PSYC 2030

Counterfactual reasoning

Children were asked memory questions to check they could remember what height each child could reach, so not for lack of memory Need to reason about what might actually have happened given a known set of circumstances, rather than rely of conditional reasoning alone Conditional: "Take it to their room!" Counterfactual: "She can't reach it, so the muffin would still be there" May be relatively late developing This task might also be fairly verbally demanding

Corriveau et al. (2013) asked 3- and 4-year-old Asian-American and Caucasian-American children to judge which of a set of three lines was the longest. What happened in the face of an inaccurate consensus among informants?

Children were willing to explicitly judge the consensus members are correct even though they obviously were not, with this deference greater among the Asian-American children

Chess & Thomas (1977)

Children who had an easy temperament at age 3 to 5 years of age were likely to be well-adjusted as young adults ... and many children who had a difficult temperament were not well-adjusted

Franz (1996)

Children who were highly active at age 4 were likely to be very outgoing at age 23

Which of the following is NOT an example of a teratogen?

Chromosomal abnormalities

Crystallized Intelligence

Crystallized abilities (Gc) stem from learning and acculturation, is reflected in: - Tests of knowledge and general information - Use of language (vocabulary) - And a wide variety of acquired skills Personality factors, motivation, educational and cultural opportunity are central to its development - Only indirectly dependent on the physiological influences that mainly affect fluid abilities

Episodic memory

"... ability to experience again now, in a different situation and perhaps in a different form, happenings from the past, and know that the experience refers to an event that occurred in another time and in another place" Autonoetic awareness: Must involve a feeling of directly re-experiencing an event with the understanding that it happened in one's personal past (Tulving, 1985) Importantly, episodic memory allows us to construct predictions based on our knowledge of the past

Pollet & Saxton (2019)

"... perhaps no field of psychology is more strongly motivated and better equipped than evolutionary psychology to respond to the recent call for psychologists to expand their empirical based beyond WEIRD (Western Educated Industrialized Rich Democratic) samples" (Apicella & Barrett, 2016) "... adding evolution to psychology makes the science less WEIRD" (Kurzban, 2013)

Galef (1992)

"Culture should be reserved for traditions transmitted by imitation or teaching, assumed to be high-level social learning processes ..."

William James (1890)

"The baby, assailed by eyes, ears, nose, skin, and entrails at once, feels it all as one great blooming, buzzing confusion"

Foetal programming

"the process by which a stimulus or insult during a vulnerable developmental period has a long-lasting or permanent effect"

Conformity

'action in accord with prevailing social standards, attitudes, practices, etc.'

Attachment

A close emotional bond between two people

Deductive reasoning

A form of reasoning that moves from general premises, to a specific instance of that premise, followed by a conclusion - If the premises are true, the conclusion must logically follow

Culture

A system of socially transmitted behaviours that are customary or habitual in one community but absent in another community, and where such variation cannot be explained by ecological or genetic differences alone

Teratogens

A teratogen is a disruption to the ecology of the womb that interrupts the usual process of prenatal development E.g. cigarettes, alcohol, virus germs, drugs The timing of the interruption is more important than the actual teratogen because of critical periods in prenatal development Different organs and systems develop at different times, so a teratogen at a certain point in pregnancy can influence some systems and not others (Barker's hypothesis) Some agents are only harmful at certain times (e.g. Rubella in early pregnancy) Other have different effects at different times (e.g. early cortisol predicted delayed cognitive development at 2 years and late cortisol predicted accelerated cognitive development)

Affective forecasting

Adults tend to overestimate the intensity and duration of future emotions For example... turns out you may not be as sad as you expect when breaking up with your significant other, when your soccer team loses, or if you lose a race! Gautam et al. (2017) found that 4 and 5 year old children did this too! Children were asked how they'd feel to win or lose an iPad game When they lost, they didn't actually feel as bad as they had expected Enjoyed the game?

Schemas

As the infant or child seeks to construct an understanding of the world the developing brain creates schemas These are actions or mental representations that organize knowledge Behavioural schemas (physical activities) characterize infancy and mental schemas (cognitive activities) develop in childhood A baby's schemas include simple actions - sucking, looking and grasping Older children's schemas include strategies and plans for solving problems

A child who has learnt the label for his family car will begin to label all vehicles as 'cars', showing _. Eventually, though, he/she will learn that items such as buses, motorbikes and trucks are not cars, showing _

Assimilation; accommodation

Jacqueline

At 1 year, 8 months, 'Jacqueline arrives at a closed door with a blade of grass in each hand. She stretches out her right hand toward the [door] knob but sees that she cannot turn it without letting go of the grass. She puts the grass on the floor, opens the door, picks up the grass again and enters. But when she wants to leave the room, things become complicated. She puts the grass on the floor and grasps the doorknob. But then she perceives that in pulling the door toward her she will simultaneously chase away the grass which she placed between the door and threshold. She therefore pick it up in order to put it outside the door's zone of movement'

Laurent

At 21 days of age, 'Laurent found his thumb after three attempts: prolonged sucking begins each time. But, once he has been placed on his back, he does not know how to coordinate the movement of the arms with that of the mouth and his hands draw back even when his lips are seeking them' (p. 27) 'During the third month, thumb sucking becomes less important to Laurent because of new visual and auditory interests. But, when he cries, his thumb goes to the rescue'

Vocabulary spurt at 18 months

At around 18 months, infants' vocabulary expands rapidly - Perhaps related to understanding that words are symbols, represent categories of objects etc.

Developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD)

DOHaD builds on the foetal programming hypothesis but also says: - Development occurs both before and after birth - Development is highly plastic in early childhood - BOTH prenatal and early postnatal development are critical - The mismatch between prenatal and postnatal can create disease risk

Motivation

Delayed gratification Pursue long term goals Practice

Kinds of research designs

Descriptive research Correlational research Experimental research

Life-span perspective

Development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual; involves growth, maintenance, and regulation; and is constructed through biological, sociocultural, and individual factors working together Development is lifelong Development is multidimensional Development is multidirectional Development is plastic (ie., capacity for change) Developmental science is multidisciplinary Development is contextual

Preoperational Period

Development of symbolic thought marked by irreversibility, centration and egocentrism 2 - 7 years

How to support parents

Don't judge Don't assume they are ignorant (many parents are well-informed) Help them to find information if requested Don't tell them horror stories Help them to find qualified professionals to talk about their worries Provide empathy, understanding and support Don't be a source of prenatal stress

Anticipated counterfactual thinking

E.g. imagining future regret

Rothbart (2004)

Early models of temperament stressed the effects of our emotions or level of arousal -> actions driven by these More recent theories emphasize effortful control -> individuals can engage in a more cognitive, flexible approach to stressful circumstances Effortful control (self-regulation) -> attentional focusing and shifting, inhibitory control, perceptual sensitivity, and low-intensity pleasure - Infants who are high on effortful control show an ability to keep their arousal from getting too high and have strategies for soothing themselves - Children low on effortful control are often unable to control their arousal; they become easily agitated and intensely emotional

Sroufe and colleagues (2005)

Early secure attachment (assessed by the Strange Situation at 12 and 18 months) was linked to: - positive emotional health - high self-esteem - self-confidence - and socially competent interaction with peers, teachers, camp counsellors, and romantic partners through adolescence

Overextension

Early words are often overextended - applied to a wider range of referents than is correct in adult usage - Dog = dogs, lambs, cats, wolves, rabbit

According to Rothbart's (2004) theory, temperament is a reflection of:

Effortful control Attentional focus and shifting Flexible approaches to stressful circumstances

Electrical brain activity

Electroencephalogram (EEG) - Electrodes on scalp - Measure electrical changes over time in response to a stimulus Pro: Dense time resolution - Signal reaches the machine quickly, it's easy to know when it happened Con: Sparse spatial resolution - Knowing exactly where the signal came from is a bit tricky DV: Look for changes in patterns Activity associated with mental event

Affective forecasting bias

Episodic foresight allows humans to prepare for a distant future, think about your commitment to your degree! All of other animals seem to be limited to their present needs Maybe we overestimate our future emotion in order to motivate ourselves to strive for distant goals and overcome more immediate temptation (e.g. GoT marathon)

Episodic Memory & Foresight

Episodic foresight: ability to mentally project oneself into the future and use this projection to guide current behaviour Two sides of the same coin, e.g. neuro studies, amnesia studies

Development into older adulthood

Evidence of decline in episodic foresight This has implications for quality of life

What makes an emotion?

Expressions (smiles, frown, clenched teeth) Physiological (sweat, tear productions, heart rate) Coping behaviours (running, seeking comfort) Cognitions ("I have been insulted")

Penkunas & Coss (2013) Journal of Experimental Child Psychology

3-5 year old children & adults Reaction times to detect lions embedded in matrices of similarly coloured antelopes were quicker than reaction times to detect target antelopes embedded in matrices of lions (same for snakes and lizards) Tested the prediction that historically dangerous predators engender rapid detection

Walker and Andrade (1999) conducted a child-friendly version of the Asch test. Which age group conformed at the highest rates?

3-5 year olds

According to research undertaken by Whiten et al. (1999), how many cultural variations in behaviour can be found in chimpanzees?

39

Corriveau et al. (2009)

4-year-olds Test: watched 3 informants point to 3 lines All 3 informants pointed to the same line White and Asian-American participants

Puzzle box design

4-year-olds but not 3-year-olds used memory to select and retain the correct key Benefits Limitations

Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff (1996)

48 infants (16-19 months old); 26 not combining words; 9 beginning to combine words; 13 regularly combining words Word order test - Cookie Monster tickles Big Bird - Big Bird tickles Cookie Monster 75% of infants watched the correct screen longer than the incorrect screen, showing comprehension of Agent + Action + Object order Was true even for infants who had not yet produced word combinations in their own speech

During the Still Face procedure, infant looking to parents decreases by _ and rate of smiling _

50%, decrease

In McCormack et al's (2018) task on overdetermined events, two balls were rolled down a slope to knock over a pig. In this task, when did children show evidence of counterfactual thinking above and beyond simple conditional reasoning?

6 years of age

Which age corresponds to Piaget's concrete operational period?

7 to 11 years

Physiological measures

A biological or physical measure related to psychological processes Pros? - Tangible measurements of psychological processes Can look for mechanisms that influence behavior Cons? - Need to sit still! - Can be difficult to draw direct links between thoughts and physical behaviors

Centration

A centering of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others

Memory in children

Babies can learn to kick a mobile for reward, review: Rovee-Collier (1997) - Deferred imitation: young children can imitate an action after a delay (by 24 months) review: Bauer, Wenner, Dropik, & Wewerka (2000)

Social learning theories

Bandura

Which of the following is a good reason to conduct correlational research?

Because it gives an idea of the strength with which two variables are related

Mesosystem

Interrelationships or linkages between two or more microsystems

The over-imitation behaviour of children living in remote regions of Southern Africa was compared to that of children living in Brisbane (Nielsen & Tomaselli, 2010). The findings of this research indicate that over-imitation:

Is likely to be a universal human trait

Different experimental designs have different strengths and weaknesses. Which of the following is considered a strength of lab-based designs?

It allows for control over what happens

Rene Descartes (1637)

It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid, without even excepting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts; while on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do the same ...

In her criticism of the Strange Situation, Dunn (who we saw in the video clip) argues that the paradigm is problematic because:

It is difficult to know how the child interprets this strange situation

Formal operational Period

Mental operations applied to abstract ideas, logical systematic thinking 11 years through adulthood Key characteristics of formal operational thought - Can be about abstract objects and events - Future-oriented thinking - Systematic consideration of all logical relations within a problem, reasoning about more than two dimensions - But ... even by adulthood formal operational thought is not necessarily demonstrated in all areas -- Varies across people

Concrete operational Period

Mental operations applied to concrete events; mastery of conservation; hierarchical classification 7 - 11 years

Meltzoff and Moore (1977)

Modelled tongue protrusion, mouth opening, lip protrusion and sequential finger movement to 18 newborns aged 12-21 days in two separate experiments The results of the study indicated that when infants viewed a modelled gesture, they produced significantly more matching responses to the modelled gesture than when viewing a different modelled gesture

The Symbolic Function Substage

~2 - 4 years Draw representations of things; use language and pretend

Scientific thinking and inductive reasoning

Reasoning from a specific observation to a general rule - Discovering explanations for a set of facts by weighing evidence in favour of a hypothesis to asserts something about the entire set of facts -- Creates a "structured whole" takes account of all evidence

