PSYC 230 Exam 3

Explain the research related to interactions between true visual perception and imagined images

A physiological correlate to imagery: imagery neurons respond to both perceiving and imagining an object Single neurons in a person's temporal lobe (hippocampus à memory, spatial navigation and orientation; amygdala), a) respond to perception of a baseball but not a face, and b) respond to imagining a baseball but not a face fMRI activity increases to both a visual stimulus (1st and 3rd shaded area) and an imagined stimulus of the target stimulus (2nd shaded area) Imagery questions (not others) will produce similar results

Explain the backfire effect

Backfire effect: when people's view becomes stronger in light of corrective facts

Understand the importance of base rate, the conjunction rule, and the law of numbers

Base rate: the relative proportion of different classes if the population (e.g. heart disease in light of number of elderly people in a population); in relation to the representativeness heuristic, people often ignore this Conjunction rule: probability of two events occurring together cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents (i.e. one is subset of the other) The law of large numbers: the larger the number of individuals randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the group will be

What happens with visual agnosia?

C.K.: visual agnosia: could not recognize objects o Could draw objects in great detail from memory (using imagery)

Differentiate categorical from conditional syllogism

Categorical syllogism: statements begin with all, no, or some Conditional syllogism: if-then statements; if p, then q; if both premises are true, then the syllogism is valid and the conclusions are true o Modus ponens - easiest to judge correctly (if I study, I'll get a good grade. I studied. Therefore, I'll get a good grade à conclusion follows logically) o Modus tollens - If I study I'll get a good grade. I didn't get a good grade; therefore, I didn't study à conclusion follows logically o Syllogism 3 o Syllogism 4

Understand the factors and important components that influence sentence understanding that is unique to text (i.e., coherence/narrative, inference - including anaphoric, instrument, and causal)

Coherence: the representation of the text in reader's mind that creates clear relations between text and main topic of story o Narrative Inference o Anaphoric: ex. serotonin and norepinephrine are bot involved in reduced pain. It also has a major role in depression and anxiety. Anaphoric reference à what is "it" referring to?) o Instrument: gathering/inferring the use of an instrument through context of story (if I share with you a memory of starting my favorite movie when I was a child, you will likely infer it was through VHS rather than streaming) o Causal: you infer that events from a clause or sentence were caused by the events from the previous sentence (poorly structured instructions for putting something together) § Thus, reading is a dynamic process that involves creating a meaningful story based on the skills of both the writer and the reader

Define illusory correlations and stereotypes

Come from availability heuristics o Can cause illusory correlations: thinking there's a relationship when there's not o Can result in stereotypes: oversimplified generalizations about a group (often focuses on the negative)

Explain the important components of language comprehension as discussed in class

Comprehension: how do we understand language? Representation: how is language represented (connected) in the mind? Speech production: how do we produce language (physical and mental)? Acquisition: how do we learn language? Lexicon: all words a person understands Semantics: the meaning of language Lexical semantics: the meaning of words; each word has one or more meanings

Explain the confirmation bias and the myside bias (again, a type of confirmation bias)

Confirmation bias: tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to our hypothesis (holds for any situation) Myside bias: tendency for people to generate and evaluate evidence that is biased toward their own opinions/attitudes

Explain creativity and divergent thinking

Creativity requires divergent thinking: open-ended with a large number of potential "solutions" o Involves developing something novel that has potential value or utility o Often involves analogical problem solving o Often involves trial and error development

What brain regions are important for various aspects of creative thinking?

Deactivation of the left anterior temporal lobe causes people to think "outside the box" In a visual solution task: o Frontal lobe activity increases before insight solutions o Occipital love activity increases before noninsight solutions

Define decisions and reasoning

Decisions: the process of making choices between alternatives Reasoning: the process of drawing conclusions o Inductive (specific cases to broad principles) o Deductive (broad principles to specific cases)

What is the support for the universality of language?

Every type of culture has their own language - even deaf children invented sign language which is a language all their own All humans with normal capacities develop a language and learn to follow its rules Language development is similar across cultures; language is universal Languages are "unique but the same" o Different words, sounds, and rules o All have nouns, verbs, negatives, questions, past/present tense

Explain expected utility theory and its relation to choosing among alternatives

Expected utility theory: assumes people are rational o If they have all relevant information, they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility (outcome that achieves a person's goal) o Specifies procedure that make it possible to determine which choice would result in the best outcome (but, we rarely follow the strategy - other considerations influence us)

Differentiate expert from novice: by definition, performance, cognitive differences, when one is more "valuable" to a situation than the other, etc.

