PSYC 445 Midterm

Multiple screens across players

Each player has his or her own personal screen on a network and a shared or common screen for all to view. i.e., World of Warcraft (Blizzard, 2001), Halo 3 (Bungie, 2007), Legend of Zelda: Four Sword Adventures (Nintendo, 2004)

Graphics

Electronic games have come to rely heavily on screens and graphics. One could classify games on the basis of the quality of the graphics, but a more interesting taxonomy is presented by Wolf (1997) based on the way that they use on-screen and off-screen space (SCREEN SPACE).

One screen contained

Graphics are confined to one 2-dimensional space. Objects may be confined to move around the screen or to appear at one side and to disappear at the other. i.e., Pong (Atari, 1972), Space Invaders (Taito, 1978)

Seventh Generation (2004-2008)

This is the generation of the Sony PlayStation 3, Nintendo Wii, Nintendo DS, PlayStation Portable and the Xbox 360. Networks and graphics take off. Pointing devices and location devices introduced.

Spaces allowing Z-axis movement out of frame

A 3-D effect is created using a Z-axis movement showing objects grow in size as they move up the tunnel to where the player's character is. Tempest (Atari, 1980), Star Ship (Atari 2600, 1977), Night Driver (Atari, 1976)

How have computers developed over the history of video games?

Computers have gone from Mainframe and PEC PDP computers to home computers such at the Altair 8080 and the Apple II-E to Windows and MAC computers.

Design (Production)

A collaborative process of designing the content and rules of a game, requiring artistic and technical competence as well as writing skills.

Concept (Pre-Production)

A more detailed document than the pitch document. This includes all the information produced about the game. This includes the high concept, game's genre, gameplay description, features, setting, story, target audience, hardware platforms, estimated schedule, marketing analysis, team requirements, and risk analysis.

Multi-User Dungeons (MUDs)

A multiplayer real-time virtual world, usually text-based. MUDs combine elements of role-playing games, hack and slash, player versus player, interactive fiction, and online chat. They began developing in the second generation of video games (1977-1983). *Think Dungeons & Dragons

Testing (Production)

At the end of the project quality assurance plays a significant role. Testers start work once anything is playable. This may be one level or subset of the game software that can be used to any reasonable extent. Early on, testing a game occupies a relatively small amount of time. Testers may work on several games at once. As development draws to a close, a single game usually employs many testers full time (and often with overtime). They strive to test new features and regression test existing ones. Testing is vital for modern, complex games as single changes may lead to catastrophic consequences. At this time features and levels are being finished at the highest rate and there is more new material to be tested than during any other time in the project. Testers need to carry out regression testing to make sure that features that have been in place for months still operate correctly.

Game Design Document (Pre-Production)

Before a full-scale production can begin, the development team produces the first version of a game design document incorporating all or most of the material from the initial pitch. The design document describes the game's concept and major gameplay elements in detail. It may also include preliminary sketches of various aspects of the game. Design document is sometimes accompanied by functional prototypes of some sections of the game. Design document remains a living document throughout the development often changed weekly or even daily.

Adjacent spaces displayed one at a time

Contiguous spaces are presented as a series of non-overlapping static screens cut one to the next without scrolling. When the character moves off-screen in one direction the scene changes instantaneously from one scene to the next. -i.e., Character can walk in doors and see different scene i.e., Adventure (1978)wiki, Superman (1979)

Ken and Roberta Williams

Creators of the first adventure game, Mystery House, released by On-Line Systems (later Sierra Entertainment) in 1980. It was designed, written and illustrated by Roberta Williams and programmed by Ken Williams for the Apple II. First, it was text based. Sold on floppy disks for the Apple IIe. Soon simple graphics were added, then sound, and animations. Kings Quest on to Leisure Suit Larry. King"s Quest, spawned sequels like a movie, and led the movement in creating sound cards for the PC.

Jean Piaget

Describes three types of games that play a role in childhood development: 1. Sensorimotor play 2. Symbolic or representational play 3. Game with rules

Game Trees (State Space Trees)

Diagrams can be used to analyze all of the possibilities in a game, that is each player's choices and the consequences. Games can be analyzed by searching the state action tree. Artificial intelligence algortihms search and prune these trees to find the optimal path to a winning state.