Inductive reasoning

Reasoning from a specific observation to a general rule Ability to understand novel concepts and logical relationships - Note: Piaget suggested this begins to emerge in the Concrete Operations period (it becomes established in the formal operations period)

Garcia et al. (2015)

Recorded children's responses to winning a block stacking competition

Experimental design

Unethical to manipulate prenatal maternal stress in human populations Observational designs utilize naturally-occurring distress like anxiety, depression, stressful life events, and pregnancy-related anxiety Potential confounds: - Not randomly allocated - Not independent of factors that may be shared between mothers and children e.g. genetics - Difficult to pinpoint the timing of the stressor e.g. life events like divorce may have a long lead-up, anxiety may be a trait Using natural disasters as a natural experiment can reduce the influence of some of these confounds

Non-normative life events

Unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the individual's life They don't happen to all people, and when they do occur they can influence people in different ways

Holophrastic speech

Use of a single word to denote a relational meaning rather than a strictly referential meaning (e.g., doll for usual location of doll in crib) Seems like infants are trying to convey information about the relationship between the immediate referent and some absent person, object, property or state, rather than labelling the referent - Generally appears in the month before child begins combining words

Combination of chemicals problem

Which combination of the chemicals will turn the mixture yellow? Young children take an unsystematic approach and characterized by repetition Adolescents are more systematic and try out 2-, 3- and 4- chemical combinations

Training cognitive skills in the elderly

Why is this important? Tests alternative theories of decline in cognitive performance with age - Irreversible decrement model of aging (decline directly reflects underlying effects of physical aging) - Decline at least partly reflects patterns of disuse Practical applications - Personal and societal benefits of remediation of at least part of age-related cognitive decline

Using partial correlation data from Rowe (2012), which of the following was most strongly associated with children's later vocabulary?

Word types

Samuel Pepys (1661)

Writing about a baboon: "I do believe it already understands much English; and I am of the mind it might be taught to speak or make signs"

Cross-sectional research designs (X-S)

X-S = testing different age groups - Age or cohort comparisons Compare different age groups on the same measure at the same point in time Most studies use this design - Fast to do - Not too expensive Problem: we are only guessing we have accurately measured normative change - We don't know, because we've used different children in our two groups

Changes in self-evaluative emotions

1. Infants and young toddlers (under 18 months) Experience pleasure simply when they produce an outcome But don't experience self-evaluative emotions - Can't represent standards of behaviour and performance Don't experience self-evaluative emotions in a self-reflective or self-conscious sense 2. Toddlers & young preschoolers (18 months - 3.5 yrs) Begin to anticipate adult reactions to their achievements and failures - Look to adults after achievements - Display social avoidance behaviours after failure Anticipating reactions is a milestone for development of self-evaluative emotions - They recognize their achievements affect others' reactions to them 3. Preschoolers - 3.5+ years Self-evaluative emotions now based on judgments about whether internalized standards of achievement have been met - This is the age when children begin to look upset in response to own failure

Mary Ainsworth (1979) and the Strange Situation

1. Parent and child are alone in a room 2. Child explores the room with parental supervision 3. Stranger enters, talks to a parent, & approaches child 4. Parent quietly leaves the room 5. Parents returns and comforts child

Bowlby's 4 characteristics of attachment

1. Proximity Maintenance - The desire to be near the people we are attached to 2. Safe Haven - Returning to the attachment figure for comfort and safety in the face of a fear or threat 3. Secure Base - The attachment figure acts as a base of security from which the child can explore the surrounding environment 4. Separation Distress - Anxiety that occurs in the absence of the attachment figure

During the period known as the vocabulary spurt, children acquire approximately _ new words per week:

10-20

Sorce at al. (1985)

115 infants (12 months) watched from the shallow side of the cliff as their mother placed a tempting toy at the deep end of the cliff When children went to cross, parents would show either: A positive facial expression: - Happiness, interest Or a negative one: - Fear, anger, or sadness

Harlow found that infant monkeys spent approximately _ hours per day with the cloth mother, _ hours per day with the wire mother, and ran to the _ mother when scared

15, 1, cloth

How many Australian Aboriginal languages are still being learned by children?

18

Luik et al. (2013)

All pregnant women living in Rotterdam and with expected delivery dates of April 2002-January 2006 were invited by their midwife or obstetrician to participate during routine prenatal visits. The estimated rate of participation was 61% The major ethnic groups in our study population were Dutch (Northern European, N = 3690; 58%), Turkish and Moroccan (N = 697; 11%), Caribbean (Antillean and Surinamese, N = 539; 9%), and other (all non-Dutch ethnicities which do not fall in the previous categories, including Cape Verdean, Indonesian, and multiple black ethnicities [N = 1393; 22%]

According to Chess and Thomas' classification scheme, if you are generally in a positive mood, quickly establish regular routines, and adapt easily to new experiences you would be:

An easy child

Experimental research

An experiment is a carefully regulated procedure in which one or more factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant Several design possibilities - Observational - Correlational - Quasi-experimental

Microsystem

An immediate physical and social environment in which the person interacts face-to-face with other people and is influenced by them

Newport et al. (1977)

Analyzed 15 mother-child interactions Children 12-27 months of age Sampled 100 utterances from each mother Only one of the 1500 maternal utterances contained a grammatical error

Arnett (2008)

Analyzed the top journals in six sub-disciplines of psychology from 2003-2007, revealing that: - 68% of subjects came from the US - 96% from Western, industrialized countries

Communication

Animals communicate (e.g., vervet monkeys have specific cries to warn of specific dangers - snakes vs. eagles)

Cognitive offloading

Any behaviour that reduces the cognitive load on the mind & improves the capacity to perform cognitive tasks

Strict nativist view

Argued that speech from parents is full of mistakes, false starts and complexities The Language Acquisition Device filters grammatical rules from inconsistent or ill-formed input, resulting in grammatical language

Qualitative

Biological stages that are fundamentally different are an example of _______ change

