PSYC 2450- FINAL EXAM REVIEW

19. Kono takes her one-year-old son, Chin Ho, to visit an infant-toddler program that he will soon join. Chin Ho appears very anxious and is unwilling to explore and play, even though Kono is close by. When Kono leaves the room, Chin Ho becomes extremely upset and remains that way all the time his mother is gone. When Kono returns, Chin Ho stays close to his mother, but makes it clear he does not want her to touch him or pick him up. He appears angry with Kono. This BEST demonstrates which sort of attachment relationship?

(a) Disorganized (b) Resistant (c) Avoidant (d) Secure

35. Which combination has the HIGHEST risk for abuse?

(a) Powerless mom and disabled child (b) Powerful mom and disabled child (c) Powerless mom and non-disabled child (d) Powerful mom and non-disabled child

20. Which of the following infants is MOST likely to experience emotional problems later in life?

(a) Robbie, who has resistant attachment (b) Maya, who has avoidant attachment (c) Montell, who has reliant attachment (d) Henry, who has disorganized-disoriented attachment

2. Which of the following is NOT considered a "primary" emotion

(a) Sadness (b) Shame (c) Surprise (d) Anger

1. Which of the following is TRUE of emotions

(a) The character of emotions changes as we develop cognitively. (b) Basic emotions are culturally and developmental-based. (c) A neurologically intact baby can show at least six distinct emotions at birth. (d) In general, adults cannot interpret infant emotions until the infants are 10 to 12 months old.

13. A game of peek-a-boo between a mother and her infant daughter BEST exemplifies the concept of ___________.

(a) pretend play (b) synchronized routine (c) false belief (d) induction

10. Paul was never really a fan of infants or kids. While he was happy that his wife Lucia was pregnant, he worried that he wouldn't feel thrilled to be a parent. However, when he first saw his son Sergio in the delivery room, he was overcome with a rush of emotion and felt love like he never had before. What likely played a role in Paul's response?

(a) prostaglandin (b) testosterone (c) oxytocin (d) cortisol

4. When a child has begun to monitor the reaction of someone else in order to decide how to react to an ambiguous situation, he or she is demonstrating _____________.

(a) self-awareness (b) goal correcting (c) imprinting (d) social referencing

8. U.S. Census Bureau data indicates that compared with the recent past, there are currently fewer

(a) single adults. (b) single-parent families. (c) remarriages. (d) caregivers for aging adults.

37. As a child, Chester was physically abused by his mother. He has now begun to physically abuse his daughter. His behavior BEST exemplifies

(a) spillover effects. (b) intergenerational transmission of parenting. (c) an extended family household. (d) middle generation squeeze.

17. Two-year-old Yasmin is going to the dentist for the first time. When she see the dentist dressed in a long white coat, Yasmin reacts by sobbing and hugging her dad. Yasmin's reaction is BEST explained as involving __________ anxiety.

(a) stranger (b) separation (c) contact (d) relationship

16. A college student becomes homesick during her first semester on campus. This response is most related to ____________.

(a) stranger anxiety (b) resistant attachment (c) separation anxiety (d) avoidant attachment

26. The switch from parent as caregiver to child as caregiver BEST describes

(a) the spillover effect. (b) authoritarian parenting. (c) role reversal. (d) a modified extended family.

Autonomous Morality

- 10 years and older - children in late childhood and adolescence come to believe that laws and rules are created by people - in judging an action they consider the actor's intentions as well as the consequences

18. Cross-cultural research has shown that older siblings serve as principal caregivers for infants and toddlers in _____ of the cultures studied.

(a) 27% (b) 37% (c) 47% (d) 57%

24. Allison and Kit are both playing with dolls in the doll corner. They are dressing and undressing the dolls, and pretending to feed them dinner. However, Allison and Kit do not talk to one another or involve each other in their play. This BEST demonstrates which type of play?

(a) Associative (b) Cooperative (c) Solitary (d) Parallel

Quality of Attachment

Secure attachment . About 60% of 1-year-olds in the many societies that have been studied are securely attached to their mothers or primary caregivers (Colin, 1996; Howe, 2011). The securely attached infant actively explores the room when alone with his mother because she serves as a secure base. The infant is upset by separation but greets his mother warmly and is quickly comforted by her presence when she returns. The infant is outgoing with a stranger as long as his mother is present. In sum, the securely attached infant "stays close and continuously monitors [the caregiver's] whereabouts (proximity maintenance), retreats to her for comfort if needed (safe haven), resists and is distressed by separations from her (separation distress), and explores happily as long as she is present and attentive (secure base)" (Hazan et al., 2006, p. 190). Resistant attachment . About 10% of 1-year-olds show a resistant attachment, an insecure attachment characterized by anxious, ambivalent reactions (also called anxious/ambivalent attachment). The resistant infant does not dare venture off to play; her mother does not seem to serve as a secure base for exploration. Yet this infant becomes distressed when her mother departs, often showing stronger separation anxiety than the securely attached infant. When her mother returns, the infant is ambivalent: she may try to remain near her but is not comforted and does not calm down. Instead, she seems to resent her mother for having left, may resist if she tries to make physical contact, and may even hit or kick her in anger (Ainsworth et al., 1978). Resistant infants are also wary of strangers, even when their mothers are present. It seems, then, that resistant or ambivalent infants try hard to get affection and comfort but never quite succeed. Avoidant attachment . Infants with avoidant attachments (up to 15% of 1-year-olds) may play alone but are not very adventuresome, show little apparent distress when separated from their mothers, and avoid contact or seem indifferent when their mothers return. These insecurely attached infants are not particularly wary of strangers but sometimes avoid or ignore them, much as these babies avoid or ignore their mothers. In contrast to resistant infants, avoidant infants seem to have shut down their emotions and distanced themselves from their parents, as if they were denying their need for affection or had learned not to express their emotional needs. Disorganized-disoriented attachment . Ainsworth's work initially focused on secure, resistant, and avoidant attachment styles, but some infants do not develop any of these consistent attachment styles. They seem confused. Up to 15% of infants display what is now recognized as a fourth attachment classification, one that is associated with later emotional problems (Main & Solomon, 1990; van IJzendoorn et al., 1999). Reunited with their mothers after a separation, these infants may act dazed and freeze or lie on the floor immobilized—or they may seek contact but then abruptly move away as their mothers approach them, only to seek contact again. Infants with a disorganized-disoriented attachment have not been able to devise a consistent strategy for regulating their negative emotions; they seem frightened of their parent and stuck between approaching and avoiding this frightening figure (Hesse & Main, 2006). She is clearly not a source of comfort for them.

Empathy, Prosocial, and Antisocial Behavior

Empathy: According to Martin Hoffman (2000, 2008), children have the ingredients for empathy from birth and become capable of a truer form of empathy that motivates helping and other forms of moral behavior as they develop: -Newborns display a primitive form of empathy, becoming distressed by the cries of other newborns (Eisenberg et al., 2015; Hastings et al., 2006). It is unclear whether newborns are experiencing empathy for another or are simply distressed by crying sounds, however. -From age 1 to 2, toddlers begin to understand that someone else's distress is different from their own, and they try to comfort the individual in distress, but they egocentrically do what would comfort them. So, for example, a 10-month-old watching a peer cry looked sad and buried her head in her mother's lap, as she often did when she herself was distressed. -From age 2 or 3 on, children are better at perspective taking and respond more appropriately to another person's need. Thus, a 2-year-old first brought his own teddy bear to comfort a distressed friend but, when that failed, offered the friend's teddy instead. -As children develop further, empathy becomes more sophisticated as cognitive processes, including the child's developing perspective-taking skills, shape empathy into a variety of moral emotions such as guilt, sympathy, and eventually a sense of injustice or empathy for whole groups of disadvantaged or oppressed members of society Prosocial: Carolyn Zahn-Waxler and her colleagues (1992) reported that more than half of the 13- to 15-month-old infants they observed engaged in at least one act of prosocial behavior—helping, sharing, expressing concern, comforting, and so on. These behaviors became increasingly common from age 1 to 2, when all but one child in the study acted prosocially. More recently, a number of researchers have been documenting just how prosocial and morally sophisticated infants and toddlers really are: -Helping. As early as 14 months, infants will spontaneously—without being asked—help an adult who drops a clothes pin on the floor while trying to hang items on a clothesline, who is carrying an armful of papers and cannot open a cabinet door, or who otherwise needs help to achieve a goal (Warneken & Tomasello, 2007). They will help a peer, too, even when helping brings them no personal benefit (Hepach et al., 2017). This early spontaneous helping has been observed in cultures as diverse as Canada, India, and Peru (Callaghan et al., 2011). -Cooperation. As early as 14 months, infants can also participate in simple cooperative games and will even try to get their adult partner reengaged if she stops playing, suggesting that they understand that they and their partner had a shared goal while they were cooperating (Warneken & Tomasello, 2007). -Altruistic rather than selfish motivations. Before they are 2 years old, children show greater happiness when they give treats like Goldfish crackers to an appreciative puppet than when they receive them, especially when they altruistically give their own treats to the puppet (Aknin et al., 2012). They seem to find prosocial behavior intrinsically rewarding (Hepach et al., 2012). -A sense of fairness. At 15 months of age, infants are more surprised (look longer) when they see one actor given three crackers and another given one than when the actors get two apiece, suggesting that they recognize fairness and unfairness when they see it (Schmidt & Sommerville, 2011; see Figure 12.2). -Yet despite their preference for dividing rewards equally if two actors both clean up their toys, infants are more surprised and look longer when a hard worker and a loafer are rewarded equally than when the hard worker gets more—the fairer outcome (Sloane et al., 2012). -When 15-month-olds are shown two girls asking for crackers and then see a screen lifted to reveal either a fair, equal distribution (two crackers to each) or an unfair distribution (one cracker to one girl, three to the other), which do they look at longer? The unfair distribution surprises them, suggesting that they already have an intuitive sense of fairness. -Moral judgments. Infants much prefer to interact with a "helper" puppet who aids another puppet in achieving a goal than with a "hinderer" puppet who blocks another puppet from achieving a goal (see Hamlin, 2013). And despite their positive view of helpful behavior, they seem to think it is quite appropriate to punish a "hinderer" by taking things away from him (Hamlin et al., 2011). In short, although it is not clear whether they are truly making moral judgments or just expressing a preference for nice puppets, babies clearly distinguish between and have quite different feelings toward good guys and bad guys! -Add it all up and we see an infant who already knows a lot about how humans should treat one another and who can act in helpful and cooperative ways. This early prosocial behavior is quite consistent with Tomasello's evolutionary perspective on morality. Antisocial: If all these endearing prosocial tendencies are evident by a year or two of age, we get quite a different picture of human nature than we get from Freud's view of infants as all id or Piaget's or Kohlberg's view that young children are premoral. We must be careful not to paint too rosy a picture of infants, though. First, they are likely to be quite selfish if their choice is between rewarding themselves or rewarding someone else (Wynn et al., 2018). More importantly, infants are quite capable of antisocial behavior. Physical aggression, behavior that harms another person physically, comes naturally to humans, starting as soon as babies are able to hit, bite, push, or otherwise harm others (Tremblay, 2011; Tremblay et al., 2018). And verbal aggression begins almost as soon as infants utter their first words. Antisocial behavior therefore seems to be as much a part of human nature as empathy and prosocial behavior are. The 2-year-old who comforts a crying playmate may shove or bite the same playmate an hour later. Infants are less likely than older children to intend to cause harm, however. Most often their goal is to get a toy they want or to defend a toy they had played with and put down (Hay et al., 2011; Tremblay, 2011). As they develop better self-control, they will become more able to delay gratification and wait for the toy. As early as 1½ years of age, some toddlers engage in more physical aggression than others, though (Tremblay, 2011). Their high rates of aggressive behavior can be traced to both their genetic makeup and environmental factors such as harsh, coercive parenting or a depressed, emotionally unavailable parent (Tremblay, 2011) and it predicts aggressive behavior later in childhood (Hay et al., 2018). Their peers, meanwhile, are learning to control their aggressive urges better. The frequency of aggression normally rises from infancy to a peak around age 3 or 4 and then decreases with age in most children as they become better socialized (Eisner & Malti, 2015; Tremblay, 2011). Young children come to understand through their social interactions that hitting and biting are roundly disapproved and that being hit or bitten hurts; they also become more able to control their impulses and feel empathy for others; by age 3 or 4, children have even developed a sense of moral obligation not to harm others (Dahl, Waltzer, et al., 2018).

