. This phenomenon is known as the ____________________. a. correlation-causation fallacy b. reproducibility fallacy c. decline effect d. skepticism effect

c. decline effect

Science begins with the premise that knowledge should first be acquired though observation. This premise is called __________________ a. rationalism b. intuition c. empiricism d. structuralism

c. empiricism

The idea that we can dismiss scientific theories (such as Darwinian evolution) from serious consideration because a theory is "just an educated guess" is __________________. a. empirically obvious b. partly true c. an important observation d. a misconception

d. a misconception

Research has shown that people are especially prone to find patterns of meaning in meaningless stimuli when they __________________ a. are psychic b. are under 18 c. have a lot of life experience d. do not feel a sense of control

d. do not feel a sense of control

Dr. Frohardt is a psychology professor who has been asked to explain what all people will look at first when they view photographs of dangerous animals. Dr. Frohardt will find this task difficult because ______________ a. research on this subject has never been scientifically completed b. of his confirmation bias c. this is a Wason selection task d. eye-tracking studies show differences between cultures when inspecting visual materials

d. eye-tracking studies show difference between cultures when inspecting visual materials

Which term describes the common sense belief that we see the world as it really is? a. free will-determinism b. healthy skepticism c. intuition d. naive realism

d. naive realism

science begins with ___________

empiricism

correlation-causation fallacy

error of assuming that because one thing is associated with another, it must cause the other

Ad hoc immunizing hypothesis

escape hatch or loophole that defenders of a theory use to protect their theory from falsification

cognitive neuroscience

examines the relation between brain functioning and thinking

decline effect

fact that the size of psychological findings appears to be shrinking over time

lack of self-correction

mistaken assertions never go away because their proponents fall prey to belief perseverance

critical thinking

set of skill for evaluating all claims in an open-minded and careful fashion

direct harm

when a pseudoscientific treatment does dreadful harm to those who receive them causing psychological or physical damage

opportunity costs

when a pseudoscientific treatment lead people to forgo opportunities to seek effective treatments

What percentage of Americans believed that "psychology attempts to understand the way people behave by talking to them and asking them why they do what they do"?

52%

falsifiable

capable of being disproved

lower rungs on the levels of analysis are tied to ________

"the brain"

Explain the scientific principle of ruling out rival hypotheses.

-Ask yourself, is this the ONLY good explanation for this finding? -Ask yourself, have we ruled out other important competing explanations?

Evolutionary psychology has been criticized because _________________ a. researchers prefer newer psychology theories b. it favors determinism over free will c. evolution is just a theory d. its predictions are difficult to falsify

d. its predictions are difficult to falsify

scientific skepticism

an approach of evaluating all claims with an open mine but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them

psychology

scientific study of the human mind, brain, and behavior

Scientific methods are tools for overcoming ________________

confirmation bias

applied research

examines how we can use basic research to solve real-world problems

What percentage of Americans agreed that "psychology attempts to understand the way people behave through scientific research"?

30%

basic research

examines how the mind works

parsimony

logical simplicity

common sense

our gut intuitions about how the social world works

behavior geneticists

used sophisticated designs such as twin and adoption studies that show that most importation psychological traits, including intelligence, interests, personality, and many mental illnesses , are influenced substantially by genes

About how many people worldwide are psychologists? How many in the US?

500,000 106,000

replicability

a study's findings can be duplicated consistently

According to philosopher of science Sir Karl Popper, for a scientific claim to be meaningful, it must be falsifiable, which means ______________ a. it can be tested to determine if it is false b. it predicts every possible outcome c. it has been proven to be false d. it is inconsistent with any conceivable body of evidence

a. it can be tested to determine if it is false

According to David Hume, and eighteenth-century Scottish philosopher, the more a claim contradicts what we already know, the more _______________ must be the evidence fo the claim a. persuasive b. recent c. unusual d. interesting

a. persuasive

variable

anything that can VARY

evolutionary psychology

applies Darwin's theory of natural selection to human and animal behavior

The police have arrested a suspect in an assault case and the victim has agreed to look at a lineup to see if he can identify the person who attacked him. Gary, a police psychologist, is advising the detectives on the most accurate way to put together a lineup. What should he recommend that they use? a. segregated lineup b. simultaneous lineup c. sequential lineup d. subsequent lineup