What is the impact of video games on the individual and the society?

-For the individual, it may be negative if it gets to the point of an addiction, an obsession or if it spills over into a negative life style of violence and exploitation. -It may be positive if it is an outlet for feelings, a training ground for positive responses and social collaboration. -For the society, it may be negative if it reduces productivity of workers or results in acts of violence. -It may be positive if it creates social networks, promotes positive community values, and increases well-being of individuals.

What Psychology is involved in video games?

-Video games and entertainment are an immense playground for psychology, principles, theory, applications, learning, counseling, etc. -The following aspects of psychology intersect with video games and entertainment: 1. Sensation and perception: detection and recognition of targets (PacMan) 2. Motor and reaction time skills (Guitar Hero) 3. Learning and memory: stimulus - response associations, motor sequences, strategies 4. Reinforcement schedule: rewards and winning. 5. Problem solving: game puzzles 6. Intelligence (Brain Age) 7. Individual differences: skills, preferences 8. Social interaction: MMORPGs 9. Addiction 10. Pathologic aspects: violence, sex, and the occult.

What are the rating categories of the ESRB?

1. EC: EARLY CHILDHOOD Content is intended for young children. 2. E: EVERYONE Content is generally suitable for all ages. May contain minimal cartoon, fantasy or mild violence and/or infrequent use of mild language. 3. E 10+: EVERYONE 10+ Content is generally suitable for ages 10 and up. May contain more cartoon, fantasy or mild violence, mild language and/or minimal suggestive themes. 4. T: TEEN Content is generally suitable for ages 13 and up. May contain violence, suggestive themes, crude humor, minimal blood, simulated gambling and/or infrequent use of strong language. 5. M: MATURE Content is generally suitable for ages 17 and up. May contain intense violence, blood and gore, sexual content and/or strong language. 6. AO: ADULTS ONLY Content suitable only for adults ages 18 and up. May include prolonged scenes of intense violence, graphic sexual content and/or gambling with real currency. 7. RP: RATING PENDING Not yet assigned a final ESRB rating. Appears only in advertising, marketing and promotional materials related to a game that is expected to carry an ESRB rating, and should be replaced by a game's rating once it has been assigned. **E for everyone games sell the most (49%), followed by Teen (32%), Mature (15%), and E10+ (4%).

French sociologist Roger Caillois, in his book Les jeux et les hommes (Games and Men), defined a game as an activity that must have what characteristics?

1. Fun: the activity is chosen for its light-hearted character 2. Fictitious: it is accompanied by the awareness of a different reality 3. Uncertain: the outcome of the activity is unforeseeable 4. Non-productive: participation is not productive 5. Governed by rules: the activity has rules that are different from everyday life 6. Separate: it is circumscribed in time and place

Five Factors of Attraction

1. Need to be entertained 2. Bored with nothing to do 3. Fascinated with theme (basketball, racing, movie characters, etc.) 4. Scheduled activity (party, raiding party) 5. Encouraged by others ("you've got to try it")

What are the eight steps to carry out play testing?

1. Participant signs an informed consent form 2. Participant fills out questionnaire on demographics and game playing experience 3. Participant is told what game they will play and that they will be videotaped while playing 4. They are asked to "think aloud" and tell the participant what they are thinking, how things are going, and what they are trying to do 5. Told that the researcher is not evaluating the player's performance but rather the playability of game and whether or not it is fun. 6. Administrator starts the game and at various points will stop it and ask the player: -whether is it too hard, too easy, or just right; -whether it is going to fast, to slow, or just right; and -whether it is fun, boring, or frustrating. 7. When the play is completed, a survey is given. Asks player to rate various aspects of the game in terms of fun, flow, engagement, frustration, and whether they would continue to play the game and recommend it to their friends. 8. Player is thanked and paid for their time.