Forms of Family Violence

· Intimate partner violence. The term intimate partner violence (IPV) includes spousal abuse as well as violence in dating, cohabiting, and other romantic relationships. It can involve physical and psychological abuse as well as sexual coercion and rape. IPV may well be the most common form of family violence worldwide. It is especially prevalent in patriarchal societies where men dominate women, but it occurs in same-sex relationships as well (Hardesty & Ogolsky, 2020). Surveys in the United States indicate that over one in three women and one in four men are victimized at some time in their life (Hardesty & Ogolsky, 2020). About 15% of couples experience physical violence in a year, ranging from pushing to use of weapons (Heyman et al., 2013; Straus & Gelles, 1990). The violence is often reciprocal, but women are more often victims and are more likely to be injured when they are abused (Hardesty & Ogolsky, 2020). Millions of children witness this domestic violence and are harmed by what they see (Grych et al., 2013; Hardesty & Ogolsky, 2020). · Child maltreatment. Child maltreatment is a broad term that includes both child abuse and neglect of a child's basic needs (Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, 2019). Child abuse is mistreating or harming a child physically, emotionally, or sexually. Every day, infants, children, and adolescents are burned, bruised, beaten, suffocated, sexually abused, or otherwise abused by their caretakers (Del Vecchio et al., 2013; Miller & Knudsen, 2007). Neglected children cannot count on being fed, bathed, or given other basic care. Much child maltreatment goes unreported, but official statistics for the United States suggest that 9 of every 1,000 (almost 1 in 100) children under age 18 is the victim of substantiated maltreatment in a year. Much more maltreatment goes unreported. As Figure 14.6 shows, the most common type of maltreatment is neglect, followed by physical abuse. Many children experience more than one of these types of maltreatment, which is why the percentages in the figure add up to more than 100%. · Sibling violence. Siblings, especially brothers, abuse one another in countless ways, especially if there is conflict or violence elsewhere in the family; yet this form of family violence often goes unreported, perhaps because it is viewed as kids being kids (Greydanus et al., 2017; Hoffman et al., 2005). Sibling bullying is finally being recognized as widespread and very damaging (Dantchev & Wolke, 2019). · Child-to-parent violence. Children and adolescents sometimes batter, and in rare cases kill, their parents (Agnew & Huguley, 1989). At least some of the perpetrators have the callous-unemotional traits that are associated with conduct disorder and aggression (Curtis et al., 2019; see Chapter 12). · Parental alienation. Parental alienation happens when a child becomes reluctant or refuses to have a relationship with one parent because of the alienating efforts of the other parent (Harman et al., 2018). These attempts to undermine the other parent's relationship with a child might include claiming that the other parent forgot the child's birthday, blaming that parent for divorce and other things that have gone wrong in the child's life, and blocking communications between the child and the other parent (Harman et al., 2018). Think of it as coparenting gone bad. It is most likely to happen during bitter child custody disputes, and it can be viewed as emotional abuse of the child, intimate partner violence, or both (Harman et al., 2018). · Elder abuse. Older adults are targets of family violence too, and this is termed elder abuse. Frail or impaired older people are physically or psychologically mistreated, neglected or deprived of needed care, financially exploited, and even sexually abused—most often by stressed adult children or spouses serving as their caregivers (Jayawardena & Liao, 2006; National Academies of Sciences, 2020; Pillemer et al., 2016). One global study put the prevalence of elder abuse at about one in six, with psychological abuse and financial abuse the most common forms (Yon et al., 2017). An estimated 10% of older adults are abused in a given year in the United States (Lachs & Pillemer, 2015). The negative consequences for physical and mental health and functioning can be very serious (Wong & Waite, 2017).

Key Features of Hospice

(1) Dying person and family decide the level of support they need and want (2) Attempts to cure the patient or prolong their life is deemphasized (do not hasten death but, also do not do unnecessary medical procedures) (3) Pain control is emphasized (4) Setting for care is as normal and "homelike" as possible Some patients die at home and support is put in place in the home For some family members, who have to live in the home afterwards that might be difficult Hospice facilities are also available and are meant to have a "home-like" not "hospital-like" feeling (5) An effort is made to meet not only physical needs but, psychological, emotional and spiritual needs as well (6) Bereavement counseling is provided to the family both before and after the death of their loved one

Exploration 13.1- Emotional Coaching or Emotional Dismissing

Emotion coaching involves: · Being aware of even low-intensity emotions · Viewing children's expressions of emotion, including negative ones, as opportunities for closeness and teaching · Accepting and empathizing with children's emotional experiences · Helping children understand and express their feelings · Helping children deal with whatever triggered their emotions. * the emotion coaching approach wins hands down. Emotion coaching is associated with healthier emotional development and fewer emotional and behavioral problems Emotion dismissing, by contrast, involves ignoring, denying, and avoiding negative emotions, whether by criticizing the child for having them or trying to convert them as quickly as possible into positive emotions.

Adult Attachment Styles

First, the romantic relationships of adults with secure attachment styles are happier and tend to last longer than those of adults with insecure attachment styles Second, adults' attachment styles predict their orientations toward work. A secure IWM provides a secure base for exploration, predicting the extent to which adults have the confidence and curiosity to explore and master their environments (Elliot & Reis, 2003; Luke et al., 2012). Securely attached adults enjoy their work and are good employees, whereas preoccupied (resistantly attached) adults may grumble about not being valued enough and may need a lot of emotional support, and dismissing (avoidantly attached) adults may bury themselves in work and do little socializing with coworkers (Hazan & Shaver, 1990; see Paetzold, 2015). Third, attachment style is related to an adult's capacity for caregiving—most importantly, to being a sensitive and responsive parent. Finally, attachment styles are related to well-being in later life (Howe, 2011; Waldinger et al., 2015). In a study of 60- to 99-year-olds, Victor Cicirelli (2010) concluded that 50% of the older adults studied could be categorized as secure, most of the rest (38%) dismissing-avoidant, and only 12% preoccupied or fearful. Older adults who have a secure attachment style, as well as those with a dismissing-avoidant style, tend to be happier with their lives than those with either a preoccupied or fearful attachment style (Bodner & Cohen-Fridel, 2010; Magai et al., 2001). Whether to cope with the loss of a spouse, cope with an imperfect marriage, or minimize their dependency on others, some older adults apparently adopt a dismissing attachment style, become quite self-reliant in their old age, and are happy that way.

23. Why have grandparents been referred to as "the family national guard"?

(a) They are a voluntary group. (b) They can help families in crisis. (c) They tend to perform tough tasks with little positive emotional reward. (d) They are diminishing in our society.

12. According to Sullivan, which relationship is central to children up to age six?

(a) peer relationships (b) friendships (c) playmates (d) parent-child

Culture and Morality

An ethic of autonomy: As in Kohlberg's theory, there is concern with individual rights and not harming or violating the rights of others; fairness and justice are emphasized An ethic of community: As in many collectivist cultures, there is an emphasis on duty, loyalty, and concern for the welfare of family members and one's larger social group An ethic of divinity: As in Shweder's research in India, there is an emphasis on divine law or authority; the individual is to follow God's laws and strive for spiritual purity. *a "cultural-developmental perspective on morality."

Difference between Grief, Mourning, and Bereavement

Bereavement is a state of loss Grief is an emotional response to loss Mourning is a culturally prescribed way of displaying reactions to death.