c. sequential lineup

Bud and Sandy are discussing the merits of new automobiles. But noted, "This car model has been tested by four different consumer agencies in hundreds of tests with virtually the same outcomes each time; it is very reliable." Sandy countered, "Yeah, but my neighbor down the street bought that car, and he has nothing but problems. I would stay away from it." Which hallmark of pseudoscience has Sandy fallen prey to? a. insisting on evidence rather than proof b. lack of self-correction c. the ad hoc immunizing hypothesis d. over reliance on anecdotes

d. over reliance on anecdotes

E.B. Titchener was a leading figure in which framework of psychology, which advocated the use of introspection to identify basic elements of experience? a. psychoanalysis b. functionalism c. cognitivism d. structuralism

d. structuralism

Some main warning signs of pseudoscientific claims include over reliance on anecdotes, exaggerated claims, absence of connectivity to other research, lack of peer review, and ____________ a. talk of evidence instead of proof b. replication by independent agencies c. the scientific method d. use of scientific-sounding terms that make little sense

d. use of scientific-sounding terms that make little sense

Is empiricism as effective in psychology?

in psychology observation is a rough start because of naive realism

Why do individual differences make it challenging to predict behavior for the general public?

it's difficult to come up with explanations that apply to everyone since everyone is different in their thinking, emotions, personality, and behavior

Why can't theories be "proven"?

it's remotely conceivable that an even better explanation might come along one day

psychology spans multiple what?

levels of analysis

paranormal

phenomena that fall outside the boundaries of traditional science

multiply determined

produced by many factors

cognitive psychology

proposes that thinking is central to understanding behavior

anorexia nervosa

psychiatric condition marked by extreme weight loss and the perception that one is overweight even when one is massively underweight

Why do people tend to doubt psychology as a science?

psychology is intimately related to us all (memory, learning, love, sleep and dreams, personality) these all make it seem easy and that we already understand it

cognition

the mental processes involved in different aspects of thinking

empiricism

the premise that knowledge should initially be acquired through observation

systematic observation

the study of conscious experience

How can scientists' biases unintentionally alter the outcome?

they subconsciously make their tests turn out the way they want

introspection

trained observers carefully reflected and reported on their mental experience

logical fallacies

traps in thinking that can lead to a mistaken conclusion

confirmation bias

-the tendency to seek out evidence that supports our beliefs and deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that contradicts it -extends to many domains of daily life (friendship, politics, sports) -"mother of all biases" -bias that can most easily fool us into seeing what we expect to see, and often what we want to see

Free Will-Determinism Debate

-To what extent are our behaviors freely selected rather than caused by factors outside of our control? -determinism argues that we never really choose because because we aren't consciously aware of thousands of environmental influences impinging on our behavior at any given moment

terror management theory

-theory proposing that our awareness of our death leaves us with an underlying sense of terror with which we cope by adopting reassuring cultural world views -where life after death and reincarnation could stem from

Explain the scientific principle of replicability

-a study's finding should be able to be duplicated consistently -because of this there has been a decline effect of psychological findings -can't take this for granted because often results vary with different groups of people, so many times a finding can't be used for the general population -findings must be able to be replicated for us to be able to trust them

Structuralism

-aimed to identify the basic elements of "structures" of psychological experiences -a student of Wundt, Edward Bradford Titchener, founded this -dreamed of creating a comprehensive map of the elements of consciousness, which consists of sensations, images and feelings -correctly emphasized systematic observation

metaphysical claims

-assertion about the world that is not testable -ex: God, soul, afterlife -doesn't make these claims wrong or unimportant because we can't test them

naive realism

-belief that we see the world precisely as it is -"seeing is believing" -most of the time it serves us well and we should trust or at least pay attention to our perceptions -can trip us up though

Wilhelm Wundt

-developed the first full fledged psychological lab in Leipzig, Germany in 1879 -used a combination of experimental methods, including reaction time procedures, and introspection

Why does psychological influences not being independent of each other pose a challenge? Give an example of this.