What are the three broad stages of video game development? (Development of Video Games)

1. Pre-Produtcion 2. Production 3. Post-Production

Klabbers (2003) attempts an all inclusive taxomony of video games:

1. Syntax, sematnics, and pragmatics 2. Actors, rules, and resources 3. Purpose, subject matter, content, and context of use 4. Intended audiences

Nintendo

A Japanese multinational consumer electronics company headquartered in Kyoto, Japan. Nintendo is the world's largest video game company by revenue. It saved the video game industry after the crash of video games in 1983. -The release of Donkey Kong in 1981, designed by Shigeru Miyamoto, changed Nintendo's fortunes dramatically. The success of the game and many licensing opportunities gave Nintendo a huge boost in profit and in addition, the game also introduced an early iteration of Mario, known then as Jumpman, the eventual company mascot.

High-Concept (Pre-Production)

A few sentences long description of a game.

Game Theory

A game consists of a set of players, a set of moves (or strategies) available to those players, and a specification of payoffs for each combination of strategies (i.e., the Prisoner's Dilemma). Game theory has some relevance in video games and games in general, but was really aimed at economics and the other social and behavioral sciences.

Pitch (Pre-Production)

A short summary document intended to present the game's selling points and detail why the game would be profitable to develop.

Game

A structured or semi-structured activity, usually undertaken for enjoyment and sometimes also used as an educational tool. Games are generally distinct from work, which is usually carried out for remuneration, and from art, which is more concerned with the expression of ideas. However, the distinction is not clear-cut, and many games are also considered to be work or art.

Post-Production

After the game goes gold and ships, some developers will give team members comp time (perhaps up to a week or two) to compensate for the overtime put in to complete the game, though this compensation is not standard. Consists of Maintenance.

Programming (Production)

All the while, the game designer implements and modifies the game design to reflect the current vision of the game. Features and levels are often removed or added. The art treatment may evolve and the backstory may change. A new platform may be targeted as well as a new demographic. All these changes need to be documented and dispersed to the rest of the team. Most changes occur as updates to the design document.

Problem Space

An entire set of all possible states of the problem and all moves that one can make from one problem state to another.

Complexity

An obvious classification of games can be based on basic complexity from Pong to World of Warcraft. Complexity involves the characters, rule sets, possibilities, game states, etc.

What is the role of arcades in the history of video games?

Arcades play an important part of the history of video games. They introduced relatively advanced games to the general public in social situations and as had a business model, the quarter.

Game with rules

Are played from school age on and introduce objective rules concerning allowable actions and obtainable goals. Games with rules impose a structure that sets limits and boundaries as well as scoring rules to award points and assign game winners. Board games come with published rules. Games in sports have rulebooks and referees to enforce them.

First Generation of Video Games (1970-1976)

Around 1970, electronic games were split into a number of parallel tracks: university computers, arcade machines, handhelds, home computers and home game consoles. This era was actually called the "Golden Age of Video Arcade Games." During this period many of the original ideas for games were created.

Art Production (Production)

Artwork enters the video game in many different ways, from backgrounds, characters, objects.

Consoles

Consoles are specifically designed for gaming only. They have evolved from the simple analog consoles to sophisticated high definition graphics consoles today. The later generations of video games have been defined by the successive releases of the game consoles.

How has the Internet changed over the course of the history of video games?

Dialup bulletin board systems were popular in the 1980s, and sometimes used for online game playing. The earliest such systems, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, had a crude plain-text interface, but later systems made use of terminal-control codes (the so-called ANSI art, which included the use of IBM-PC-specific characters not actually part of an ANSI standard) to get a pseudo-graphical interface. Some BBSes offered access to various games which were playable through such an interface, ranging from text adventures to gambling games like blackjack (generally played for "points" rather than real money). On multiuser BBSs (where more than one person could be online at once), there were sometimes games allowing the different users to interact with one another; some such games of the fantasy role-playing variety were known as MUDs, for "multi-user dungeons". These games eventually evolved into what are known today as MMORPG. Now nearly every gaming console is connected to the Internet!

ESRB

Entertainment Software Rating Board. Assigns age and content ratings for video games and mobile apps, enforces advertising and marketing guidelines for the video game industry, and helps companies implement responsible online and mobile privacy practices.