The critical (or sensitive) period hypothesis

Biologists prefer the term sensitive period to critical period Language acquisition must occur within a critical period (thought to end at puberty) or it will be at best disordered - Strong form - language cannot be acquired outside the critical period - Weak form - language will be disordered if acquired outside the critical period Evidence for a sensitive period is consistent with a view of the human capacity for language acquisition as innate - ...but that can't be all as hearing language is still necessary

Language

Bloom (1998): a code whereby ideas about the world are represented through a conventional system of arbitrary signals Language consists of various aspects which people believe are more or less important, for example, grammar, symbol usage, the ability to represent real-world situations, and the ability to articulate something new

Body states

Body system activity - Heart rate, respiration, skin conductance - Measure speed, variability, amplitude... Pros: Lots of data, not under conscious control Cons: you have to sit still so the machine gets good readings! DV: changes in activity, linked to psychological processes

Genie (Curtiss, 1981)

Born in 1957 "Discovered" in November, 1970, aged 13.5 - Alert and curious - Eager for human contact - Isolation and abuse caused many abnormalities When found in 1970, her language abilities were equivalent to those of a 1 year-old Leiter International Performance Scale (1971; 5 months after her discovery) - Passed all 4-year items - Passed half 5-year items - Passed half 6-year items So, despite her deprivation, Genie had sufficient cognitive ability to acquire language, if language is just another form of learning

Brain development

Brain development occurs prenatally and postnatally It's vulnerable to developmental insults BUT because the brain is highly plastic, these insults may be overcome through experience (DOHaD theory) Cerebellum, motor cortex, cerebral cortex and basal ganglia are all involved in motor skills Cerebellum enters a critical period of development from 16 weeks This lines up nicely with our QF2011 results

Social referencing

By 12 months, infants are beginning to use others' emotional expressions to guide their own behaviour in ambiguous situations Babies can and do use others emotional signals to guide their behaviour - But they don't always look for the signal (21% of infants were DQ'd) - The negative faces were all treated similarly

Normative change

Change that everyone experiences

Chronosystem

Changes in people and their environments occur in a timeframe

Telegraphic speech

Child has mastered word-order rules, but not morphological rules involving inflections (-ed, -ing, -s, -'s) or grammatical function words (of, the, is, was, are, by, in, on, etc) Content words convey the most information and so the child's speech is comprehensible

When do children start thinking about the future?

Children can explain what they would take on an upcoming trip/what they will do tomorrow around the age of 3 and 4 Problem of script based knowledge though? Other problems?

Looking preferences

Children can show a novelty or familiarity preference

Normative history-graded influences

Common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances Long term changes in the genetic and cultural makeup of a population are also part of normative historical change

What is concrete operational thought?

Concrete operational thought allows logical operations with concrete objects and events, as long as only two dimensions of a problem are to be considered

In most contemporary Western cultures independence and individuality are emphasized. There is encouragement to be unique and independence is value. In many Asian cultures, by contrast, community and harmony within the group is emphasized and interdependence is valued. This cultural difference can manifest in conformity how?

Conformity can be expected in children from both cultural backgrounds, but it will be expressed differently such that Asian children will be more likely to follow a group opinion and Western children will be more likely to diverge from a group opinion

Penkunas & Coss (2013) Developmental Science

Consistent with the majority of child-development studies conducted in Western countries, the children who participated in the LoBue and DeLoache (2008) and Penkunas and Coss (2013) studies were predominantly from middle-class families of European ethnicity. This relative demographic homogeneity is difficult to avoid logistically when conducting developmental research in university settings, and this phenomenon limits the generality of experimental to humans from other cultures One hundred and four children (45 girls, 59 boys) were chosen from a tribal community of former hunter gatherers living in the forests of Bandipur Tiger Reserve, Karnataka, and Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu One hundred and nineteen children (60 girls, 59 boys) living in Bangalore, a large metropolitan city and capital of the southern Indian state of Karnataka, were sampled Both children in the large city of Bangalore and children living in rural areas of southern India with dangerous wildlife located threat-relevant animals (snakes and lions) faster than historically nonthreatening animals (lizards and antelope) in visual-search tasks The generality of our results from a non-Western population of children supports the argument that detection of some dangerous species may reflect visual biases shaped by natural selection

Sensorimotor Period

Coordination of sensory input and motor responses; development of object permanence Birth - 2 years

Age changes in intelligence

Cornelius and Caspi (1987) - Cross-sectional study - US community sample - Groups equivalent in formal education -- Younger adults (mean age 29), Middle-aged adults (mean age 44), Older adults (mean age 65) - Tests -- Crystallized intelligence (Verbal comprehension) -- Fluid intelligence (letter series tests) -- Everyday problem solving

Thinking counterfactually

Counterfactual thinking (CFT) is the ability to entertain 'could haves/might haves' E.g. if Jon Snow had died in season one, what would have happened in GoT? E.g. if I had studied, I would be acing this exam right now E.g. if I hadn't eaten that tub of ice cream I could go to the gym May influence future choices (e.g. 'Next time I won't eat the ice cream')

Fluid Intelligence

Fluid abilities (Gf) drive the individual's ability to: - Think and act quickly - Solve novel problems - And encode short-term memories Described as the source of intelligence that an individual uses when he or she doesn't already know what to do Often what we think of when describing intelligence Fluid intelligence is grounded in physiological efficiency, and is thus relatively independent of education of acculturation - Reasoning, abstract thinking, problem-solving about novel concepts & relationships - e.g., inductive reasoning -> specific to general -- Letter series test: a..c..e..g..i.. ?