Expert: a person who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, have become acknowledged as being extremely skilled in that field o Solve problems in their field more quickly, with higher success, and with more knowledge than beginners Experts possess more knowledge about their field and organize that knowledge differently o Experts chunk information into meaningful patterns based on underlying principles o Novices organize knowledge based on superficial characteristics Experts spend more time analyzing a problem, novices dive right in Experts are less open to new ways of looking at problems o Novices are more likely to make revolutionary discoveries because of their flexible thinking (must have enough base knowledge to develop a solution, but not so much that creativity is lost

What is the falsification principle?

Falsification principle: to test, it is necessary to look for situation that would falsify the rule

Explain functional fixedness

Functional fixedness: restricting use of an object to its familiar function o Due to a type of mental set: a preconceived notion of how to approach a problem based on experience and knowledge about what has worked in the past or the usual use of objects § Duncker's candle problem: seeing boxes as containers inhibited using them as supports, roving matches from the box improves finding the solution § Maier's two-string problem: function of pliers gets in the way of seeing them as a weight

Explain the role of the frontal lobe in imagery

Ganis et al. (2004): participants imagined a tree previously seen or saw a faint picture of the tree. Here, asked whether the object was wider than tall ("W") o Frontal lobe activated in both conditions o More visual cortex activation with perception than imagery Supported by others; also, mental imagery is more fragile than perception, thus a decrease in activity of nonvisual areas of brain

Explain the garden path and constraint-based approaches to understanding sentences, the related terminology and studies discussed in class

Garden path sentences: sentences that begin to mean one thing, but end up meaning another o Temporary ambiguity: when the initial words are ambiguous, but the meaning is made clear by the end of the sentence, so we shift to the correct organization o Listeners use heuristics (rules applied rapidly to make a decision) to group words into phrases (fast but sometimes incorrect) o When we are incorrect in our parsing, we must make corrections using syntax o Late closure: parser assumes new words as sentence unfolds is part of the current phrase until late closer leads us astray (e.g., the man who hunts ducks out on weekends) Constraint-based approach: combines syntax, word meaning, story and scene context, and memory load and prior experience (we parse from the beginning) o Through context we make predictions o word meaning: in reading/hearing sentences, if two possible predictions can be made as you read, it is more difficult to process the sentence (the dog buried in the sand was hidden; the treasure buried in the sand was hidden) o story and scene context (we rely on linguistic and non-linguistic information to process sentences and stories o memory load and prior experience (there will be a lighter memory load if the sentence structure follows typical sentence structure (subject à verb/object) o usually predictions are correct and helps us deal with rapid pace of language or when language is difficult to understand

List, define, and explain the three approaches to problem solving, and the related applications/findings and terminology discussed in class. Be sure to also note the mechanisms of analogies and the processes involved there, too!

Gestalt Approach: solving a problem requires restructuring/reorganizing its representation and insight (a sudden realization of a problem's solution à result of restructuring) o Insight: any sudden solution that involves reorganization of a mental representation to yield an interpretation that was not initially obvious o Non-insight: involves a more methodical, systematic analysis, often using techniques based on past experiences; used to solve analytically-based problems o Metcalfe and Wiebe: people working on insight problems should be less able to predict that they are progressing toward a solution than people working on non-insight problems) o Obstacles to problem solving à functional fixedness: restricting use of an object to its familiar functions Information Processing Approach (built from the Gestalt approach): view problem solving as the search that occurs between the posing of the problem and its solution (Newell and Simon); problems and the problem space involve 3 states o Initial state: conditions at the beginning of the problem o Intermediate state(s): a sequence of choices of steps; involves multiple characteristics § We must search the problem space to find a solution (means-end analysis: reduce the difference/distance between the initial state and goal state) § Involves operators: actions that take the problem from one state to another § Achieved by creating subgoals: intermediate states that are closer to the goal o Goal state: the solution to the problem o Ways we solve problems § Think-aloud protocol: saying out loud what you are thinking (not what you are doing) sifts your perception of the elements of the problem (i.e. restructuring) § Analogical problem solving: using a solution to a similar problem (i.e. source problem) guides solution to new problem (i.e. target problem) à e.g. the marriage problem Analogies/analogical problem solving (as seen above) o Analogical transfer: the transfer from one problem to another (requires restructuring) à need to tell people they are using analogical transfer; 3 steps of analogical transfer § Noticing the relationship between the source and target (the most difficult step à most need hints; the more similar the problems, the better) § Mapping the corresponding parts of the stories, connecting the elements of each § Applying that mapping to generate a parallel solution to the target problem o Analogical encoding: the process by which two problems are compared and similarities are determined § Trade-off strategy: "I'll give you A if you give me B" (I'll give you an A if you earn it through solid work) § Contingency strategy: person gets what they want if something else happens (you don't have to take the final if you have an A)