Symbolic or representational play

Extends from age 2 to 6 years old when the child plays with dolls, toys, and objects and begins to use symbols to represent other objects. Symbolic play is an inherent part of video games that use interface object models to represent characters, fields of play, weapons, treasures, etc.

Steve Jobs and Apple Computers

First got a job with Atari, where he and his friend Steve Wozniak came up with the idea of "Break Out" (Pong turned vertical) but then he and Wozniak left Atari and started their own business: Apple Computer. By the early 1980s, the Apple Computer grew to be super popular and was useful not only for work, but it also became another video game console. EA (most successful video game publisher) sports took off on the Apple Computer. Overall, Apple Computers is important in video game history because it launched PC gaming.

Interactive three-dimensional environment

First person perspective is shown that allows the player to look around in a 3-D environment rendered on the 2-D screen. i.e., Doom (id Software, 1993), Tomb Raider (Core Design, 1996)

Narratology

Focuses on the extent to which the game depends on an experience that is structured in time. Game is heavily following a storyline/plot. (Multipath movies and Hypertext Adventures)

Atari

Founded by Nolen Bushnell and Ted Dabney in 1972, Atari lead the way in arcade video games. For example, the release of Pong in 1972 became popular in taverns across the U.S. It was the first video arcade game with widespread success. It was also popular across both genders as it was socially acceptable for women to play and invite boys over to play. -It was primarily responsible for the formation of the video arcade and modern video game industries, the company was closed and its assets split in 1984 as a direct result of the North American video game crash of 1983. -Atari was sued by Magnavox (Baer) because of Pong's similarity to the tennis game for the Odyssey. -Biggest nemesis was Midway (PAC-Man-Namco)

Level Creation (Production)

From a time standpoint, the game's first level takes the longest to develop. As level designers and artists use the tools for level building, they request features and changes to the in-house tools that allow for quicker and higher quality development. Newly introduced features may cause old levels to become obsolete, so the levels developed early on may be repeatedly developed and discarded. Because of the dynamic environment of game development, the design of early levels may also change over time. It is not uncommon to spend upwards of twelve months on one level of a game developed over the course of three years. Later levels can be developed much more quickly as the feature set is more complete and the game vision is clearer and more stable.

NPCs and AI

Game artificial intelligence refers to techniques used in computer and video games to produce the illusion of intelligence in the behavior of non-player characters (NPCs). The techniques used typically draw upon existing methods from the field of artificial intelligence (AI). Since game AI is centered on appearance of intelligence and good gameplay, its approach is very different from that of traditional AI; workarounds and cheats are acceptable and, in many cases, the computer abilities must be toned down to give human players a sense of fairness, i.e., true in first-person shooter games, where NPCs' otherwise perfect aiming would be beyond human skill.

Audio Production (Production)

Game audio may be separated into three categories: sound effects, music, and voice-over. Sound effect production is the production of sounds by either tweaking a sample to a desired effect or replicating it with real objects. Sound effects are important and impact the game's delivery. Music may be synthesized or performed live. There are several ways in which music is presented in a game. Music may be ambient, especially for slow periods of game, where the music aims to reinforce the aesthetic mood and game setting. Music may be triggered by in-game events. For example, in such games as Pac-man or Mario, player picking up power-ups triggered respective musical scores. Action music, such as chase, battle or hunting sequences is fast-paced, hard-changing score.

Social Involvement

Games may involve only oneself as a single gamer playing against time, chance, and difficulty as is the case in racing games, solitaire games, and building games. They can also involve cooperative game agents (i.e., Super Mario Bros.) and human team players (i.e., World of Warcraft). Overall, there are four versus: 1. The player by himself vs. chance events and/or time (i.e. Tetris) 2. Self vs. Computer generated opponents (i.e., Chess) 3. Self vs. individual human opponents (i.e., Racing) 4. Self vs. Cooperative human team

Scrolling on two axes

Games that involve terrain maps typically require scrolling side-to-side and up-and-down i.e., SimCity (Maxis, 1989)

Scrolling on one axis

Games that require a long strip of space use horizontal scrolling synchronized with the player's speed with stationary objects appearing on the right and disappearing on the left. i.e., Street Racer (UbiSoft, 1978), Skiing (1980)

How have handhelds developed over the history of video games?