The Parkes/Bowlby Attachment Model of Bereavement

The Parkes/Bowlby attachment model of bereavement describes four predominant reactions. They overlap considerably and therefore should be viewed as phases, not as sequential stages. These reactions are numbness, yearning, disorganization and despair, and reorganization (see Table 16.2 to view this phase model of bereavement side by side with Kübler-Ross's stages of dying): 1. Numbness. In the first few hours or days after the death, the bereaved person is often in a daze—gripped by a sense of unreality and disbelief and almost empty of feelings. Underneath this state of numbness and shock is a sense of being on the verge of bursting and, occasionally, painful emotions break through. The bereaved person is struggling to defend himself against the full weight of the loss; the bad news has not fully registered. Yearning. As the numbing sense of shock and disbelief diminishes, the bereaved person experiences more agony. This is a time of acute separation anxiety, which motivates efforts to reunite with the lost loved one. Grief comes in pangs or waves that typically are most severe from 5 to 14 days after the death. The grieving person has feelings of panic, bouts of uncontrollable weeping, and physical aches and pains. She is likely to be extremely restless, unable to concentrate or to sleep, and preoccupied with thoughts of the loved one and of the events leading to the death. Most importantly, the bereaved person pines and yearns and searches for the loved one, longing to be reunited. According to Parkes and Bowlby, it is these signs of separation anxiety—the distress of being parted from the object of attachment—that most clearly make grieving different from other kinds of emotional distress. A widow may think she heard her husband's voice or saw him in a crowd; she may sense his presence in the house and draw comfort from it; she may try to recover him by smelling his bathrobe. Ultimately the quest to be reunited, driven by separation anxiety, fails. Both anger and guilt are common during these early weeks and months of bereavement. Frustrated in their quest for reunion, bereaved people often feel irritable and sometimes experience intense rage—at the loved one for dying, at the doctors for not doing a better job, at anyone handy. They seem to need to pin blame somewhere. Unfortunately, they often find reason to blame themselves—to feel guilty. A father may moan that he should have spent more time teaching his son gun safety; the friend of a woman who died of COVID-19 may feel that she was not a good enough friend. One of the London widows studied by Parkes felt guilty because she never made her husband bread pudding. 3. Disorganization and despair. As time passes, pangs of intense grief and yearning become less frequent, although they still occur. As it sinks in that a reunion with the loved one is impossible, depression, despair, and apathy increasingly predominate. During most of the first year after the death, and longer in many cases, bereaved individuals often feel apathetic and may have difficulty managing and taking interest in their lives. 4. Reorganization. Gradually, bereaved people begin to pull themselves together again as their pangs of grief and periods of apathy become less frequent. They invest less emotional energy in their attachment to the deceased and more in their attachments to the living. If they have lost a spouse, they begin to make the transition from being a wife or husband to being a widow or widower, revising their identities. They begin to feel readier for new activities and possibly for new relationships or attachments. In Figure 16.5, you can see the changing mix of overlapping reactions predicted by this attachment model of grief (Jacobs et al., 1987-1988). To test the Parkes/Bowlby model, Paul Maciejewski and his colleagues (2007) assessed disbelief, yearning, anger, depression, and acceptance in 233 bereaved individuals from 1 to 24 months after their loss of a loved one to death from natural causes. The different emotional reactions peaked in the predicted order (disbelief, yearning, anger, and despair/depression), while acceptance steadily gained strength over time. Although the worst of the grieving process for widows and widowers is typically during the first 6 months after the loss, the process of overcoming depression symptoms may take a year or so for widows and longer for widowers (Jadhav & Weir, 2018).

34. _________ abuse is the most common form of family violence worldwide.

(a) Spouse (or partner) (b) Sibling (c) Child (d) Elderly

Terms involving Morality: Moral Character

- having strengthen in your convictions, persisting and overcoming distractions and obstacles

The following criteria are used to pronounce death:

(1) The individual is totally unresponsive to stimuli (including pain) (2) Failure to move for 1 hour or breath for 3 minutes once taken off a ventilator (3) No reflexes (pupillary reflex is usually checked first) (4) If the individual was on a cardiac monitor or an EEG (brain injury) and a flat line registers on the monitor indicating the absence of heart and/or brain activity

28. When commenting on a rejected child, peers would be most likely to say,

(a) "She's quiet but fun." (b) "He's okay most of the time." (c) "I don't like that kid." (d) "I don't know who that is."

12. Julie wants special permission to stay out on a date past her normal curfew. Her parents, who are authoritarian parents, are most likely to respond

(a) "Why should we let you do this?" (b) "No!" (c) "I guess you'll have to make that choice and suffer the consequences." (d) "It doesn't matter to us what you do."

33. In the United States, about 1 of every _____ children are victims of substantial maltreatment.

(a) 15 (b) 44 (c) 100 (d) 440

7. The first attachment is formed to a parent at approximately ______ months of age.

(a) 2 to 3 (b) 3 to 4 (c) 6 to 7 (d) 10 to 12

28. Whose care is most likely to lead to caregiver burden if they are taken in by an adult child?

(a) 80-year-old Vick, who has cancer but can get around pretty well (b) 80-year-old Nick, whose dementia makes him disruptive and who engages in socially inappropriate behavior (c) 80-year-old Dick, who has no legs (d) 80-year-old Mick, who is wealthier than the daughter who will be taking him in

9. Which is TRUE with regard to the nature of early parent-child interactions?

(a) As the result of genetic factors, fathers have been shown to be incapable of sensitive parenting. (b) Mothers are far more sensitive to infants' cues during feeding. (c) Fathers are more likely to engage in "playful interactions" (tickling, bouncing) with their children. (d) Fathers are significantly less effective at feeding infants.

21. Which statement concerning the role of culture on infant attachment is TRUE?

(a) Attachment styles are universal and unaffected by culture. (b) In collectivistic cultures, infants are more likely to develop autonomous behaviors. (c) Most infants raised in individualistic cultures are insecurely attached to their primary caregivers. (d) A secure attachment is best defined by cultural standards that can vary from country to country.

8. Which statement BEST reflects the ethological perspective regarding parent/child attachments?

(a) Attachments form automatically as a result of biological programming. (b) Human infants and caregivers have biological tendencies to form attachments. (c) The key to forming close attachments lies in the principles of conditioning and reinforcement. (d) Learning plays no significant role in the process of developing parent/child attachments.

19. Which parenting style is MOST likely to promote psychological autonomy in adolescents?

(a) Authoritative (b) Authoritarian (c) Permissive (d) Neglecting

22. What is the BEST way to prevent the negative impacts typically found in infants raised in institutions?

(a) Better physical care (b) Improved sensory stimulation (c) A stable team of caregivers (d) Designated "mother figures"

25. Which is the primary distinction between associative and cooperative play?

(a) Cooperative play involves activities directed toward a common goal and associative play does not. (b) Cooperative play involves sharing the same materials while associative play does not. (c) Cooperative play involves interacting between playmates while associative play does not. (d) Cooperative play emerges during the concrete operational period while associative play emerges during preoperational thought.

40. Which statement BEST describes results from research on adults' internal working models of self?

(a) Early attachment styles have little bearing on love relationships. (b) Internal working models predict the capacity for exploration in adulthood. (c) There appears to be little intergenerational transmission of attachment styles. (d) Internal working models are not subject to revision.

6. Which two theorists are associated with Attachment Theory?

(a) Erikson and Gilligan (b) Bowlby and Freud (c) Bowlby and Ainsworth (d) Erikson and Ainsworth

6. Which of the following changes in the nature of the American family is TRUE?

(a) Family size (number of offspring) is on the rise. (b) The number of working moms is declining. (c) The age of marriage has been delayed. (d) There has been a decrease in the number of children living in poverty.

4. Which is commonly cited advantage of the extended family?

(a) Fewer mouths to feed (b) Provides for sharing responsibility for raising children (c) Ensures more income for the family (d) Provides a safe environment for gay/lesbian couples to raise a family

7. Maggie and Robert are getting married. It is a first marriage for both of them. Based on recent research, which is TRUE?

(a) Maggie and Robert are younger than their parents were when getting married. (b) There is a 60% probability that Maggie and Robert will get divorced. (c) Maggie is more likely than her mother was to work outside the home. (d) Maggie and Robert are likely to have more children than their parents did.

34. Which statement concerning emotional lives is TRUE?

(a) Older adults have more depressed emotional lives than younger adults. (b) Negative emotions are less common in older adults than in younger adults. (c) Younger adults experience longer-lasting period of positive emotions. (d) Older adults require large social networks to feel happy and fulfilled.

15. Which parenting style is BEST associated with children who are unhappy, aimless, and unpleasant to be around?

(a) Permissive (b) Neglectful (c) Authoritarian (d) Authoritative

25. Which BEST describes sibling relationships over the adulthood years?

(a) Sibling rivalry disappears once the children are on their own. (b) Most siblings share intimate problems frequently across the years. (c) Siblings often grow emotionally closer from middle age to old age. (d) Significant life events like the death of a parent can bring close siblings together and push rival siblings apart.

32. Which statement concerning remarriage is TRUE?

(a) The rate of divorce among remarried couples is nearly 25%. (b) The impact on children is worsened if both parents bring children in the reconstituted family. (c) Boys tend to have a harder time adjusting to being in a reconstituted marriage. (d) Within a year of remarriage, children in reconstituted families show no psychological or behavioral differences from children in intact first-marriage families.

26. Which behavior BEST illustrates social pretend play?

(a) Using a pail to represent a hat (b) Acting out a tea party with dolls (c) Playing soccer with a group of friends (d) Smiling when eating a make-believe cookie

36. Which of the following sayings BEST reflects the concept of homogamy in mate selection?

(a) You can't teach an old dog new tricks. (b) Opposites attract. (c) Beauty is only skin deep. (d) Birds of a feather flock together.

14. Sara's attitude towards parenting is BEST described as "a lot of praise, a lot of affection, and feedback for negative behavior that is designed to teach, but not belittle." This description indicates that Sara is BEST classified as being high on the ____________ dimension of childrearing.