Beyond general intelligence - Expertise and encapsulation

Fluid intelligence generally declines with age - But mature adults become increasingly competent in solving complex problems in their chosen fields With increasing experience, information processing and fluid thinking become dedicated to specific knowledge systems - encapsulation - Existing knowledge is refined and can be applied in flexible ways to multi-faceted, real-life situations - This type of expert knowledge often seems automatic, intuitive

Psychoanalytic approach

Freud Erikson (lifespan)

Neuroimaging

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) - Gigantic (and expensive) magnet - Measure blood flow changes in brain Pro: Dense spatial resolution Con: Sparse time resolution DV: Which areas "light up" Localize function to specific brain areas Infants need ear protection! Are sometimes sleeping Exposure to fMRI sounds for a few weeks beforehand

There are three main states of prenatal development:

Geminal: around 2 weeks. The fertilized zygote becomes a blastula and implants into the wall of the uterus Embryonic: from implantation to around 8 weeks. All major organs and systems form (organogenesis) and the embryo is recognizably human by the end of this period. Three layers to the embryo: - Ectoderm: external layer. Becomes the spine, nervous system and skin - Mesoderm: middle layer. Becomes muscle and bone - Endoderm: inner layer. Becomes internal organs Foetal: from completed organ differentiation to birth. This period is about growth

Vygotsky (1934/78)

General Law of Cultural Development -Every function in the child's development appears twice: -- On the social level (inter-psychologically) -- On the individual level (intrapsychologically) -- All the higher functions originate as actual relations between human individuals - Interpersonal => intrapersonal is the result of a long series of developmental events ... - The distinguishing feature of human activity - The internalization of socially rooted and historically developed activities Zone of Proximal Development The distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers "A primate can learn a great deal through training by using its mechanical and mental skills, but it cannot be made more intelligent, that is, it cannot be taught to solve a variety of more advanced problems independently" "For this reason animals are incapable of learning in the human sense of the term; human learning presupposes a specific social nature and a process by which children grow into the intellectual life of those around them"

The Cattell-Horn theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence:

General intelligence is actually a collection of perhaps 100 abilities working together to bring out different intelligences Varies across people

Do infants understand persistence to a goal?

Gergely et al., (1995) habituated infants to dot 'jumping' over obstacle With the obstacle gone, 9- and 12-month-olds (but not 6 month-olds) dishabituated to 'jumping' but not to approaching

Exosystem

Linkages involving social settings that individuals do not experience directly but that can still influence their development

Baltes' 3 goals of human development

Growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss

Over-regularization errors

Happen/happened, jump/jumped, drop/dropped... ...fall/falled? - Have to recognize this is irregular for the language Over-regularization errors show grammar is not acquired solely through imitation or reinforcement - These irregular rules suggest that children learn grammatical patterns first, then figure out the irregularities

What happens to you when you're stressed?

Heart rate increases Muscles tense You feel agitated Your pupils dilates

Eimas et al. (1971)

High Amplitude Sucking - 1 and 4 month-old infants listened to a series of synthetic speech syllables - [pa] vs. [ba] - by sucking on a pacifier - Suggests that infants are born with the ability to discriminate sound contrasts -- Is true even for sounds they are not exposed to

QF2011 findings: Motor development

Higher flood exposure predicted higher peritraumatic distress, which in turn predicted more severe post-traumatic stress (PTS) symptoms, which predicted poorer fine motor development Higher maternal and post-traumatic stress (PTS) symptoms were related to lower FINE motor scores in children, but only when flood exposure occurred from 26 weeks gestation Negative cognitive appraisal related to lower GROSS motor scores in children, but only when flood exposure occurred from 17 weeks gestation

Kagain et al. (2007)

Highly reactive infants tend to avoid unfamiliar events in infancy and are often subdued, cautious and wary of new situations in adolescence - Low reactive infants tend to approach unfamiliar events in infancy and to be spontaneous and sociable in adolescence

Is the human vocal apparatus essential for speech?

In apes, as in human infants, the larynx is positioned very high in the neck, which would prevent it from producing all the sounds of human language

Qualitative versus quantitative change

In biological growth - Example of quantitative growth -- Growing taller from age 4 to age 10 - Example of quantitative growth -- The onset of puberty changes a child's body into an adult's In psychological growth - Example of quantitative growth -- Increasing vocabulary from age 4 to age 10 - Example of qualitative growth -- Children in many cultures progress through stages from scribble to "tadpole" man to a large-headed cartoon to a human in realistic proportions

Cortisol can increase the risk of adverse fetal development during pregnancy because:

In high concentrations at the wrong time cortisol may disrupt the development of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

What does conformity mean?

In most contemporary Western cultures independence and individuality are emphasized. There is encouragement to be unique. Independence is valued In many Asian cultures, by contrast, community and harmony within the group is emphasized. Interdependence is valued

Logical syllogism

In the Far North, where there is always snow, all bears are white Novalya Zemlya is in the Far North and there is always snow there What colour are the bears there?

Equilibration and Stages of Development

In trying to understand the world, the child inevitably experiences cognitive conflict, or disequilibrium - The child is constantly faced with counterexamples to their existing schemas and with inconsistencies Assimilation and accommodation always take the child to a higher ground, according to Piaget Inconsistencies create disequilibrium For Piaget, an internal search for equilibrium creates motivation for change The child assimilates and accommodates, adjusting old schemas, developing new schemas and organizing and reorganizing the old and new schemas. Eventually, the new organization is fundamentally different from the old one

Temperament

Individual different in behavioural styles, emotions and ways of responding to situations and people - Can refer to how quickly emotions are shown, how strong they are, how long they last, and how quickly they fade away

Paul Baltes

Individuals are changing beings in a changing world As a result of these changes, contexts exert 3 types of influences: 1. normative age-graded influences 2. normative, history-graded influences 3. non-normative or highly individualized life events

Wachs (2000)

Individuals with an inhibited temperament in childhood are less likely to be assertive or to experience social support as adults, and more likely to delay entering a stable job track

In the following story: "Lucy is a firefighter. Lucy is sleeping in her bed. She gets a phone call about a fire and so she goes to fight it." Children might be asked "What if Lucy didn't get the phone call, where should she be?" If children answer "In her bed." Does this show evidence of counterfactual thought?

It might do, but you would need to rule out the use of basic conditionals

What is episodic memory?