Handhelds have a significant piece of the history of electronic games because they go anywhere, especially in the backseat of a car for long rides with parents or under the covers in your bed where parents don't know what you are doing. Handhelds are still with us with the 3DS, Vita, etc., but the new handhelds are the mobile smart phones and tablets.

Task Analysis of Games

Has to do with how tasks are accomplished, such as driving a car, brushing your teeth, or sending an email. In terms of video games, it is interested in how games combine many different types of activities in one complex game. Examples: 1. Continuous Pursuit Tracking: following a target around in one, two, or three dimensions. 2. Construction: assembling objects 3. Rearrangement: rearranging pieces according to rules.

Lindley's Conception of the Gaming Triangle

He adds that the whole gaming space can vary in a continuum from fiction to non-fiction (e.g., from fictious stories (Star Wars), environments, weapons to real stories (WWI), places, and weapons). And from physical games (team sports) to virtual games (NHL 09, Madden).

Goldsmith, Grove, and Mann

Historians of the video game industry trace the first electronic game back to 1947 these three men submitted an application for the patent of a Cathode-Ray Tube Amusement Device. It simulated a missile firing at a target and contained knobs to adjust the curve and speed of the missile (designed to resemble shooting down planes in WWII). The target had to be drawn on an overlay on the screen. Not much of a game, but it was the beginning. FIRST PATENT for a GAME

Second Generation (1977-1983)

Home consoles went from hardcoded microchip games to video games on cartridges using ROM chips. Independent companies started to write games (e.g. Electronic Arts). Many games were developed for the emerging home computer market. Online games were developing (e.g., MUDs or "multi-user dungeons). Handhelds were developed with LCD screens and LEDs. In 1983, there was a crash in video game sales. The industry hit hard times!

Tony Hawk

Hosted Video Game Invasion (2004) documentary. He was instrumental in helping design the tony hawk pro skater games by providing visual representation of how the computer has to generate its character's movements. **Admitted he was in to Pac-Man as a kid.

Third Generation (1983-1989)

In the history of computer and video games, the third generation sometimes known as the 8 bit era began in 1983 with the Japanese release of the Nintendo Entertainment System.

Interactive Elements

Inform about interactive aspects of a product, including users' ability to interact, the sharing of users' location with other users, or the fact that personal information may be shared with third parties

Simulation

Is a dimension that focuses on a representation of the function, operation, or features of one process or system through the use of another. Simulations such a flight simulators or racing cars have no game and goal-oriented components and no narrative in themselves. (i.e., SimCity)

Game Engine

Is a system designed for the creation and development of video games. The core functionality typically provided by a game engine includes a rendering engine ("renderer") for 2D or 3D graphics, a physics engine or collision detection (and collision response), sound, scripting, animation, artificial intelligence, networking, streaming, memory management, threading, localization support, and a scene graph. The process of game development is often economized, in large part, by reusing/adapting the same game engine to create different games. (Note: the schematic of the game engine shows all of the elements that must be tied together to combine the rules, the mechanics, the physics, the narrative, the choice points, the player interface, the animation, etc. to make the game run).

Ludology

Is in general the study of gaming but as a dimension it focuses on the extent to which a game is primarily a goal-directed and competitive activity conducted within a framework of agreed rules. (i.e, Computer Chess, Tetris, Pac-Man)

What are the key components of games?

Key components of games are goals, rules, challenge, and interactivity. Games generally involve mental or physical stimulation, and often both. Many games help develop practical skills, serve as a form of exercise, or otherwise perform an educational, simulational or psychological role.