-difficult to pin down which cause or causes are operating -anorexia nervosa: there are many causes that go hand in hand and interact with each other with this disorder (anxiety-proneness, compulsive exercise, perfectionism, excessive concern with body image)

Biological Psychologist

-examine the physiological bases of behavior in animals and humans -most work in research settings

Psychoanalysis

-founded by neurologist Freud -focuses on internal psychological processes, especially impulses, thoughts, and memories of which we are unaware -believe that primary influences on behavior comes from unconscious drives, especially sexuality and aggression -have to decode the symbolic meaning of our slips of tongue, dreams, and psychological symptoms in order to get to the bottom of psychological conflicts -emphasize the role of infant and childhood experiences

Behaviorism

-founder: American psychologist, John B. Watson -focuses on uncovering the general principles of learning underlying both human and animal behavior -all behaviors are products of a mere handful of basic learning principles

pseudoscience

-lacks the safeguards against confirmation bias and belief perseverance -imposter of science -claims are subject to testing

How do cultural differences shape people's behavior? Give an example.

-like individual differences, they also place limits on generalizations that psychologists can draw about human nature because of the powerful ways cultural backgrounds influence a person -ex: Americans looked at the center of an image while the Chinese focus more on the peripheral

levels of analysis

-like rungs on a ladder -lower rungs tied most closely to biological influences -higher rungs tied most closely to the social and cultural influences

Why does people influencing each other pose a challenge? Give an example.

-makes it difficult to pin down precisely what causes what -ex: extraverted people hang out with extraverted people, which in turn makes them more extraverted

Explain the scientific principle of Occam's Razor.

-named after philosopher Sir William of Occam -AKA: principle of parsimony -if two explanations account equally well for each other, we should generally select the more parsimonious one -KISS: keep it simple stupid -not always true, but a helpful guideline

Gestalt Psychology

-objects are well-organized structures, whole objects instead of separate, isolated parts -look at the big picture of consciousness -you don't have to break down every single element of it -Max Wertheimer

Why are people drawn to pseudoscience?

-our brains are predisposed to make order out of disorder and find sense in nonsense -we in large part believe because we want to (it seems to offer us a sense of control over an unpredictable world)

Clinical Psychologist

-perform assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of mental disorders -conduct research on people with mental disorders -work in colleges and universities, mental health centers, and private practice

over reliance on anecdotes

-pseudoscientists rely heavily on anecdotal evidence -rarely tells us about the cause and affect -difficult to verify

Explain the scientific principle of falsifiability.

-sir Karl Popper said for a claim to be meaningful, it must be falsifiable -means that for a theory to be meaningful, it could be proven wrong if there were compelling evidence against it

School Psychologist (don't think this is right)

-study how and why people change over time -conduct research on infants', children's, and sometimes adults' and elderly people's emotional, physiological, and cognitive processes and how these change with age

emotional reassuring fallacy

-the error of using our emotions as guides for evaluating the validity of a claim -AKA: affect heuristic

reciprocal determinism

-the fact that we mutually influences each other's behavior -makes it enormously challenging to isolate the cause of human behavior

Explain the scientific principle of correlation isn't causation.

-the most common mistake laypersons make when interpreting studies is to conclude that when two things are associated with each other (correlated), one thing must cause the other -correlation-causation fallacy

patternicity

-the tendency to perceive meaningful patterns in their absence -our tendency to underestimate coincidences fuels this -a reflection is our tendency to see meaningful images in meaningless visual stimuli

Experimental Psychologist

-use research methods to study memory, language, thinking, and social behaviors of humans -work primarily in research settings

Cognitivism

-uses cognitive psychology -focuses more on our interpretation of rewards and punishments is a crucial determinant of our behavior, not just the rewards and punishments themselves -thriving approach in psychology today -contributes to the field of cognitive neuroscience

Functionalism

-want to understand the adaptive purposes/functions of psychological characteristics such as thoughts, feelings, and behavior -asked why instead of what -founder: william James -influenced by Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection -believed Darwin's theory applied to psychological characteristics too

When can naive realism trip us up?