Explain heuristics, their effectiveness and the availability and representativeness heuristics

Heuristics: "rules of thumb" based on past experience that are likely to provide a correct answer to a problem, but are not foolproof Availability heuristic: events that more easily come to mind are judged as being more probable than events that are less easily recalled (e.g. causes of death) Representativeness: drawing conclusions based on how much something resembles the properties of its larger group

Understand how we use analogy in the real world (e.g., I gave the example of SSRIs for depression as an analogy to explain my nephew's weird blood panel/iron results to my sister)

In vivo problem-solving research: how do we solve problems in the real world? (naturalistic, but time-consuming) o Often use in teaching or explaining something to someone (e.g., high iron binding, low iron saturation, normal iron) o Has also led to the development of new products

Explain the differences between inductive and deductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning: reasoning based on observation and evidence (used in both science and every day) o Conclusions are probably true o Strong inductive reasoning depends on 1) how well observations represent members of that category, 2) a large number of good quality observations Deductive reasoning: determining whether a conclusion logically follows from premises o Syllogism: the basic form of deductive reasoning; starts with two broad statements (premises) followed by a third conclusion

Explain the rabbit/duck support of dissociation between imagery and perception

It is more difficult to effortfully manipulate mental images than perceptual Mental images are more effortful and vulnerable; perceptions are more automatic and stable When creating mental images of ambiguous figures (rabbit or duck) it is difficult to flip from one perception to another while holding a mental image of it

Explain the research, concepts, debate related to Kosslyn and Pylyshyn (is imagery spatial or propositional and the rationale/support for both sides)

Kosslyn (1973) studied what the shared mechanisms between imagery and perception are o Mental scanning: shown a picture and memorize it à create a mental image of it; then move from one part of the mental picture to another o Believed that imagery is spatial like perception o Map example à Franklin is a more detailed map, more general NC map Pylshyn believed imagery is propositional/language-based (can be represented by abstract symbols and language o Spatial representation is an epiphenomenon: it accompanies imagery mechanism but is not actually a part of it (it's a side effect of the mechanisms that are actually allowing us to use imagery) o Propositional imagery: we store the meaning of a concept and then create a verbal or visual code § Propositional representation: abstract symbols, language (like a semantic network, so time to travel through image correlates with time to get through network) § Depictive representation: similar to realistic pictures

Explain Chomksy's language acquisition device

Language coded in the genes (hence similar underlying basis) Children produce sentences not heard nor reinforced Chomsky and Pinker: language acquisition device is dedicated to learning and controlling language

Define language and how it impacts how we view the world.

Language: system of communication using sounds or symbols through which we express feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences Requires creativity: words are represented, organized, produced, written, and understood o Hierarchical: components that can be combined to form larger units o Governed by rules § Specific ways components can be arranged

Explain lexical ambiguity and the impacts of lexical priming on language perception

Lexical ambiguity: words often have multiple meanings, e.g., "bug" Lexical priming: people briefly access all meanings of a word before relying on context to determine accurate meaning o E.g., if primed by "rose," before "flower" the person will respond to flower" than when primed with "cloud," which is unrelated to "flower"

Explain the meaning dominance study/findings

Meaning dominance: some words are used more frequently than others, influences processing of meaning o Balanced dominance: words have two or more meanings with similar dominance (will look longer at word to determine the meaning of the word) o Biased dominance: words have two or more meanings with different dominance (will not look at word longer to determine meaning, no competition

Define the mental model approach to categorical syllogism

Mental model: a representation if a situation in a person's mind that can be used to help determine the validity of syllogisms in deductive reasoning o Create imagined representation o Generate tentative conclusions o Look for exceptions to falsify model o Determine validity

Explain the method of loci and pegword techniques for memory

Method of loci: visualizing items to be remembered in different locations in a mental image of a spatial layout Pegword technique: associate items to be remembered with concrete words paired with a pegword (i.e. one bun, two shoe, three tree, etc.)