Gaming Triangle

Lindley (2003) suggests a taxonomy based on the extent to which a game loads on each of three dimensions: ludology, narratology, and simulation

MMORPGs

Massively multiplayer online role playing games. They blend the genres of role-playing video games and massively multiplayer online games, potentially in the form of web browser-based games, in which a very large number of players interact with one another within a world. As in all RPGs, the player assume the role of a character (often in a fantasy world or science-fiction world) and takes control over many of that character's actions. MMORPGs are distinguished from single-player or small multi-player online RPGs by the number of players able to interact together, and by the game's persistent world (usually hosted by the game's publisher), which continues to exist and evolve while the player is offline and away from the game. *Think World of Warcraft

Eight Generation (2008-Present)

Mobile gaming on smart mobile devices such as the iPhone and iPad as well as connected handhelds. XBox Kinect, Playstation 4, WiiU.

Motivation

Motivation is thought to both drive and direct behavior. Motivation may either drive a person's actions in an all-or-none manner or determine the strength of the action. Motivation directs behavior by helping to select one behavior over other behaviors. If you are motivated by hunger, you eat, if you are thirsty, you drive. If you are bored, to you look for something to do.

One screen, contained with wraparound

Moving objects can move off screen in one direction and re-appear on the other side maintaining their speed and trajectory. i.e., Asteroids (Atari, 1979) and Pac-Man (Namco, 1979)

Sensorimotor play (0-2 years)

Occurs primarily from infancy to the second year of life when the child is learning to coordinate physical movement and the perception of its effects. Eye-hand coordination, grabbing, and manipulation of objects are essential for normal development in the real world. All ages must learn the key, mouse, and joystick mappings to actions in the game. Advanced games may require learning large number of discrete action keys (e.g. "Q" for look left, "R" for jump, and so on). Others require a fine-tuning of smooth motor movements and timing to control position and orientation of objects on the screen using continuous input devices (e.g., joysticks, wands).

Represented or "mapped" spaces

Off-screen spaces are represented as a map on the screen to help the player navigate the whole space of the game and to reveal objects and events occurring in the off-screen space. i.e., Myst (Cyan, 1993), Wario Land (Nintendo, 1995)

Regression Testing

One of the vital tasks required for effective software development. As new features are added, subtle changes to the codebase can produce unexpected changes in different portions of the game. This task is often overlooked, for several reasons. Sometimes, when a feature is implemented and tested, it is considered "working" for the rest of the project and little attention is given to repeated testing. Also, features that are added late in development are prioritized and existing features often receive insufficient testing time. Proper regression testing is also increasingly expensive as the number of features increases and is often not scheduled correctly.

Who were the first video game characters?

Pac-Man and Ms. Pac-Man (1980) Namco. Video game characters are important for many reasons. They have names so that we can refer to them. They have personalities so that we can relate to them, identify with them, and have attitudes about them. For the video game industry, it means that they can copyright them, license them, promote them, and print them on t-shirts.

Prototype (Pre-Production)

Placeholder graphics (storyboards) are characteristic of early game prototypes. Writing prototypes of gameplay ideas and features is an important activity that allows programmers and game designers to experiment with different algorithms and usability scenarios for a game. A great deal of prototyping may take place during pre-production before the design document is complete and may, in fact, help determine what features the design specifies. Prototyping may also take place during active development to test new ideas as the game emerges.

Pre-production

Pre-production or design phase is a planning phase of the project focused on idea and concept development and production of initial design documents. The goal of concept development is to produce clear and easy to understand documentation, which describes all the tasks, schedules and estimates for the development team. The suite of documents produced in this phase is called production plan. This phase is usually not funded by a publisher, however good publishers may require developers to produce plans during pre-production. It consists of high-concept, pitch, concept, game design document, and prototype.

Production

Production is the main stage of development, when assets and source code for the game are produced. Mainstream production is usually defined as the period of time when the project is fully staffed. Programmers write new source code, artists develop game assets, such as, sprites or 3D models. Sound engineers develop sound effects and composers develop music for the game. Level designers create levels, and writers write dialogue for cutscenes and NPCs. Game designers continue to develop the game's design throughout production. Consists of design, programming, level creation, art production, audio production, and testing.