(a) acceptance-responsiveness (b) responsiveness-demandingness (c) demandingness-control (d) control-acceptance

2. Because families may consist of configurations other than mother-father-child(ren), some have suggested that the term _______ be used.

(a) alternative (b) immediate (c) nontraditional (d) nuclear

10. Fathers

(a) are less likely to challenge children during play than mothers. (b) who are supportive contribute to better cognitive, social, and emotional development in their children. (c) who are unmarried tend to be very involved parents. (d) tend to avoid engaging in playful behavior with their children.

11. Fathers are most likely to adopt a "motherlike" caregiver role if they

(a) are the primary caregiver. (b) work outside the home. (c) hold traditional gender values. (d) are in a blended family.

5. Two-year-old Henry has learned that whenever he is around his aunt, Kathy, it is best not to show any fear because she does not react well when confronted by a fearful child. Henry's behavior BEST illustrates the concept of __________.

(a) avoidant attachment (b) emotion regulation (c) goal correction (d) separation anxiety

16. The arrival of a new baby in the family is most likely to

(a) be a joyous occasion for all. (b) promote feelings of resentment and dependency behaviors in existing firstborn children. (c) results in parents overcompensating by paying more attention to older siblings than the newborn. (d) enhance an older sibling's feelings of competence and self-reliance.

5. The conceptualization of a "family as a system" BEST matches the _____ approach in psychology.

(a) bioecological (b) classical conditioning (c) psychodynamic (d) Gestalt

37. When Carlos is describing his relationship with Gisele, he says, "It's got everything: sexual attractiveness, trust and respect, and we know we are both in it for the long haul." This description indicates that their relationship is MOST accurately described as involving __________ love.

(a) consummate (b) fatuous (c) infatuation (d) companionate

3. When both parents act as a single team when childrearing, _____ is taking place.

(a) coparenting (b) an extended family (c) a blended family (d) autonomy

38. Victims of child abuse tend to

(a) display great empathy for others. (b) have higher rates of depression. (c) be insensitive to anger cues in others. (d) try to protect other individuals who are crying.

21. As a "remote" grandparent, Lilo __________her grandson Stitch.

(a) enjoys being a part-time parent for (b) seldom sees (c) goes to lots of activities with (d) lives with

39. Two men who marry and raise kids will likely provide a solid example of ____________.

(a) family stress (b) partnership (c) role reversal (d) indirect effects

29. Married couples who voluntarily remain "childfree"

(a) generally experience greater marital satisfaction than couples with children during the childrearing years. (b) tend to be less satisfied with their lives in middle age and old age than couples whose children have grown and gone. (c) tend to have higher levels of depression than couples with children. (d) typically feel like failures for never having children.

20. Erikson would argue that the positive feeling of "self" associated with the empty nest in middle age indicates a successful attainment of a sense of __________.

(a) generativity (b) integrity (c) independence (d) initiative

15. Amanda shows a clear interest in listening to voices of humans, but shows no particular preference for one person over another. Amanda is BEST classified as being in the _________ phase.

(a) goal-corrected partnership (b) undiscriminating social responsiveness (c) active proximity-seeking/true attachment (d) discriminating social responsiveness

38. Companionate love is BEST characterized by

(a) high levels of intimacy, commitment, and passion. (b) high levels of intimacy and commitment, but low levels of passion. (c) high levels of commitment and passion, but low levels of intimacy. (d) high levels of passion, but low levels of intimacy and commitment.

13. The permissive parenting approach is characterized by _________acceptance- responsiveness and __________ demandingness-control.

(a) high; high (b) high; low (c) low; high (d) low; low

29. Adolescents who have secure attachments with their parents have ______________.

(a) higher levels of self-esteem (b) lower levels of compassion (c) lower levels of social competence (d) higher levels of stranger anxiety

9. According to Bowlby, the sensitive period for human attachment relationships typically lasts for the first three ______ after birth.

(a) hours (b) days (c) months (d) years

30. According to Dumpy (1963), the typical developmental sequence of events in the adolescent peer group is

(a) isolated unisex cliques, interaction between unisex cliques, heterosexual cliques, fully developed crowds. (b) heterosexual crowds, isolated unisex cliques, interaction between unisex cliques, groups of couples. (c) isolated heterosexual cliques, interaction between heterosexual crowds, unisex cliques, groups of couples. (d) isolated unisex groups, heterosexual crowds, interaction -between heterosexual groups, groups of cliques.

3. By 3 months of age, contentment becomes the emotion of _____.

(a) joy (b) surprise (c) pride (d) empathy

40. In the classic 1970s TV sitcom "The Brady Bunch," Mike had three sons and remarried Carol, who had three daughters. What is the formal developmental term for the main characters of this show?

(a) kinkeeper family (b) transactional family (c) reconstituted family (d) spillover family

27. Molly's classmates rarely choose her as a playmate, yet she is not disliked by most of her peers. She tends to be shy and quiet, and on rare occasions when someone does ask her to play, Molly often says no and walks away. According to categories of sociometric status, Molly is best classified as _______.

(a) neglected (b) rejected (c) antisocial (d) controversial

36. Most parents who abuse their children

(a) never witnessed or experienced violence when they were children. (b) have an inflated sense of self-esteem. (c) have inaccurate expectations concerning child development. (d) are older fathers.

32. During adolescence,

(a) peer influences are typically negative. (b) those with friends are more likely to engage in delinquent behavior. (c) crowd affiliation has implications for social identity. (d) crowd membership is best predicted by personality factors.

35. With her divorce finalized, Margaret is ready to start dating again. What will be her priority in seeking a new mate/partner?

(a) physical attractiveness (b) finances (c) education (d) similarity

31. Heather hangs with a group of four other girls who, just like her, all wear the trendiest fashions. According to Dumpy (1963), this group is BEST classified as a ____________.

(a) population (b) crowd (c) confidant (d) clique

30. The HIGHEST risk for divorce occurs in couples who

(a) postponed having children for five or more years following marriage. (b) are young and have been married for about seven years. (c) married in their mid 30s. (d) never had children.

24. Due to his level of interaction, Samuel might BEST be considered a substitute parent for his grandson Patrick. This indicates that Samuel has a(n) ___________ grandparenting style.

(a) remote (b) companionate (c) involved (d) watch dog

22. Recent research has shown that the _________ grandparenting style is the most common in the United States.

(a) remote (b) companionate (c) involved (d) permissive

17. Sibling rivalry is typically characterized by

(a) resentment and jealousy. (b) love and limits. (c) forgiving and empathy. (d) violence and psychosis.

39. When asked to describe herself, Katherine says, "I don't need people, I don't need relationships, I am fine on my own." This attitude best fits with the ________ model of the self.

(a) secure (b) dismissing (c) preoccupied (d) fearful

14. The MOST likely outcome of an infant and parent who are in synchrony is a(n) ________ infant attachment.

(a) secure (b) insecure avoidant (c) insecure resistant (d) undifferentiated

18. Pam loves to play with other children. At the park, she frequently runs from the sandbox to her mommy, gives her a hug, and then runs back. When mom walks a short distance away to get some water, Pam begins to cry and runs after her. After they both get a drink, they head back toward the sandbox, with Pam running ahead to join the other children in play. Pam's attachment relationship with her mother is BEST described as ___________.

(a) secure (b) resistant (c) avoidant (d) disorganized-disoriented

33. According to socioemotional selective theory,

(a) teenagers are biologically programmed to be more conforming. (b) most older adults will conduct a life review. (c) the older we get, the more important it becomes to acquire knowledge. (d) shrinking social networks in adulthood are by choice.

1. The family systems approach to understanding families suggests that

(a) the larger the family network, the lower the quality of interaction between parent and child. (b) the mother is the central influence on a child's development. (c) every relationship within the system has an impact on every other individual in the system. (d) families function in a similar manner from one culture to the next.

31. In the United States, divorce is

(a) typically initiated by the husband. (b) no longer seen as a right taken by people who do not feel personally fulfilled in their marriage (as it was in the 20th century). (c) typically the result of lack of communication, emotional fulfillment, or compatibility. (d) legally required to list one of the spouses as being "at fault."

23. Thomas is on the floor and highly engaged with the toy train engine he is pushing around the track by himself. Thomas is MOST accurately said to be engaged in _______ play.

(a) unoccupied (b) solitary (c) onlooker (d) associative

11. According to Sullivan, which of the following critical benefits does a "chumship" provide for a child?

(a) validation (b) referencing (c) status (d) mentoring

27. The "middle generation squeeze" refers to

(a) young grandparents who must simultaneously care for their own and their children's children. (b) middle-aged adults who find themselves simultaneously caring for both younger and older generations. (c) children of divorce who must split their time between living with both mother and father. (d) children who are the middle-born in a large family.