Just knowing what, where and when might not be that relevant

Longitudinal design (L)

L = individual changes over age - Actual development but may not generalize to the broader population Same people growing up/ growing older

Nativist approach

Language acquisition is a special sort of learning Humans are especially adapted for language acquisition (we are born ready to do so) Chomsky's "language acquisition device" - Children recreate grammar by abstracting grammatical rules - Even from degraded input

Stipek (1995)

Look at 1- to 3-year olds' reactions to the successful completion of a task when: - The child successfully completed it - The experimenter successfully completed it Tasks: - Rolling a ball to knock down plastic pins - Hammering a ball through a bench Measured two specific kinds of success behaviours: - Smiling - Looking up at the experiment Smiling: kids of all ages smiled regardless of who completed the task - Reflects simple joy in the outcome Looking up at the experimenter: - By 22 months, looked more often to the experimented if they had completed the task

Dutch Hunger Winter studies

Malnutrition due to war-related famine was related to: - Lower birth weight exposed to malnutrition during the 3rd trimester and increased birth weight when exposed in the 1st trimester - More obesity when exposed during early and mid-gestation - Increased risk of schizophrenia when exposed close to conception Nutrition in pregnancy is not only important for the formation of bodily systems and processes (and prevention of defects related to nutrient deficiency, such as neutral tube defects e.g. spina bifida), it also programs the foetus for the postnatal environment The Dutch hunger winter babies were programmed for famine but born into plenty

A functionalist view

Many developmentalists view emotions as the result of individuals' attempts to adapt to specific contextual demands - Goal driven A child's emotional responses cannot be separated from the situation in which they are evoked - Emotions are relational rather than strictly internal, reflexive phenomena

The development of CFT

Maybe at 6? Maybe at 12? Maybe at 3? The literature is debating this, and basically it depends on how it is defined Children can entertain basic conditionals/alternatives from the age of three

Secondary (or social) emotions

More complex emotions - Shame - Jealousy - Guilt - Pride - Embarrassment Social situations Self-evaluation Others evaluating you

Anticipated regret

More complicated: imagining yourself in the future thinking back to the past (relative) and making the choice for the future Not until 8 years??? Hard to test Even adults struggle eventually, e.g. regretting that you did not anticipate feeling regret E.g. I wish I had anticipated the regret I was going to feel today, when I bought that $300 purse last week, because now I can't pay for my rego

Oostenbroek et al. (2016)

More than 30 years of research on neonatal imitation has still not resolved questions about whether the phenomenon exists, how prevalent it is and what it means Piaget started this discussion 80 years ago and we are still debating

A 2-year-old Mensa member is smarter than:

Most other 2-year-olds

But some stress is good for you...

Most peopled need some stress The trick is finding the sweet spot The sweet spot is different for everyone (Yerkes-Dodson stress curve) Some prenatal stress studies show this in curvilinear results: kids whose mums experience moderate stress score higher than kids whose mums experienced low or high stress

The research by Penkunas and Coss (2013) found that children living in a community where dangerous animals are regularly encountered were _ to detect a potentially threatening animal in a matrix of non-threatening animals than children living in a community where dangerous animals are not regularly encountered

Neither quicker nor slower

Speech

Neurological control of movements to create sounds - Not the same as language! (e.g. Sign Language)

A large proportion of (human) learning occurs

Not through classical conditioning Not through punishment Not through reward But through OBSERVATION and SOCIAL INTERACTION!

Whether infants show a novelty or familiarity preference in looking tasks is NOT influenced by which of the following?

Object smoothness

Kinds of measures:

Observation Self report measures Standardized tests Case study

Key theories in lifespan development

Psychoanalytic approach Cognitive theories Socio-cultural theories Social learning theories

Insecure resistant babies (type C)

Often cling to the caregiver and then resist her by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away In the Strange Situation, these babies would cling anxiously to the caregiver and don't explore the playroom When the caregiver leaves, they often cry loudly and push away if she tries to comfort them on her return

Episodic foresight and emotion

Often, we make choices about the future based on how we imagine it will make us feel

Episodic foresight decline

Older adults struggle to identify a problem, select an item for that problem AND to later use that item correctly E.g. Cat is hungry -> buy cat food -> give food to cat Lots of really cool research being done now using more generalizable methods, such as mobile phones etc

According to Vygotsky's General Law of Culture Development, every function in the child's development appears:

On the social level (inter-psychologically) and on the individual level (intrapsychologically)

In the Queensland Flood Study, high maternal PTSD symptoms predicted children's lower fine motor control:

Only when flood exposure occurred after 23 weeks gestation

Suddendorf et al. (2010)

Other than just asking, how can we be sure children are projecting themselves into the future and guiding behaviour accordingly? Behavioural criteria of episodic foresight (Suddendorf et al., 2010): (1) The use of single trials to avoid associative learning; (2) Novel problems to rule out the effects of learning histories; (3) Temporal-spatial separation between the future directed action and its consequence, to avoid cuing (4) Problems should come from a diverse range of contexts to rule out explanations based on innate predispositions

In the study by Nielsen et al. (2017), documenting the extent of the WEIRD sampling bias in developmental psychology, approximately what percentage of studies had participants that were only from WEIRD backgrounds (adding together those from the U.S.A., English-speaking countries and European countries)?

Over 90%

Mc Cormack et al. (2018)

Overdetermined events: events that have multiple causes For example, if you miss a bus to uni, and therefore miss your tute. But then you find out that the bus broke down anyway, so regardless you would have missed your tute "What would have happened if you hadn't missed your bus?" Conditional: "Made it to your tute" Counterfactual: "Missed your tute" When can children reason that an event would have happened anyway, and not rely on simple conditional reasoning? Two balls both knock over the pig, but take different paths The pig will be knocked off its perch regardless Children can reason about reason about overdetermined events by 6-7yrs Maybe because younger children rely on the conditional that if the ball isn't rolled, the pig won't fall

Body movements or reactions

Overt physical reactions Eye tracking, reaction time, body movements (e.g. reflexes, motor development) Things we can't accurately measure via direct observation Pros: intended to measure responses at a basic level, without cognitive interference Cons: requires that participants follow instructions (RT, movements) or sit still (ET)

Still face procedure

Parent interacts with 4-5-month-old infant normally - Parent then holds a neutral face for 1 minute Normally, babies gaze at parents for about 70% of time, and smile 20% of the time During a still-face procedure, babies stop smiling, and gazing drops by about 50% Infants are sensitive to others' expressions, especially during interactions!