Magnavox

The Magnavox Odyssey was the first home 'console' system was developed by Ralph Baer and his associates. Development began in 1966 and a working prototype was completed by 1968 (called the "Brown Box") for demonstration to various potential licensees, including GE, Sylvania, RCA, Philco, and Sears, with Magnavox eventually licensing the technology to produce the world's first home video game console. The system was released in the USA in 1972 by Magnavox, called the Magnavox Odyssey. (Note: Colecovision also tried to replicate the experiences of arcades with consoles)

Which video game was the first to POPULARIZE the concept of achieving a high score?

Space Invaders. It was based off the Star Wars franchised.

Rewards

Tend to strengthen the attraction to things and the repetition of reinforced behaviors. Rewards and incentives can be anything that are attractive to a person, that is anything that people will seek to have or experience. Rewards may be intrinsic or extrinsic. Rewards may be given according to different schedules and subject to different levels of difficulty in achieving them.

The Past of Video Games

The history of video games is short. -The first video game was invented in 1947, but only became a consumer reality in the 1970s and market force in the 1980's. -The study of the psychology of video games is even shorter but not much. In 1983, Geoffrey and Elizabeth Loftus published a book, The Mind at Play: The Psychology of Video Games. This book is still the ONLY book of its kind.

No visual space, all text-based

The game involves only typing text as input and reading text as output. i.e., The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (1984), Dungeon's & Dragons (D&D) wiki, MUDs, MOOs

How have graphics developed over the history of video games?

The graphics quality has developed over the years from oscilloscope dots to black and white pixels to color pixels to high definition renderings of scenes.

The Video Game Market (Introduction)

The market is humongous! It is so big that even psychologists are beginning to notice! It was an 67 BILLION dollar global market in 2012 and projected to be $82 billion by 2017.Video games are even surpassing movies and music! -Not only are video game sales increasing each year, but also mobile gaming has increased significantly since 2011. It is the fastest growing media for games, surpassing both online and PC gaming. -Asia carries the weight of the revenue ($36.8 bil), followed by the United States ($22.2 bil).

What is the "patch" in the maintenance level of post-production?

The patch may take weeks or months to develop, but it's intended to fix most accounted bugs and problems with the game that we're overlooked past code release, or in rare cases, fix unintended problems caused by previous patches. Programmers wait for a period to get as many bug reports as possible. Once the developer thinks they've obtained enough feedback, the programmers start working on a patch. Occasionally a patch may include extra features or content or may even alter gameplay.

Describe the study conducted by Bobko, Bobko, & Davis (1984) to look at the Multidimensional Scaling of Video Games.

The researchers looked at 10 video games: Asteroids, Centipede, Donkey Kong Frenzy, Frogger, Pac Man, Space Invaders, Stargate, Tempest, and Zaxxon. -The experiment was run in a commercial video game arcade that was closed to the public. Each subject spent five minute becoming familiar with the game (e.g., free play). Then they were asked to make pairwise comparisons of the similarity of the video games on a 100-point scale with 0 defined as "the two games are not at all similar" and 100 defined as "the two games are exactly alike." The subjects were also asked to imagine an "ideal" video and this was included in the comparison 55 pairwise comparisons were made (n*(n-1)/2 = 11*10/2). -The ratings provide distances between the games in an hypothetical n-dimensional space. A Multidimensional Scaling algorithim was used to solve for the space with the least number of diimensions that can accommodate the distances. ***Three dimensions were found: 1. Destructiveness: proactive shooting and destroying enemies 2. Dimensionality: number of physical dimensions on the screen that the player can maneuver 3. Graphic Quality: resolution of images

Game Representation

The same game can be represented or played with different symbols or boards i.e., number scrabble and "getting everyone to pass the river" game.