-when evaluating ourselves and others -ex: assures us the people who doesn't share our political views are biased but that we're objective. In reality research demonstrates that just about all of us tend to evaluate political issues in a biased fashion

Explain the scientific principle of extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence

-whenever we evaluate a psychological claim, we should ask ourselves whether this claim runs counter to many things we know already, and, if it does, whether the evidence is as extraordinary as the claim

Industrial-Organizational Psychologist

-work in companies and businesses to help select productive employees, evaluate performance, examine the effects of different working and living conditions on people's behaviors -design equipment to maximize employee performance and minimize accidents

Forensic Psychologist

-work in prisons, jails, and other settings to assess and diagnose inmates and assist with their rehabilitation and treatment -others conduct research on eyewitness testimony or jury decision making -typically hold degrees in clinical or counseling psychology

Counseling Psychologist

-work with people experiencing temporary or relatively self-contained life problems, like marital conflict, sexual difficulties, occupational stressors, or career uncertainty -work in counseling centers, hospitals, and private practice (although some work in academic and research settings)

What are 2 misconceptions about what a theory is?

1. A theory explains one specific event (doesn't generate testable predictions) 2. A theory is just an educated guess

What are the 6 scientific thinking principles?

1. Ruling out rival hypotheses 2. correlation isn't causation 3. Falsifiability 4. Replicability 5. Extraordinary Claims require extraordinary evidence 6. Occam's Razor

What are the 5 major theoretical perspectives on psychology?

1. Structuralism 2. Functionalism 3. Behaviorism 4. Cognitivism 5. Psychoanalysis

What are 3 attitudes to adopt as a scientific skeptic?

1. a willingness to keep an open mind to all claims 2. a willingness to accept claims only after researches have subjected them to careful scientific tests 3. an unwillingness to accept claims on the basis of authority alone

What are the 3 crucial warning signs of pseudoscience?

1. ad hoc immunizing hypothesis 2. Lack of self-correction 3. Over reliance on anecdotes

What are 2 problems with structuralism?

1. didn't often think they were arriving at a truly objective set of basic elements of consciousness 2. Kulpe showed that many people engaged in imageless thought when asked to solve some mental problems

What are 5 intriguing challenges in psychology?

1. human behavior is exceedingly difficult to predict 2. psychological influences are rarely independent of each other 3. people different from each other in thinking, emotion, personality, and behavior 4. people often influence each other 5. people's behavior is often shaped in powerful ways by culture

What are 3 major reasons to be concerned with pseudosciences?

1. opportunity costs 2. Direct Harm 3. An inability to think scientifically as citizens

What is the difference between a scientific theory and a hypothesis?

a scientific theory is a general explanation, whereas hypotheses are specific predictions derived from those explanations

According to astronomer Carl Sagan, scientific skepticism includes (1) a willingness to keep and open mind to all claims, and (2) a willingness to _______________ a. accept claims only after researchers have subjected them to careful scientific tests b. read and learn more about scientific subjects c. believe in the possibility of life existing throughout the universe d. change our minds when we encounter persuasive people

a. accept claims only after researchers have subjected them to careful scientific tests

People have a tendency to continue holding their beliefs even when those beliefs have shown to be wrong. This phenomenon is known as __________________. a. belief perseverance b. metaphysical certitude c. confirmation bias d. bias protection

a. belief perseverance

The phrase "don't confuse me with the facts" would best describe which self-deception trap? a. belief perseverance b. confirmation bias c. individualism d. naive realism

a. belief perseverance

One reason that intuition and common sense are not a good basis for scientific psychology is that we often do not notice __________________ a. contradictions between our views b. empirical findings in non-standard forms c. universal traits across individuals d. when we are in a dangerous situation

a. contradictions between our views

The "third variable problem" is associated with which scientific thinking principle? a. correlation is not causation b. ruling out rival hypotheses c. falsifiability d. replicability

a. correlation is not causation

Your friend is an emergency room nurse. He tells you the ER is always busier when there is a full moon; he claims it is because unstable people are more affected by the moon's gravitational pull. To evaluate this claim, you should understand that ____________________ a. correlation is not causation b. his direct experience of the phenomenon is important evidence c. the moon has more gravity when it is full d. it is the quality of moonlight that affects unstable people, not the increased gravity