The biological transformation of a tadpole into a frog is an example of a change that is _:

Qualitative

Child-directed speech (in mainstream western culture)

Parents/adults engage in conversations with a child - Typically extend the topic introduced by the child - Recast the child's utterances in simple, grammatical sentences -- Supplies grammatical and conversational information

In Schaie's study where older adults were trained on either an inductive reasoning or a spatial operation task, they found:

Participants improved only on the task they were trained on and did not show transfer of cognitive skills across to other tasks they were tested on

Schaie's (1996) training study

Participants: Adults 63+ (in 1983) who had been in this longitudinal study since 1970 (tested every 7 years) Based on their 1970-1984 performance on two tests of fluid intelligence (which typically show decline in the early 60s), people were categorized as stable or declined - Inductive reasoning -- Letter, number and word-series tests - Spatial orientation -- Mental manipulation of 2-D spatial configurations Training (1984) - Five one-hour sessions focusing on strategies and practiced on tests with different content - Half-trained on inductive reasoning - Half-trained on spatial orientation

Bowlby - 4 phases of attachment

Phase 1: Birth to 2 months. Infants instinctively orient to human figures. Strangers, siblings, and parents are equally likely to elicit smiling from the infant Phase 2: 2 to 7 months. Attachment becomes focused on one figure, usually the primary caregiver, as the baby gradually learns to distinguish familiar from unfamiliar people Phase 3: 7 to 24 months. Specific attachment develop. With increased locomotor skills, babies actively seek contact with regular caregivers, such as the mother or father Phase 4: 24 months+. Children become aware of others' feelings, goals and plans and begin to take these into account in directing their own actions

Child-directed speech modifications

Phonology (sounds, words) - Higher pitch - Exaggerated intonation - Rising intonation - Slower speech - Clearer enunciation - Simplified word structure Meaning - Here and now - One word per object - Limited complexity Pragmatics - More questions - More attention-directing utterances Grammar - Shorter sentences - Limited complexity - Well formed - Repetitive

Increasing vocabulary from age 4 to age 10 is an example of what kind of change?

Quantitative growth

Rowe (2012)

Quantity and quality measures of parental input examined in the same 50 families at 18, 30 and 42 months Children's vocabulary comprehension assessed at 30, 42 and 54 months

Erikson (1968)

Physical comfort and sensitive care are key to establishing basic trust in infants The infant's sense of trust, in turn, is the foundation for attachment and sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place to be

Cognitive theories

Piaget Baltes

What processes do children use as they construct their knowledge of the world?

Piaget developed several concepts to answer this question; especially important are schemas, assimilation, accommodation, organization, equilibrium and equilibration

Metarepresentation

Reflecting on alternative future possibilities: Knowing (representing) that any representation of the future may or may not eventuate Metarepresentation: The ability to represent a representation as a representation E.g. understanding (representing) the relationship between a picture (a representation) and what it depicts (as a representation) Theory of mind: the ability to attribute mental states unto oneself, and to others, and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one's own. That is representing other's mental states as representations

Counterfactual emotions

Regret An emotion associated with counterfactual thinking "I wish I had studied rather than watched Netflix all night, then I'd be acing the quiz right now" Responsibility over the outcome, you could have chosen differently

Insecure avoidant babies (type A)

Shows insecurity by avoiding the mother In the Strange Situation, engage in little interaction with the caregiver, display little distress when she leaves the room, usually do not reestablish contact with her on her return, and may even turn their back on her at this point If contact is established, the infant usually leans away or looks away

Which foetal sensory system receives very little input in the womb?

Sight

Normative age-graded influences

Similar for individuals in a particular age group - Includes processes such as beginning formal education and retirement

Kaluli culture

Social organization of verbal environment - (Assertive) language is culturally valued - Infant always with mother - Infant viewed as helpless - "soft" and "having no understanding" -- Not viewed as conversational partner -- Minimal language directly to infants - Mother usually with other people -- Infant often a topic of conversation Situations not adapted to the child - Socialization as a "hardening" process -- Learning how to talk and become independent are a key goal of socialization - Language viewed as beginning at about 18 months when infant uses two critical words, mother and breast - Infant must now be "shown how to speak" - mother models utterance + elema ("say like that ...") - Taught social uses of socially appropriate assertive language (teasing, shaming, requesting, challenging, reporting) Language is not simplified for the child - No simplification of grammar or vocabulary - No labeling of objects - No baby talk - The child adapts to situations (rather than vice versa) The negotiation of meaning - Cultural view that others' intentions should not be discussed - you have to make yourself understood -- Do not discuss others' intentions or internal states, especially if there is no external evidence -- Language does not allow indirect quotation -- Rather than interpret unclear utterances, clarification requests "what?" or "huh?" -- No expansion (often depends on interpreting unclear speech)

Possibility

When we imagine the future, we can never be 100% sure something will eventuate, so we are imagining a possibility Forked tube task (e.g. Redshaw & Suddendorf, 2016) Some 3 year olds and many 4 year olds are able to prepare for a mutually exclusive future event: Not just that they can't do the movement

Child-directed speech hypothesis

Strong form - CDS modifications are necessary for language acquisition - Word/phoneme parsing Weak form - CDS modifications facilitate language acquisition

Development of expression categorization

Studies with infants and toddlers tend to use one positive and one negative emotion So, when and how do children begin to understand emotions in terms of more than just two emotion categories?

Development

Systematic changes and continuities that occur between conception and death The pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the life span Most development involves growth, although it also includes changes brought on by advanced age

Time-lag or sequential designs (T-L)

T-L = cohort contrasts at the same age Sequential designs combine X-S and L methods - T-L measurement of samples of different ages from the same population Overlapping information enables biases & confounds to be identified Mathematical formulae allow for "pure" measurement and normative age-linked change using T-L, X-S and L information

Meltzoff (2008)

Tasks only assess infants' perceptual expectations about where the objects are when they are out of sight Not their knowledge about where the objects are Issue is infants don't ACT on their perceptions

What does the developmental origins of health and disease theory add to the fetal programming theory?

That a mismatch between the prenatal and early postnatal environments can increase the risk of disease in adulthood

Walker and Andrade (1999)

The Asch Experiments Tested 154 children aged from 3 to 17 years Children aged 3-5 years conformed at the highest rates, choosing the obviously smaller line 85% of the time

A bioecological model of development

The developing person, with his or her genetic makeup and biological and psychological characteristics, is embedded in a series of environmental systems These systems interact with one another and with the individual over time to influence development

Correlational research

The goal is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics Evaluating Correlations = 2 questions: - Is it related (i.e. correlated)? Y N - If yes, is the relationship positive or negative?

How do parents know how to optimize pregnancy?