Denial

- a defense mechanism used to keep distressing thoughts from conscious awareness - when individuals are given a terminal diagnosis like cancer their first response might be "No! It's can't be me!" - this is often when people search for a second opinion or a more favorable diagnosis - for some they might deny the diagnosis altogether and thus delay treatment that might extend their life

Acceptance

- a state of calm/peace - maybe void of feelings - for many that have had a long illness a feeling of emotional, physical and psychological exhaustion - some will say they are "ready to go"

Heteronomous Morality

- ages 4-7 years - 1st stage of moral development according to Piaget - children take rules seriously - rules are handed down by parents or authority figures - children think of justice and rules as unchangeable properties of the world - they believe rules are removed from the control of people (meaning they cannot be changed for any reason - there are no exceptions) - they consider the consequences, not the intentions of the actor - ie., breaking 12 tea cups accidentally is worse than smashing 1 tea cup in anger (remember they are in preoperational thought - more is worse (12>1) not the intention behind the act) - they believe in the concept of Immanent Justice Immanent Justice - if a rule is broken, punishment will be dealt out immediately - children will look around when they do something wrong to see if anyone has noticed - ie. If two children are playing in a room and a picture crashes to the floor and you come and ask "What happened here?", the response is likely to be "She did it!" "He did it!" - older children, fear lessens, punishment only occurs if someone notices a transgression

Transition Period

- approximately 7-10 years of age - characteristics of both types of morality can be seen

Terms involving Morality: Moral Examples

- are individuals who have lived exemplary lives - they have moral personality, identity, character, and a set of virtues that reflect moral excellence and commitment

Terms involving Morality: Moral Identity

- aspects of personality that are present when individuals have moral notions and commitments that are central to their lives - violations of these notions and commitments place the integrity of the self at risk - Blase (2005) argues this is influenced by 3 important values (1) Willpower - strategies and meta-cognitive skills that (a) delay gratification (b) avoid distractions (c) resist temptations (2) Integrity - consists of a sense of responsibility that is present when individuals hold themselves accountable for the consequences of their actions (3) Moral Desire - motivation and intention to pursue a moral life

Biological Death

- biological death is hard to define - it is usually not a single event, but a process (natural death) - 1968, Harvard Medical School gave us a medical definition that is now used globally -they define death in terms of brain functioning (or lack of it) -sometimes referred to as the "Total Brain Death" protocol - irreversible loss of braining functioning both in the higher cortical areas (frontal lobe à you see gradual decreases in reasoning, decision making, problem solving and concentration) and lower cortical areas (pons, medulla, cerebellum) - as some individuals are approaching their final hours they often slip into a sleep-like state (It is my personal belief that they can still hear you and feel your presence.) - Many people share the same belief as myself. This is what has made the current Covid-19 Pandemic (currently a non-normative life event which will likely become a normative history graded medical example in the future - I thought I would bring the first week of lecture back) so difficult for many family members. - It is the thought of one's mother, father, husband, wife, sister, brother, grandmother or grandfather dying alone with no one to hold their hand, no one to tell them they are loved and that they will be missed that is causing profound guilt, emotional and psychological distress for those they have left behind. We are likely at some point to physically and medically get this virus under control, but the lasting psychological scars will be much harder to heal.

Diseases and Disorders

- children with Progeria are susceptible to the following diseases and disorders (1) Cardiovascular disease (2) Insulin-dependent diabetes (3) Scleroderma (connective tissue becomes tough and hard) (4) Arthritis (5) Osteoporosis (6) Fractures (7) Muscular losses (8) Respiratory issues (9) Infections (10) Strokes

Symptoms of Progeria

- growth failure during the first year of life (referred to as failure to thrive) - narrow, shrunken, or wrinkled face - baldness - loss of eyebrows and eyelashes - short stature - large head for size of face (macrocephaly) - open soft spot (fontanelle) - small, narrow jaw (micrognathia) - thin, fragile skin - limited range of joint motion (early arthritic changes) - missing or no teeth

Barganing

- is the maintenance of hope - the dying person bargains with a higher power - it does not matter the religious background - "Just let me live long enough to .... see my granddaughter graduate or take the family vacation to Disney World" - if they meet the bargain and they get to go to Disney World they will re-bargain again -> it gives them hope, something to live for - if mentally and psychologically they have a will to live they will continue fighting for more time - eventually they might not be able to meet the bargain, they might mentally give up and fall into the next response depression

Depression

- loss of hope - the individual realizes that they will not get better - there is sadness for losses that have already occurred (loss of function, inability to achieve dreams) - there is sadness for losses that will come (not being there for loved one's in the years to come) Preparatory Depression - or "putting your house in order" - when individuals want to start giving things that they cherish and love away to family members - remember when you graciously accept it puts their mind at ease and it is one more thing off their checklist - refusing might put them in emotional or psychological distress - some plan their own funerals (ie. former First Lady Nancy Regan) -> she picked the music, readings, and speakers -> she knew exactly how her funeral was going to be

2. Identification of goodness with responsibility for other

- need to please and be liked by others - ignore the voice within - being good = being responsible = self-sacrificing - females considered poor at self-nurturing - ie. when women marry they take care of others before themselves à children, husband, parents, in-laws, work, family pet - they want to be thought of as the "good wife or mother" Transition II - Conformity to a new inner judgment - start to question their own values - a shift takes place from wondering whether your concerns are selfish to whether it is more important to consider personal needs and values - usually happens when children leave home and child-care is no longer a focus

Causes Progeria

- progeria is caused by a gene mutation - the gene is referred to as the LMNA gene which produces the Lamin A protein - this protein is essential to maintain the integrity of the nucleus of every cell in our body - a defective Lamin A protein thus makes the nucleus unstable (essentially it starts to disintegrate) leading to the process of premature aging of cells, organ systems, and the entire human body - it is believed that 1 year equates to 7-8 years physiologically - that means that a 10 year old with Progeria really has the physiological make-up of a 70 to 80 year old - remember, cognitively they mature at the normal rate of children but, physically they are really in an older person's body (The reverse of the movie Benjamin Button with Brad Pitt) - interestingly, they are born looking healthy - but, by the time they are between 12 to 24 months there are clues that they are not developing like other toddlers - average life expectancy is 13 years of age (range is between 8-21 years)

3. Focus- The dynamics between self and others

- push for active decision making - do not see themselves as powerless - responsibility for what takes place in their lives - many women do not achieve this level - ie. mom goes back to school to get the degree she always wanted

Terms involving Morality: Meaningful Life

- studied by Baumeister & Vohs (2002) - understood in terms of fulfilling 4 main needs including: (a) Need for purpose (b) Need for values (c) Need for a sense of self-efficacy (making a difference) (d) Need for self-worth

Anger

- the "Why me?" response - for some individuals who have led healthy lives - no smoking, drinking or drugs - eating healthy and exercising -> they cannot believe they have been diagnosed with cancer - they feel anger, rage, or resentment and they direct it at anyone who is around (doctors, nurses, physical therapists and family members) - this anger is sometimes very difficult for family members to deal with especially if they have been acting as caregivers and have made sacrifices in their own lives to provide care - loved ones and medical staff need to realize they should not take this anger personally - often times the dying person does not even remember the episode an hour later - if the anger happens and it becomes emotionally overwhelming, sometimes you need to just walk away to collect yourself

1. Orientation towards self-interest

- women (late teens and twenties) are pre-occupied with self-interest and survival - moral decisions are based on what is best for the individual with little consideration for others - ie. a 100 years ago women had to survive by worrying about choosing a good husband (because that is who would support you when you left your parents home). -today, women in this age group are worried about finishing school and getting a job into order to survive Transition I - Selfishness to responsibility - beginning to realize what is necessary to do is more important than personal desires - less egotistical -ie. when you get engaged, maybe you don't want to go to your future in-laws for dinner, but you do it anyways to make your fiance happy

Gilligan's Stages of Moral Reasoning

- worked with Kohlberg on his theory - agreed with his theory, but said women moral reason differently as they approach adulthood - wanted him to include this - he said no - she graduated - made her own theory

Nature, Nurture, and Attatchment

-Bowlby argued that both infants and parents are biologically predisposed to form attachments because they contribute to survival -Like imprinting in goslings, human attachments form during what Bowlby viewed as the sensitive period for attachment, the first 3 years of life. But attachments do not form automatically. According to Bowlby, a responsive social environment is critical: An infant's signals to adults may eventually wane if caregivers are unresponsive to them. Ultimately, the security of an attachment depends on both nature and nurture—on the interaction over time between a biologically prepared infant and a biologically prepared caregiver and on the sensitivity of each partner to the other's signals.

Play- Is it good? What are the 4 categories?

-Children spend a lot of time playing and develop all kinds of skills by doing so (Pellegrini, 2009): So important is play in the life of the child from age 2 to 5 that these years are sometimes called the play years. -We can detect two major changes in play between infancy and age 5: it becomes more social and it becomes more imaginative. After age 5 or so, the exuberant and fanciful play of the preschool years gives way to somewhat more serious, rule-governed, and skill-building play. Solitary play. Children play alone, typically with objects, and appear to be highly involved in what they are doing. Parallel play. Children play next to one another, doing much the same thing, but they interact little (e.g., two girls might sit near each other, both drawing pictures, without talking to each other much). Associative play. Children interact by swapping materials, conversing, or following each other's lead, but they are not united by the same goal (e.g., the two girls may swap crayons and comment on each other's drawings as they draw). Cooperative play. Children join forces to achieve a common goal; they act as a pair or group, dividing their labor and coordinating their activities in a meaningful way (e.g., the two girls collaborate to draw a big mural).

Changing Social Networks (popularity, cliques, crowds, and peer influence)

-During adolescence, being accepted by peers and gaining popularity in the sense of status in the peer group can become powerful motivations. · In late childhood, boys and girls typically become members of same-sex cliques, or small friendship groups, and have little to do with the other sex. o Cliques: A small friendship group that interacts frequently. · Boy cliques and girl cliques then begin to interact. Same-sex cliques provide a secure base for romantic relationships. For an adolescent boy, talking to a girl at the mall with his friends and her friends there is far less threatening than doing so on his own. · In early adolescence, the most popular boys and girls lead the way and form a heterosexual clique. · As less popular teens also form mixed-sex cliques of their own, a new peer-group structure, the crowd, completes its evolution during the high school years. The crowd, a loose network of heterosexual cliques, provides a vehicle for socializing with the other sex through organized social gatherings such as parties. In larger schools, there are likely to be multiple crowds, each with its own distinctive reputation. Those adolescents who become members of a mixed-sex clique and a crowd (not all do) have many opportunities to get to know members of the other sex as both friends and romantic partners. o Crowd: A network of heterosexual cliques that forms during adolescence and facilitates mixed-sex social activities. · More and more couples form and the crowd begins to disintegrate in late high school, having served its purpose of bringing boys and girls together. Peer Influence: A common misconception in our society is that peers are a bad influence on adolescents. As it turns out, peers typically do more to foster important social learning and positive behavior than to encourage antisocial behavior

Achieving Autonomy (Helicopter Parenting)

-Helicopter Parenting: Also called overparenting, parenting characterized by developmentally inappropriate levels of control of and assistance to late-adolescent and emerging-adult children. Helicopter parents are likely to micromanage their children's lives during the college years, and often beyond, through such tactics as closely monitoring their children through frequent texting and calling, looking into job opportunities and arranging dentist appointments and activities for them, calling their professors about unfair grades, trying to settle disputes with their roommates, and generally removing obstacles in their paths and orchestrating their success.