a. correlation si not causation

One of the great debates that has shaped the field of psychology is the question of whether people choose their behaviors or are obliged to act in certain ways by factors beyond their control. This is known as the ______________ debate. a. free will-determinism b. nature-nurture c. good vs. evil d. evolutionary psychology

a. free will-determinism

The theoretical framework of psychology known as structuralism had two major problems. One was that highly trained introspectionists often disagreed on subjective reports. The other was the discovery of _____________ a. imageless thought b. psychoanalysis c. natural selection d. systematic observation

a. imageless thought

Science writer Michael Shermer coined the termed "patternicity" to refer to _____________ a. the human tendency to see patterns in meaningless data b. common heritable characteristics that are passed down via the Y chromosome c. the patterns researchers must use to create falsifiable research studies d. the way people use patterns to re-create existing objects int he world

a. the human tendency to see patterns in meaningless data

In thinking of the multiple levels of analysis in psychology, the neurochemical level is considered to be ________________ because this level is more closely tied to biological influences. a. toward the lower end of the ladder b. on the same rung of the ladder as personal relationships c. near the top of the ladder d. at the top of the ladder

a. toward the lower end of the ladder

Alice is looking for an effective diet program. She is able to evaluate the claims of competing programs in an open-minded and careful fashion by _________________, the hallmark of scientific skepticism. a. using her critical thinking skills b. being open to metaphysical reasoning c. using her common sense and intuition d. remembering that extraordinary claims require ordinary evidence

a. using her critical thinking skills

An important principle of scientific thinking states that if two explanations account equally well for a phenomenon, we should generally select the simpler one. This principle is known as _______________. a. replicability b. Occam's Razor c. falsifiability d. correlation vs. causation

b. Occam's Razor

An approach to psychology that relied heavily on dream interpretation, symbolism, unconscious motives, and the suppression of sexual and aggressive urges was developed by ________________ a. William James b. Sigmund Freud c. Rene Descartes d. Jean Piaget

b. Sigmund Freud

Of the 3500 or so self-help books published every year, what percentage are scientifically tested? a. 25 b. about 5 c. 40 d. up to 95

b. about 5

Psychics who perform poorly in laboratory tests and then blame their poor performance on "bad vibes" from skeptical researchers are displaying which sign of pseudoscience? a. lack of self-correction when contrary evidence is presented b. ad hoc immunizing hypotheses c. insisting on evidence rather than proof d. over reliance on anecdotes

b. ad hoc immunizing hypotheses

The idea of placing a third brake light at the base of a car's back windshield and changing the color of fire engines from red to yellow are examples of __________________ a. psychoanalysis b. applied psychological research c. critical multiplism d. basic psychological research

b. applied psychological research

Georgio does not want to take the SAT or ACT exams because he thinks they will not accurately reflect his ability to succeed in college and are no more useful than flipping a coin. His guidance counselor explains that psychologists have determined that, although not perfect, these tests are significantly better than chance at predicting college success. These psychologists are sharing some __________ with Georgio. a. hasty generalizations b. applied research c. clinical psychology d. fallacies

b. applied research

Which type of psychologist is most likely to work with patients who have serious mental disorders such as major depression? a. consoling psychologist b. clinical psychologist c. forensic psychologist d. developmental psychologist

b. clinical psychologist

In the 1950s and 1960s, many psychologists were disillusioned with behaviorism's neglect of the mental processes involved with different aspects of thinking. Arguing that thinking has a powerful effect on behavior, psychologists such as Jean Piaget began to develop the field of ____________________ a. functionalism b. cognitivism c. psychotherapy d. structuralism

b. cognitivism

As a structuralist, I see a square as: a. a clue to my unconscious desires b. composed of four separate lines c. a square d. a stimulus that I can use to reach a goal

b. composed of separate lines

You meet a psychologist who tells you that she conducts research on children to determine how their cognitive processes differ as the child gets older. You recognize that this person is most likely a(n) ______________. a. experimental psychologist b. developmental psychologist c. school psychologist d. biological psychologist