Layers of independently moving planes

The space is made up of layers of overlapping and independently moving planes of graphics. The front layer contains the player-character while the back layer contains background graphics and scrolls at a slower rate than the foreground creating an illusion of depth. i.e., Zaxxon (1982), Wario Land (Nintendo, 1995)wiki

Why is the study of taxonomies important and useful? (Taxonomies of Video Games)

The study of taxonomies in terms of categories, hierarchies, or dimensions is extremely useful and fundamental in understanding the subject matter whether plants and animals, diseases, languages, etc. It is equally important if not more important for games. It helps to differentiate the types and characteristics of games. Two main reasons for taxonomies are: 1. To help differentiate the types and characters of games 2. Advertising & shopping purposes (i.e., see which gender or age group is attracted to what genre and target advertising/shopping categories appropriately)

Industry Classification

The video and computer game industry classifies games into seven genres based on theme, style of game, and audience. They are in order of popularity are: 1. Action 2. Sports 3. Racing 4. Children & family entertainment 5. Shooter 6. Role-playing 7. Fighting

Why do video games covers attract players?

They are based on thematic drawings on your prior interests (i.e., movie themes, sports, combat, etc.)

Fourth Generation (1989-1996)

This is the 16-bit era and the generation of the Sega Genesis and the Super Nintendo Entertainment System.

Sixth Generation (1998-2006)

This is the generation of the Sony PlayStation 2, Nintendo GameCube, Game Boy Color and the Xbox.

Fifth Generation (1994-1999)

This is the generation of the Sony PlayStation, Nintendo 64, and the Game Boy.

Maintenance

This phase begins after a game is shipped. Games developed for video game consoles have had almost no maintenance period in the past. The shipped game would forever house as many bugs and features as when released. This was the norm for consoles since all consoles had identical or nearly identical hardware. In this case, maintenance would only occur in the case of a port, sequel, or enhanced remake that reuses a large portion of the engine and assets. Changes in maintenance=Developers can maintain their software through downloadable patches. Are now possible because of the widespread availability of the Internet. Ex. In the case of a massively multiplayer online game (MMOG), such as a MMORPG or MMORTS, the shipment of the game is the starting phase of maintenance. Such online games are in continuous maintenance as the gameworld is continuously changed and iterated and new features are added. The maintenance staff for a popular MMOG can number in the dozens, sometimes including members of the original programming team.

Multiple, nonadjacent spaces displayed on-screen simultaneously

Two or more independent points of view are shown in tiles for each competing player. Each tile is essentially one screen but players can see all screens. i.e., High Velocity (1995), Mario Kart 64 (Nintendo, 1997)

Multiple screens for one player

Two or more screens may be available to the player to provide one screen for a shared game space and another for personal views and game options often on a handheld device. i.e., Nintendo DS

William Higinbotham

Typically attributed to creating the first video game. He worked at Brookhaven National Laboratory and created a game called "Tennis for Two" in 1958. It involved a small screen with a ball (green phosphorous dot) bouncing from side to side. *He also helped invent the nucleur bomb.

Next Generation (Future)

Virtual reality gaming, augmented reality gaming.

What is the Time we spend on video games?

We spend 3 billion hours a week playing video games as a planet! Survey of more than 1,000 fifth, eighth and eleventh graders, and university students in Michigan and Indiana (Greenberg , Sherry, & Lachlan, 2003) found: 1. In 2003, it was found the eighth graders lead the way in time spent playing games in both genders - boys average 23 hours a week and girls 12 hours. 2. College-age males were at the low end of the time-spent-playing scale averaging 16 hours a week while 11th grade girls spend the least amount of time playing video games at six hours a week.

Video Game Genres

What sorts of game themes appeal to the market? What are the psychological reasons? -Puzzles -Racing -Sports -Violence -Search and Explore *A major question in Professor Norman's lab is come up with a way to psychologically define and deal with the classification of games by genre.

Play Testing

When participants are recruited to play through parts of the game under development to test it. It is an extremely important part of the development of a video game.

The video game crash of 1983.

When the crash of video games hit in 1983, the video game industry had taken a turn for the worst. The fastest growing company at the time, Atari, was destroyed, poor video games such as the infamous E.T. were released, and video game sales as a whole dropped tremendously. However, thanks to Nintendo, video games were given a second chance with the release of the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). After it was put on the market, the video game industry would forever be changed. Not only did Nintendo improve the development of games with better graphics and sounds, but it also lead the way in releasing several games (Super Mario Bros., The Legend of Zelda, Final Fantasy, etc.) on the NES that are arguably some of the most popular games in the world.