The Case of Child Abuse

-In short, abusive parents tend to have been exposed to harsh parenting as children and to abusive romantic relationships as adolescents and adults, have little income and little support, and have personalities characterized by insecure attachment, dependency, and a tendency to become aggressive when relationships go poorly. Still, it has been difficult to pin down exactly who will turn into a child abuser. The most likely victims of child maltreatment are infants—the very children least able to defend themselves and most vulnerable to damage. The rate of maltreatment (25 children per 1,000 for infants) decreases as the age of a child increases—except for sexual abuse, which increases with age (Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, 2019). Physically abused children have problems in virtually every area of development: physical injuries; health problems; atypical brain development; cognitive deficits; social, emotional, and behavioral problems; and psychological disorders (Cicchetti & Toth, 2015; Del Vecchio et al., 2013; IOM & NRC, 2014). Maltreatment can have damaging effects on the developing brain, the stress-response system, the immune system, and other biological systems that affect physiological and psychological functioning. Intellectual deficits and academic difficulties are common among mistreated children. Social and behavioral problems are also common, and maltreated children tend to have poor emotional understanding, experience many negative emotions, and have difficulty regulating their emotions (Cicchetti & Toth, 2015; Lavi et al., 2019). Some, especially those who are physically abused, are explosively aggressive youngsters; others are anxious, depressed, and withdrawn. Do these negative impacts last? Even as adults, individuals who were abused as children tend to have higher-than-average rates of depression, anxiety, and other psychological problems (Nemeroff & Binder, 2014). Many still have difficulties in processing emotion (Young & Widom, 2014). And their marriages are more negative and less satisfying and their relationships with their families less emotionally close than those of other adults (Nguyen et al., 2016; Savla et al., 2013). Remarkably, though, some maltreated children—between 10 and 25%—are resilient and get back on an adaptive developmental path, whether owing to a protective genetic makeup and personal strengths or support from at least one nurturing adult (Cicchetti & Toth, 2015; Houshyar et al., 2013; Yule et al., 2019).

Exploration 14.1 Culture and the Tiger Mother

-Subsequent research has shown that the worst developmental outcomes are associated with the neglectful, uninvolved style of parenting. Children of neglectful parents display behavioral problems such as aggression and frequent temper tantrums and are at risk to become hostile and antisocial adolescents who abuse alcohol and drugs and get in trouble (Lamborn et al., 1991; Weiss & Schwarz, 1996). Parents who provide little guidance and communicate that they do not care breed children who are resentful and prone to strike back at their uncaring parents and other authority figures. -children develop best when they have both love and limits. The link between authoritative parenting and positive developmental outcomes is evident in most ethnic groups and socioeconomic groups in the United States and in a variety of other cultures

Progeria

-a rare, fatal genetic condition - characterized by the appearance of accelerated aging in children. - its name is derived from the Greek meaning "prematurely old". - originally named Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome after the doctors that first described it in England, in 1886 by Dr. Jonathan Hutchinson and in 1897 by Dr. Hastings Gilford - chances of genetically acquiring Progeria is approximately 1 in 3,000,000 - there are just over 50 children worldwide who have the disease (it is extremely rare)

Roots of Morality: Evolutionary Theory

-evolutionary theorists such as Dennis Krebs, Michael Tomasello, and others argue that all three aspects of morality—moral thought, moral emotion, and moral behavior—have become part of our human nature because they helped humans adapt to their environments over the course of evolution -Evolutionary theorists have argued that it can be in our genetic self-interest to act altruistically toward kin because they will pass on the family's genes if we help them survive

How can you tell if someone is close to dying?

A reversion back to their youth: - some start talking to their parents (parents have long ago passed away) - they call out for their mother or father - if English was not their first language (Polish, Arabic, French) they revert back to speaking in the language of their childhood - if you ask them to speak in English (and they have been speaking English for years) it is like they don't even hear you and they keep speaking in their childhood language - students ask "How long to they have?" -> it can vary from days to weeks The "Last Supper" Phenomenon - towards the end many do not eat especially if they have been sick - I come from a European background - for those of you who come from European, Middle Eastern, or Asian backgrounds you know what happens? -we cook like crazy, pack it all up if they are in the hospital and we try to feed them - usually with no success - they just don't feel like eating (upset my mother to no end when she cooked and my grandmother did not want to eat or just picked at the food) - then one day they are going to ask for something to eat - my grandmother made the request of roast beef, mashed potatoes, rolls, Black Forest cake (not the easiest to make from scratch) and brewed coffee à I thought my mother was going to fall over but, she went home from the hospital on Saturday night and started with the cake - we cooked all day Sunday, packed it up and brought it to hospital - my grandmother requested to sit up in a chair and we served all the food she wanted - she ate everything with the greatest enthusiasm, cleaned the plate - then she said to my mom "That's the BEST dinner you ever made!" That was the last thing she ever said to my mom. The next day she slipped into the sleep-like state and passed away the following day. - the point to my story à go make or get them whatever their food request is because it is usually the last pleasure they have before their life ends Reverting back to childhood and the "Last Supper" phenomenon are two clues that the time may be near for a person to die. If you experience either of these situations personally or professionally you will know what to do or how to advice family members.

Peer Acceptance

Accepted (or popular). Well liked by most and rarely disliked. Rejected. Rarely liked and often disliked. Neglected. Neither liked nor disliked; these children seem to be invisible to their classmates. Controversial. Liked by many but also disliked by many. Average. In the middle on both the liked and disliked scales.

Death Across the Life Span: Table 16.1- Leading Causes of Death by Age

Age Group: Younger than 1 year Total Deaths, 2017: 22,335 No. 1 Cause: Congenital Abnormalities No. 2 Cause: Short gestation, low birth weight No. 3 Cause: Maternal complications of pregnancy Age Group: 1-4 years Total Deaths, 2017: 3,880 No. 1 Cause: Accidents (unintentional injuries) No. 2 Cause: Congenital Abnormalities No. 3 Cause: Cancers Age Group: 5-9 Total Deaths, 2017: 2,354 No. 1 Cause: Accidents No. 2 Cause: Cancers No. 3 Cause: Congenital Abnormalities Age Group: 10-14 Total Deaths, 2017: 3, 217 No. 1 Cause: Accidents No. 2 Cause: Suicide (Self-Harm) No. 3 Cause: Cancers Age Group: 15-19 Total Deaths, 2017: 10, 886 No. 1 Cause: Accidents No. 2 Cause: Suicide No. 3 Cause: Assult (homicide) Age Group: 20-24 Total Deaths, 2017: 21.139 No. 1 Cause: Accidents No. 2 Cause: Suicide No. 3 Cause: Assult (homicide) Age Group: 25-34 Total Deaths, 2017: 60, 215 No. 1 Cause: Accidents No. 2 Cause: Suicide No. 3 Cause: Assult Age Group: 35-44 Total Deaths, 2017: 79, 796 No. 1 Cause: Accidents No. 2 Cause: Cancers No. 3 Cause: Heart Diseases Age Group: 45-54 Total Deaths, 2017: 170, 142 No. 1 Cause: Cancers No. 2 Cause: Heart Diseases No. 3 Cause: Accidents Age Group: 55-64 Total Deaths, 2017: 372, 006 No. 1 Cause: Cancers No. 2 Cause: Heart Diseases No. 3 Cause: Accidents Age Group: 65-74 Total Deaths, 2017: 531, 610 No. 1 Cause: Cancers No. 2 Cause: Heart Diseases No. 3 Cause: Chronic Respiratory Diseases Age Group: 75-84 Total Deaths, 2017: 657, 759 No. 1 Cause: Cancers No. 2 Cause: Heart Diseases No. 3 Cause: Chronic Respiratory Diseases Age Group: 85 years and older Total Deaths, 2017: 878, 035 No. 1 Cause: Heart Diseases No. 2 Cause: Cancers No. 3 Cause: Alzheimer's Disease

The Infant's Attachment to the Caregiver

As they interact with their caregivers, infants progress through four phases in forming attachments (Ainsworth, 1973; Bowlby, 1969): Undiscriminating social responsiveness (birth to 2 or 3 months). Very young infants are responsive to voices, faces, and other social stimuli, but any human interests them. Discriminating social responsiveness (2 or 3 months to 6 or 7 months). Infants begin to show preferences for familiar companions. They direct their biggest grins and most enthusiastic babbles toward those companions, although they are still friendly toward strangers. Active proximity seeking or true attachment (6 or 7 months to about 3 years). Around 6 or 7 months, infants form their first clear attachments, most often but not always to their mother. Now the infant will follow her mother, protest when her mother leaves, and greet her mother warmly when she returns. Soon most infants become attached to other people as well—fathers, siblings, grandparents, regular babysitters (Schaffer & Emerson, 1964). Goal-corrected partnership (3 years and older). By about age 3, partly because they have more advanced social cognitive abilities, children can participate in a goal-corrected partnership, in which they and their parents take one another's goals and plans into consideration and adjust their behavior accordingly. Thus, a 1-year-old cries and tries to follow when Dad leaves the house to talk to a neighbor, whereas a 4-year-old can ask questions, understand where Dad is going, and wait for his return. This final, goal-corrected partnership phase lasts a lifetime.

What is attachment and attachment theory?

Attachment: A strong affectional tie that binds a person to an intimate companion and is characterized by affection and a desire to maintain proximity. *For most of us, the first attachment we form, around 6 or 7 months of age, is to a parent. Attachment Theory: Theory of close relationships developed by Bowlby and Ainsworth and grounded in ethological theory (with psychoanalytic theory and cognitive theory); it says that close emotional bonds such as parent-child attachments are biologically based and contribute to species survival.