Explain the model of the process of creative problem solving discussed in class (slide 26)

Must realize there's a problem in the first place o Stage I: problem generation o Stage II: problem formulation o Stage III: problem solving o Stage IV: solution implementation Smith: providing example solutions limits creativity Group brainstorming is ineffective

How does the context in which a decision is made impact the decision?

Opt-in procedure: active step to be an organ donor or contribute to retirement Opt-out principle: organ donor or retirement contributions unless actively request not to be Status quo bias: tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision, especially a difficult decision with multiple options

What is a permission schema?

Permission schema: if a person satisfies a specific condition, then they can carry out an action

Explain how emotions can affect decisions, including risk aversion and incidental emotions

Personality: optimistic people are more likely to ignore negative information and thus make decisions with incomplete information Expected emotions: people predict what they will feel concerning an outcome o A determinant for risk avoidance/aversion: the tendency to avoid taking risks (losses loom larger than gains: with a 50/50 chance of winning more or losing less on a bet, more likely to pass Incidental emotions not related to the decision making o May be related to one's general disposition, personality, experience, or environment o Can affect one's overall decision-making process Framing effects: decisions are influenced by how options are stated o When situations are framed in terms of gains, people tend toward a risk aversion strategy o When situations are framed in terms of losses, people tend toward a risk taking strategy

Explain what components go into creating meaning from sentences

Semantics: meanings of words and sentences Syntax: rules for structuring a sentence, sentences unfold over time in a way that helps us process them Parsing: creating meaning by grouping words into phrases

Explain the situation model and related cortical activation

Situation model: mental representation of the perceptual and motor movements of the objects and actions in the story (represents events as if experiencing the situation: what is being used, how are things moving, what are the emotions elicited?) o Approximately the same areas of the cortex are activated by actual movements and by reading related action words

Explain the support that imagery is spatial like perception (slide 11)

Size in the visual field: relationship between viewing distance and ability to perceive details o Imagine small object next to large object, large fills most of the visual field (quicker to detect details on the larger object) o Mental walk test: as you mentally walk toward object you must "move closer" to smaller animals for them to fill your visual field

Explain the conceptual peg hypothesis and mental chronometry tasks that came at the start of the cognitive revolution

The conceptual peg hypothesis states that it's easier to remember concrete rather than abstract nouns because concrete nouns evoke images Mental chronometry can measure mental imagery with mental rotation tasks (it quantitatively supported idea that imagery and perception share the same mechanisms)

Define/explain visual imagery

The imagery where one "sees" in the absence of a visual stimulus; it provides a way of thinking that adds another dimension to purely verbal techniques

What happens with damage to the occipital and parietal lobes?

There is evidence for a double dissociation between imagery and perception which suggests separate mechanisms R.M.: damage to the occipital and parietal lobes o Normal perception, but could not draw accurate pictures of objects from memory (using imagery)

Explain the topographic map findings with both imagery and perceptions (slide 15)

Topographic map: specific locations of stimuli cause activity at specific locations in the visual cortex. Small objects near back of occipital lobe, large objects closer to frontal regions of parietal lobe o Occurs with imagery too (supports the idea that the perception of true objects and the imagery of those same objects are going to be activating the same regions of the visual cortex and the medial temporal lobe)

Explain TMS and the research/findings of TMS of the visual cortex on imagery and perception tasks

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS): briefly decreases brain functioning in an area of the brain, can determine if region is causing a specific behavior TMS to visual cortex during perception and imagery task o Response time slower for both; thus, plays a causal role for both o Supported by removal of right occipital lobe in patient o Suggest causal

Explain hemineglect and where the damage occurs, how does this relate to mental imagery (not just perception)?

Unilateral neglect (aka hemineglect): right parietal lobe damage that leads to ignoring the side of space processed by RH (left visual field) o Occurs even with mental imagery o But, if attention is drawn to it, they will see it

Explain the variability (speech segmentation) problem in speech perception

We will respond slower to low-frequency words We need more time to access the meaning of low-frequency words (i.e. past experience influences ability to detect meaning)

Define "problem"

When there is an obstacle between a present state and a goal, with no immediately obvious way to get around the obstacle

Understand the word frequency effect and lexical decision task

Word frequency effect: we respond faster to high-frequency words o While reading, we fixate and gaze longer at low-frequency words o Influences how we process and respond to a word