b. developmental psychologist

A friend says he will not have his new baby inoculated against any childhood diseases because he is afraid the shots will cause autism. You point out that there is NO scientific evidence to support that idea. He says he knows that, but he just FEELS that it is true. What logical fallacy is at work? a. bandwagon fallacy b. emotional reasoning fallacy c. argument from adverse consequences fallacy d. appeal to authority fallacy

b. emotional reasoning fallacy

Ways of thinking that appear to make intuitive sense but are actually traps that lead to mistaken conclusions are called ____________________ a. ad hoc immunizing hypotheses b. logical fallacies c. confirmation bias d. patternicity

b. logical fallacies

Just as behaviorism was gaining popularity in the United States, Sigmund Freud was founding a new field of psychology, one that focused on internal psychological processes such as unconscious impulses, thoughts, and memories. This approach is called _______________. a. cognitive psychology b. psychoanalysis c. structuralism d. functionalism

b. psychoanalysis

The outgoing behavior of other people can make an extraverted person act even more extraverted. Bandura called this mutual influence on one another's behavior __________________ a. reactivity b. reciprocal determinism c. reflexivity d. operant conditioning

b. reciprocal determinism

Laurie told her friend Sandi, "I had a headache this morning so I used an old family cure: Three sips of ginger ale, and an hour later my head felt better." Sandi replied, "I am glad you are feeling more comfortable now, but maybe the sheer passage of time made your headache go away." Sandi is offering a(n) _______________ in response to Laurie's explanation. a. casual correlation b. rival hypothesis c. extraordinary claim d. falsifiable pretext

b. rival hypothesis

Because religious concepts cannot be tested scientifically, we should consider that _______________ a. religion is pseudoscience b. science and religion are non overlapping realms of understanding the world c. science is inadequate to explain the physical world d. moral values are unimportant because there is no data about them

b. science and religion are non overlapping realms of understanding the world

British philosopher John Locke stood on the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate, comparing the mind of a newborn to a sheet of paper that had yet to be written on. Others later used which term to describe the same idea? a. determinism b. tabula rasa c. free will d. genetic inheritance

b. tabula rasa

What does confirmation bias predispose us to?

belief perseverance

Twin and adoption studies addressing the nature-nurture debate are typically conducted by ____________________ a. cognitive behaviorists b. forensic psychologists c. behavior geneticists d. developmental psychologists

c. behavior geneticists

Ten-year-old Candace Newmaker died as a result of a pseudoscientific treatment called "rebirthing therapy." This is an example of pseudoscience causing ___________________ a. scientific regression b. cultural indifference c. direct harm d. indirect harm

c. direct harm

One reason people are drawn to believing in pseudoscience is that we use our emotions as guides to evaluate the validity of claims. This is known as the affect heuristic or the _________________ a. attribution fallacy b. pathetic fallacy c. emotional reasoning fallacy d. bandwagon fallacy

c. emotional reasoning fallacy

As a discipline, psychology spans multiple __________, which can be thought as the rungs on the ladder. a. neurochemicals b. points of view c. levels of analysis d. phenomena

c. levels of analysis

What is the hall mark of scientific skepticism?

critical thinking

Wilhelm Wundt developed the first full-fledged psychological laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. He pioneered the technique of _______________, in which trained observers reflected on and reported on their own mental experiences. a. heuristics b. behaviorism c. insight analysis d. introspection

d. introspection

scientific theory

explanation for a large number of findings in the natural work, including the psychological world

It is essential to distinguish scientific claims from what kind of claims?

metaphysical

bias blind spot

most people are unaware of their biases but are keenly aware of them in others

Almost all actions are _____________ making human behavior behavior difficult to predict.

multiply determined

We trust our common sense in part because we are prone to __________________

naive realism

Why do some scientists have biases too?

often because they spent so much time testing and developing their theory so they want it to be correct

What is an example of ad hoc immunizing hypothesis?

psychics say the skeptical "vibes" of experimenters interfere with psychic powers which is why their powers fail when tested under controlled conditions

science is a _____________ approach to evidence

systematic

belief perseverance

tendency to stick to our initial beliefs even when evidence contradicts them

hypothesis

testable prediction derived from a scientific theory

bandwagon fallacy

the error of assuming that a claim is correct just because other people believe it

not me fallacy

the error of believing that we're immune from errors in thinking that afflict other people