Parenting Styles

Authoritarian parenting. This is a restrictive parenting style combining high demandingness-control and low acceptance-responsiveness. Parents impose many rules, expect strict obedience, rarely explain why the child should comply with rules, and often rely on power-assertion tactics such as physical punishment to gain compliance. Authoritative parenting. Authoritative parents are more flexible; they are quite demanding and exert control, but they are also sensitive to their children. They set clear rules and consistently enforce them, but they have rationales for their rules and explain them, are responsive to their children's needs and points of view, and involve their children in decision making. They are reasonable and democratic in their approach; although it is clear that they are in charge, they communicate respect for their children. Permissive parenting (sometimes called indulgent parenting). This style is high in acceptance-responsiveness but low in demandingness-control. Permissive parents are child centered; they have relatively few rules and make relatively few demands, encourage children to express their feelings and impulses, and rarely exert control over their behavior. Neglectful parenting (sometimes called disengaged or uninvolved parenting). Finally, parents who combine low demandingness-control and low acceptance-responsiveness are relatively uninvolved in their children's upbringing. They seem not to care much about their children. They may be hostile and rejecting or indifferent—or they may be so overwhelmed by their own problems that they cannot devote sufficient energy to expressing love and setting and enforcing rules (Maccoby & Martin, 1983).

Caring for Aging Parents

Caregiver burden is likely to be heaviest if: · the recipient of care is difficult to care for—for example, has Alzheimer's disease or another form of dementia and engages in the disruptive and socially inappropriate behavior that often accompanies dementia (Chiao et al., 2015); · the caregiver lacks personal resources such as good coping skills and a secure attachment to the parent (Karantzas et al., 2010; Morse et al., 2011); · the caregiver lacks social support, especially a supportive marriage (Scharlach et al., 2006; Stephens et al., 2009); and · cultural norms do not strongly support caregiving; for example, white caregivers devote fewer hours to care but feel more burdened by it than African American caregivers do, possibly because cultural norms regarding family responsibility for elder care are stronger in African American communities (Kosberg et al., 2007).

First Emotions and Emotional Regulation- How do they Unfold?

Carroll Izard (1982; Izard & Ackerman, 2000) and his colleagues maintain that basic emotions are biologically based, develop early in life, and play critical roles in motivating and organizing behavior. Primary Emotions: One of the distinct basic emotions that emerges within the first 6 months of life universally (joy, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, fear). At birth, babies show contentment (by smiling), interest (by staring intently at objects), and distress (by grimacing in response to pain or discomfort). Within the first 6 months, six specific primary emotions evolve from these three. Contentment becomes joy—pleasure at the sight of something familiar such as Mom's face. Interest becomes surprise, such as when expectations are violated in games of peekaboo. Distress soon evolves into four familiar negative emotions: disgust (mainly in response to foul-tasting foods), sadness, anger, and fear. Next, as Figure 13.1 also shows, come the so-called secondary or self-conscious emotions (Lewis, 2015). These emotions require self-awareness and begin to emerge at about 18 months of age, the age when infants become able to recognize themselves in a mirror (see Chapter 10 on self-recognition). Once they achieve self-awareness, infants may show embarrassment when they are asked to dance or sing for guests. Then, later in the second year, when toddlers become able to judge their behavior against standards of performance, they may display the self-conscious emotions that involve evaluating the self: pride, shame, and guilt (Lewis, 2008). Secondary Emotions: A "secondary emotion" such as embarrassment or pride that requires an awareness of self; unlikely to emerge until about 18 months of age.

Who copes and who succumbs?

Coping with bereavement is influenced by the individual's personal resources, the nature of the loss, and the surrounding context of support and stressors Personal Resources: Attachment style is systematically related to reactions to death (Kho et al., 2015; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2013; Parkes, 2006): A secure attachment style is associated with coping relatively well with the death of a loved one. -A resistant (or preoccupied) style of attachment, which involves being highly anxious about being abandoned, is linked to being overly dependent and displaying prolonged grief and anxiety after a loss, ruminating about the death, and clinging to the lost loved one. -An avoidant (or dismissing) attachment style is associated with difficulty expressing emotions or seeking comfort; such individuals may do little visible grieving and may minimize how much they miss their loved one. -A disorganized (or fearful) attachment style, which is rooted in unpredictable and anxiety-arousing parenting, is associated with being especially ill-equipped to cope with loss; these individuals may turn inward, harm themselves, or abuse alcohol or drugs. In sum, personal resources such as emotional stability, an active coping style, and a secure attachment orientation go a long way toward explaining differences in bereavement outcomes. Nature of the Loss: Bereavement outcomes are also influenced by the nature of the loss. The closeness of the person's relationship to the deceased is a key factor. Supports and Stressors: Finally, grief reactions are influenced positively by the presence of social support and negatively by additional life stressors By taking into account the person who has experienced a death, the nature of the death, and the context of supports and stressors surrounding it, we can put together a profile of the individuals who are most likely to have long-term problems after bereavement.

social Meanings of Death

Historical: As historian Philippe Ariès (1981) has shown, the social meanings of death have changed over the course of history. In Europe during the Middle Ages, people were expected to recognize that their deaths were approaching so that they could bid their farewells and die with dignity surrounded by loved ones. Since the late 19th century, Ariès argues, Western societies have engaged in a "denial of death." We have taken death out of the home and put it in the hospital and funeral home to be managed by physicians and funeral directors; as a result, we have less direct experience with it than our ancestors did (Röcke & Cherry, 2002). Cultural: Anthony Glascock (2009) found that in 21 of 41 cultures he examined, practices that hastened the death of frail elderly people existed—practices such as depriving ailing elders of food, driving them from their homes, or stabbing them upon their request. Only 12 of the societies were entirely supportive of frail elders and had no death-hastening practices. In short, the experiences of dying individuals and of their survivors are shaped by the historical and cultural contexts in which death occurs. Death is universal, and the human tendency to mourn a loss may be too. Otherwise, death is truly what we humans make of it; there is no one "right" way to die or to grieve a death

Hospice

Hospice - a program that supports dying patients and their families - opportunity to die with dignity, free of pain, and surrounded by loved one's Philosophy - one of "caring" not "curing"

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg -his theory is divided into 3 levels - each level contains 2 stages - his theory is a stage theory which means an individual passes through the stages in sequence - a description of the levels and stages follows below - note, Kohlberg also believes moral reasoning begins at age 4 cannot skip a stage

Kubler-Ross's Responses to Death and Dying

Kubler-Ross: - identified the "responses" to death and dying - her theory is not a stage theory because individuals do not necessarily pass through the responses in order, they may skip stages, or not experience some stages at all - her work was conducted with over 300 Hospice patients and their families - her work was initiated because many patients and their family members felt that during the dying process medical staff were cold, removed, and isolated their loved ones (her work began in the early 1970'S) - the medical community wanted a more complete understanding of what dying patients and their family members experience so that they could better educate nurses and doctors to respond - she identified 5 responses which include denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance

Level 2: Conventional Level (Ages 10-13) (note: some adults do not morally reason past Stage 4) The child internalizes the standards of others (parents, teachers) and judges right and wrong according to those standards

Level Stage 3 - Good-child orientation The morality of mutual relationships. The child acts to help and please others. They want to be thought of as the "good boy or nice girl" Mrs. Smith can I carry your books to your those standards car? Mrs. Smith do you need help erasing the boards after school? Stage 4 - Law-order orientation The morality of the social system and consciousness. The orientation is toward authority. Morality is doing one's duty, respecting authority, and maintaining social order. I won't speed because it's against the law and I could cause a car accident and someone could get hurt.

Moral Socialization

Love withdrawal. Withholding attention, affection, or approval after a child misbehaves—in other words, creating anxiety by threatening a loss of reinforcement from parents. Power assertion. Using power to threaten, chastise, administer spankings, take away privileges, and so on—in other words, using punishment. Induction. Explaining to a child why the behavior is wrong and should be changed by emphasizing how it affects other people. *Induction wins hands down over love withdrawal, which has mixed results, and power assertion, the least effective approach

Morality

Morality involves: (1) The ability to distinguish between right and wrong (The ability to cognitively determine if an action, event or decision is the right thing to do or the wrong thing to do.) (2) The ability to act on this distinction (The ability to physically act or speak up if something is wrong. The ability to acknowledge when someone has done the right thing.) (3) The ability to experience pride when we do the right thing (The emotional experience of pride acts as a behavioral reinforcer. When we feel pride after doing something good and we are acknowledged for this deed by others we are more likely to do the right thing again.) (4) The ability to experience guilt and shame when we do the wrong thing (It is important to experience guilt because it to acts as a behavioral reinforcer. If we feel badly about doing something wrong we are less likely to commit that act or make that decision again.) What happens if someone does not experience guilt? What psychology disorders correspond to this problem? The absence of experiencing guilt is found is several personality disorders you may have discussed in Intro Psych. Examples include: narcissistic personality disorder and antisocial personality disorder (also known as the sociopath). As well, individuals with schizophrenia whose symptoms of hallucinations (false sensory experiences), delusions (false beliefs) and illogical thought patterns that are not controlled with medications (they are in a full psychotic state) may also not experience guilt if they commit a wrongful act (stealing, murder).

Love (Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love)

Passion involves sexual attraction, romantic feelings, and a sense of excitement. Intimacy involves feelings of warmth, caring, closeness, trust, and respect. It is about emotional togetherness, attachment, and communication. Commitment involves first deciding that one loves the other person and then committing to a long-term relationship. Liking= intimacy alone companionate love= intimacy + commitment empty love= commitment alone fatuous love= passion + commitment infatuation= passion alone romantic love= intimacy + passion consummate love= intimacy + passion + commitment

Piaget's Perspective on Moral Reasoning

Piaget's perspective on moral reasoning includes: (1) premoral period (2) 2 moral stages

Posttraumatic growth

Posttraumatic growth refers to positive psychological change resulting from highly challenging experiences such as being diagnosed with a life-threatening illness or losing a loved one (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1995). A review of studies suggests that nearly half of people who have experienced traumas of various kinds report such growth, with the numbers varying from 10 to 77% across studies (Wu et al., 2019). Posttraumatic stress and posttraumatic growth seem to go hand in hand. Growth is unlikely where there is little psychological distress, and it is unlikely where the distress is overwhelming. Instead, growth seems most likely when distress is significant but not crushing (Armstrong & Shakespeare-Finch, 2011; Currier et al., 2012). In a sample of parents who had lost children, posttraumatic growth was most evident among mothers, parents of young children, parents who were high in resilience, parents who maintained internalized continuing bonds with their child, and parents who communicated about their experience with their partner (Albuquerque et al., 2018).