The health of the developing child is influenced by not only what the mother eats but also what she feels. So where can parents find info on optimizing development? There is a plethora of information

Macrosystem

The larger cultural context in which the microsystem, mesosytem, and ecosystem are embedded

Mechanisms linking fetal exposure to child development

The mechanisms by which prenatal maternal stress is linked with child development are still under investigation The first possible mechanism of transmission is stress hormones Stress-related hormones like cortisol cross the placental barrier. This is necessary for foetal maturation later in pregnancy but early exposure is linked with poorer development Maternal stress may disrupt the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) of the developing foetus, which is the body's major stress response system Epigenetics: molecular modifications to gene activity that does not affect the underlying DNA e.g. methylation Stress can disrupt the development of the brain

According to Urie Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model of development, which environmental system involves interrelationships or linkages between two or more microsystems?

The mesosystem

Mainstream western culture

The negotiation of meaning - Consistent with adaptation of situations to the child - mother takes child's perspective Self-lowering strategy - Language adapted for the child (CDS) Child-raising strategy - Mother attempts to interpret child speech even when meaning is not clear - Expansions, etc.

Bowlby (1969, 1989)

The newborn is biologically equipped to elicit attachment behaviour Attachment is a "lasting psychological connectedness between human beings" Bowlby shared the psychoanalytic view that early experiences in childhood have an important influence on development and behaviour later in life Our attachment styles are established early through the infant/caregiver relationship

Descriptive research

The observation and recording of behavior For example, a researcher may observe the extent to which child mortality is linked with maternal literacy

Based on the existing literature, which of the following is TRUE about social learning?

The older children are, the more likely they are to over-imitate

Harlow (1959)

The origins of love

What was not one of the four behavioural criteria for episodic foresight laid out by Suddendorf et al (2010)?

The use of multiple trials

Apes are unable to produce verbal speech because:

Their larynx is not positioned in a way that allows verbal speech

Onishi & Baillargeon (2005)

Their looking behaviour suggests that infants thought the person should behave in line with their beliefs (whether true or false), suggesting they have developed theory of mind But, children don't pass classic ToM tasks until 3.5 - 4 years We still don't know why...

Assimilation and Accommodation

These explain how children use and adapt their schemas Assimilation occurs when children use their existing schemas to deal with new information or experiences Accommodation occurs when children adjust their schemas to take new information and experiences into account

How did the work of Meltzoff and Moore (1977) conflict with Piaget's work?

They claimed to have documented evidence of imitation in newborns when Piaget argued that this ability did not emerge until after 8 months of age

Hayes et al. (2001)

This study examined temperamental dimensions of children's personality in relation to their typical sleeping arrangement of bed-sharing vs. solitary sleeping Temperament as a psychological construct is defined as enduring, neurobiological bias/es in sensory, affective and cognitive responsiveness that may disrupt or enhance psychological adjustment in various settings It was hypothesized that negative temperamental traits contribute to night-waking, nighttime parent-seeking, and, perhaps, bed-sharing propensity Hence, children with negative traits may be more likely than other children to be bed-sharers

Ochs & Schieffelin (1984)

Three cultures - Mainstream Western culture - Kaluli people of Papua New Guinea - Traditional people of Western Samoa Three aspects of communicative interactions - Social organization of verbal environment - Are children expected to adapt to situations or vice versa? - The negotiation of meaning

Things that impact whether children show a novelty or familiarity preference

Time Age Complexity of the object

Measuring brain activity via EEG provides dense _ resolution but sparse _ resolution

Time, spatial

Organization

To make sense out of their world children cognitively organize their experiences Organization in Piaget's theory is the grouping of isolated behaviours and thoughts into a higher-order system Continual refinement of this organization is an inherent part of development

Fetal experience

Touch - Grasping, sucking, rubbing, bumping walls of uterus Taste - Swallows amniotic fluid - Fetus has a sweet tooth Smell - Amniotic fluid has odour of what mom ate - During fetal breathing, amniotic fluid comes into contact with olfactory receptors Sight - Negligible Hearing - Internally generated sounds (mom's heartbeat, breathing, etc.) - Externally generated sounds (mom's voice and people talking to her) - Fetus reacts by changes in heartbeat and movement

Lucienne

Toward the end of Lucienne's fourth month, while she is lying in her crib, Piaget hangs a doll above her feet. Lucienne thrusts her feet at the doll and makes it move. 'Afterward, she looks at her motionless foot for a second, then recommences. There is no visual control of her foot, for the movements are the same when Lucienne only looks at the doll or when I place the doll over her head. On the other hand, the tactile control of the foot is apparent: after the first shakes, Lucienne makes slow foot movements as though to grasp and explore'

Bandura & Walters: Social Learning and Personality Development (1963)

Traditional learning theory was grossly incomplete A good deal of learning occurs through vicarious rather than personal experience We observe the consequences of others' behavior, and later we may imitate them

Specificity of training effects in the elderly

Transfer effects are limited to tests of the skills that were specifically trained Training effects did not reflect the effects of additional attention or the novelty of study For those who had shown decline over the preceding 14 years, training returned performance to original levels For those who were stable, training improved performance

Securely attached babies (type B)

Uses the caregiver as a secure base to explore the environment When in the presence of their caregiver, explores the room, examine toys etc. When caregiver departs, might mildly protest, and when the caregiver returns, is quickly comforted Subsequently, they resume playing with the toys in the room

Children's Narratives

Verbal interviews - From as young as ~ 2 years Narratives with basic www details Script-like?

Socio-cultural theories

Vygotsky

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1762)

We are born capable of learning

Lab observation

What is said = controlled Who says it = controlled Where it is said = controlled Meaning = lab based Sample = maybe biased

Naturalistic observation

What is said = random Who says it = random Where it is said = controlled Meaning = real world Sample = can be unbiased

Neonatal imitation

What skills do you need to imitate others? In Piaget's stages, infants younger than 8-12 months of age lack the requisite perceptual- cognitive ability to engage in selective imitation - Facial imitation is particularly challenging

Bowlby's theory

When children are raised with confidence that their primary caregiver will be available to them, they are less likely to experience fear than those who are raised without such conviction This confidence is forged during a critical period of development (infancy-early childhood), and remains relatively unchanged for life Confidence and expectations are directly tied to past experiences with the caregiver