Premoral Period

Premoral Period - occurs during the preschool years - children show little awareness or understanding of rules - according to Piaget, they cannot be considered moral beings at this age Note: This is line with Freud. If you remember Freud's Structure of Personality there are 3 components: Id, Ego, and Superego. The Superego is the moral component of personality and emerges around age 4. So Freud also implied that children in the preschool range cannot morally reason.

Theories of Aging: Why Do We Age and Die

Programmed Theories: Theories of biological aging that emphasize the systematic genetic control of aging processes. Damaged Theories: Theories of the biology of aging that emphasize random, haphazard errors and damage associated with such processes as the production of free radicals as explanations of why we all age and die. A better approach for now, whether you believe in programmed theories or damage theories of aging, is to maintain a healthy diet and a healthy lifestyle that includes physical exercise (Viña et al., 2018).

grandparenthood

Remote. Remote grandparents (29% of the sample) were symbolic figures seen only occasionally by their grandchildren. Primarily because they were geographically distant, they tended to be emotionally distant as well (although video chat is now helping). Companionate. This was the most common style of grandparenting (55% of the sample). Companionate grandparents saw their grandchildren frequently and enjoyed doing things with them. They only rarely played a parental role and liked it that way. As one companionate grandparent put it, "I'm happy to see them when they come and I'm happy to see them go" (Bates & Taylor, 2013, p. 59). Involved. Finally, 16% of the grandparents took on a more parent-like role. Like companionate grandparents, they saw their grandchildren frequently and were playful with them, but unlike companionate grandparents, they often helped with child care, gave advice, and played other practical roles in their grandchildren's lives. Indeed, some involved grandparents lived with and served as parents for their grandchildren. So, grandparenting takes remote, companionate, and involved forms but most grandparents see at least some of their grandchildren frequently and prefer a companionate role that is high in enjoyment and affection but low in responsibility.

What are stranger and separation anxieties?

Separation Anxiety: A wary or fretful reaction that infants display when separated from their attachment objects. Separation anxiety normally appears after the first attachment forms, peaks around 1 year of age, and gradually becomes less frequent and less intense (Weinraub & Lewis, 1977), although even children and adolescents may become distressed if they are separated from their parents unexpectedly or for a long time (witness Adelaida at the start of the chapter). Stranger Anxiety: A wary or fretful reaction that infants often display when approached by an unfamiliar person. A second fearful response that often emerges shortly after an infant becomes attached and that also peaks at about a year of age is stranger anxiety—a wary or fretful reaction to the approach of an unfamiliar person that can vary from staring and whimpering to screaming in terror (Schaffer & Emerson, 1964). Stranger anxiety is less likely to occur if an infant's attachment figure is present and reacts positively to the stranger, thereby affecting the baby's reactions positively through social referencing (Morgan & Ricciuti, 1969). It also helps if the stranger approaches slowly while smiling, talking, and offering a familiar toy or suggesting a familiar activity and if he takes his cues from the infant rather than being pushy (Bretherton et al., 1981; Sroufe, 1977).

Stopping the Bullies

So what can be done to stop the bullying? -Antibullying programs in the schools are now mandated in all 50 states and most industrialized countries (Astor & Benbenishty, 2019; Bennett, 2010). -Schools now take active steps to combat bullying and to encourage students who are bystanders to report or intervene in bullying incidents rather than reinforcing the bullies (Beane, 2009; Saarento & Salmivalli, 2015). One of the most widely used and well-known interventions, the first of its kind, is the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program (Olweus, 1993; Olweus & Limber, 2010). Launched in Norway in the wake of three teen suicides attributed to bullying, it is a comprehensive program with several components. It focuses on: The school as a whole (e.g., through a school coordinating group with staff and student representatives and teacher training) The classroom (e.g., through posting of rules against bullying and regular class discussions of bullying) The individual (through talks with bullies, victims, and their parents and development of individual action plans for those involved in bullying) The broader community (through school-community partnerships and parent involvement). Even years later, there were signs of changes in the school culture in schools that implemented the Olweus program and stuck with it: bullying rates were lower, and schools were more prepared to prevent and deal with bullying (Olweus et al., 2019). A similar program designed to change the school culture, Finland's KiVa program, has also proven effective (Salmivalli, 2018). Programs work best if they include intervening with students who engage in bullying, parent involvement, efforts to mobilize student bystanders, and clear communications by teachers that bullying will not be tolerated (Salmivalli, 2018).

Level 1: Preconventional Level (Ages 4-10) Moral reasoning is governed by the standards of others; an act is good or bad depending on its physical consequences- whether it is punished or rewarded egocentric: solely concerned with themselves

Stage 1 - Pleasure- pain orientation Behavior that avoids punishment is the right behavior. Children obey out of fear. Kohlberg is researching in the 1960's and 1970's when it was still socially acceptable to get spanked or get the ruler or strap if you misbehaved in school. You were good and did the right thing so you did not experience the consequences -> pain. Stage 2 - Cost-benefit orientation The stage of self-interest. The child will do the right thing if they can get something in return. I will pick up my toys if I can have an Oreo cookie.

Level 3: Post-Conventional Level (begins after age 13, mostly in adulthood when one has greater cognitive maturity and life experience, and for some they never reach this level) Moral Conduct is under internal control. This is the highest level and the mark of true morality.

Stage 5 - Social-contract orientation The morality of contract. The contract is between those in power and the people they are supposed to serve. The contract implies a respect for individual rights and freedoms that are democratically agreed upon. The wishes of the majority and the general welfare of the population must be considered. Those in power are to provide safety and preserve the rights of the people. Examples where this has not happened: (1) Syria - those in power killing their own people causing them to flee for safety, food, and shelter (2) One might argue the U.S & Canada with the current Covid-19 pandemic. How many elderly are dying in nursing and long-term care facilities? The numbers are shocking, heart- breaking, and in my opinion morally unacceptable (you can disagree with me if you like). Those in charge of these facilities and the government are failing the most vulnerable and fragile citizens in our society. Stage 6 - Ethical principle orientation The highest level of moral reasoning. The morality of universal ethical principles which includes seeking justice, truth, equality and valuing human life above everything else. The person acts according to their own internal standards independent of legal restrictions or the opinions of others.

Exploration 16.1- Bereavement in Same-Sex Relationships

Such resilience is all the more surprising when we consider that gay and lesbian partners often experience what Kenneth Doka (1989, 2016) calls disenfranchised grief, grief that is not fully recognized or appreciated by other people and therefore may not receive much sympathy and support. Losses of ex-spouses, extramarital lovers, foster children, pets, and fetuses can also result in disenfranchised grief. It is generally harder to cope with than socially supported grief. Gay widowers report that they are indeed often disenfranchised before and after their losses (Piatczanyn et al., 2016). Gay and lesbian adults who lose partners, whether to AIDS or other causes, often have to cope with more than disenfranchised grief. They may be stigmatized and they may face additional legal and financial challenges if the family of their partner questions the terms of the will or raises issues concerning ownership of joint property or the like (Bristowe et al., 2016; Patlamazoglou et al., 2018). Overall, gay and lesbian adults face the same challenges that anyone who loses a life partner faces as well as added challenges such as disenfranchised grief and stigma, but most cope surprisingly well.

Moral Intuition and Emotion

The findings supported Greene's (2008) concept of a dual-process model of morality involving: an emotion-based intuitive process that prompts us, quickly and without awareness, to react with strong emotion to the harm that would be done if we violated a moral principle (as by pushing a stranger to his death) and a more deliberative, cognitive approach in which we weigh the costs and benefits of an action in a cool and calculating manner (and conclude that it is more rational to sacrifice one life than to lose five). Other evidence supports this dual-process model and the idea that we use different parts of our brains to make intuitive and deliberative moral decisions Table 12.5. Dual-Process Models of Morality: Moral Cognition/Reasoning (Emphasized by Kohlberg) / Moral Emotion/Intuition (Emphasized by Haidt, Greene) Rational thought/ Intuition Cold logic/ Hot emotion Controlled processes/ Automatic processes Impartiality/ Empathy Careful deliberation/ Quick gut reaction

Death in the Family Context

To better understand bereavement, it is useful to adopt a family systems perspective and examine how a death alters relationships, roles, and patterns of interaction within the family, as well as interactions between the family and its social environment (Kissane et al., 2013; Silverman, 2000; Walsh & McGoldrick, 2013). Recall the concept of "linked lives" from Chapter 14 and you can appreciate how the death of a family member affects other family members and alters the relationships among them. The death of a child, for example, changes parents, siblings, grandparents, and other relatives and their interactions with one another and the rest of the world. Adjustment can depend on where the family is in the family life cycle (Is it a young couple or an elderly couple?) and on the sociocultural context, so we need to blend developmental, family systems, and contextual perspectives to fully appreciate the ripple effects of a death (Walsh & McGoldrick, 2013). Consider the challenges associated with three kinds of death in the family: the loss of a spouse or partner, the loss of a child, and the loss of a parent.

Hospice Findings

study conducted in Great Britain found the following: (1) Patients spent fewer days in pain (2) Patients underwent fewer medical interventions and operations (3) Patients reported receiving nursing care more oriented towards their emotional needs (4) Family members appear to display fewer symptoms of grief and greater well-being 1 to 2 years after their loved one has passed